Eu opean Union
Suppo o
Colombia’s
Peace P ocess
Ci il Socie y, Human Righ s
and Te i o ial Peace
Edi ed by
Ka los Pé ez de A miño
RETHINKING PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES
SERIES EDITORS:
OLIVER P. RICHMOND · ANNIKA BJÖRKDAHL · GËZIM VISOKA
Edi o
Ka los Pé ez de A miño
Hegoa, Ins i u e o In e na ional
Coope a ion and De elopmen
S udies
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
(UPV/EHU)
Bilbao, Spain
ISSN 1759-3735 ISSN 2752-857X (elec onic)
Re hinking Peace and Con lic S udies
ISBN 978-3-031-24796-5 ISBN 978-3-031-24797-2 (eBook)
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-24797-2
© The Edi o (s) (i applicable) and The Au ho (s) 2023. This book is an open access
publica ion.
Open Access This book is licensed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
4.0 In e na ional License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s
use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long
as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o
he C ea i e Commons license and indica e i changes we e made.
The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his book a e included in he book’s C ea i e
Commons license, unless indica ed o he w ise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I ma e ial
is no included in he book’s C ea i e Commons license and you in ended use is no
pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain
pe mission di ec ly om he copy igh holde .
The use o gene al desc ip i e names, egis e ed names, adema ks, se ice ma ks, e c.
in his publica ion does no imply, e en in he absence o a speci ic s a emen , ha such
names a e exemp om he ele an p o ec i e laws and egula ions and he e o e ee o
gene al use.
The publishe , he au ho s, and he edi o s a e sa e o assume ha he ad ice and in o ma-
ion in his book a e belie ed o be ue and accu a e a he da e o publica ion. Nei he
he publishe no he au ho s o he edi o s gi e a wa an y, exp essed o implied, wi h
espec o he ma e ial con ained he ein o o any e o s o omissions ha may ha e been
made. The publishe emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Co e design by © MC Richmond
This Palg a e Macmillan imp in is published by he egis e ed company Sp inge Na u e
Swi ze land AG
The egis e ed company add ess is: Gewe bes asse 11, 6330 Cham, Swi ze land
CHAPTER 8
A Re iew o he Eu opean Union’s Gende
App oach in I s Suppo o he Colombian
Peace P ocess
I an zu Mendia Azkue
1In oduc ion
In Colombia, o decades he women’s and eminis mo emen expe i-
enced a ma ginaliza ion o hei analyses, indic men s and p oposals wi h
ega d o poli ical and schola ly inqui y in o he causes and consequences
o he a med con lic . Howe e , i s s ong dynamism and g owing
capaci y o poli ical impac ha e been c ucial o he inclusion o gende
as pa o he “di e en ial pe spec i e” which has pe mea ed he cu en
peace p ocess, o he ex en ha he gende app oach and he posi ions
o he women’s mo emen and, o a lesse deg ee, he LGBTI mo e-
men —now ha e a p esence in he discussions abou he a med con lic ,
he 2016 Peace Ag eemen and i s implemen a ion. As a esul , he case o
I. Mendia Azkue (B)
Hegoa, Ins i u e o De elopmen and In e na ional Coope a ion S udies,
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
© The Au ho (s) 2023
K. Pé ez de A miño (ed.), Eu opean Union Suppo o Colombia’s Peace
P ocess, Re hinking Peace and Con lic S udies,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-24797-2_8
209
210 I. MENDIA AZKUE
Colombia is conside ed in e na ionally as a peace p ocess ha is concep-
ually and poli ically inno a i e due o he impo ance gi en o he gende
app oach and o sex-gende di e si y du ing he nego ia ions and in he
Peace Ag eemen i sel .
Wi hin his amewo k, o in e na ional ac o s who suppo he
Colombian peace p ocess, such as he Eu opean Union (EU), hei
in ol emen in he gende and peace agenda has become bo h an
una oidable ma e and an oppo uni y o es ablish a epu a ion and lead-
e ship in his a ea. The EU has ei e a ed i s suppo o obse ance o he
Peace Ag eemen and he ins i u ional a chi ec u e c ea ed in ela ion o
i (Eu opean Pa liamen , 2021). This has also mean suppo ing he se o
gende measu es in he Ag eemen , in a poli ical-ins i u ional and pa ly
social con ex ha pu s ba ie s in he way o implemen ing hem, and
which has p o en hos ile o he gende p o isions i con ains. In ac , his
ma e was a i al one o he No suppo e s in he e e endum o ganized
by he Juan Manuel San os go e nmen in o de o endo se he Ag ee-
men . Among o he a gumen s, hey in oked he o mula o “gende
ideology” o sp ead ake news ha a ibu ed o he Peace Ag eemen , o
example, he imposi ion o sex educa ion, he emo al o child en om
hei pa en s’ cus ody, and suppo o abo ion (Gil He nández, 2020).
The consequences ha e been nega i e om he poin o iew o human
igh s and peacebuilding in he coun y. In he e ision o he ag ee-
men ha ook place a e he e e endum, hese sec o s managed o
ha e he gende app oach unde s ood as a “women’s issue”, expu ga ing
con en s co e ing he igh s o he LGBTI popula ion, including adi-
ional de ini ions ega ding he amily and wo king o “ emo e sexual and
ep oduc i e igh s om he hea o he social pac ” (Gil He nández,
2020). Despi e his backwa d mo emen , o pe haps p ecisely because o
i , Colombia has o e ed he EU an oppo uni y o ake on a ole, bo h
sel -p oclaimed and desi ed, o leade ship in a ou o gende equali y.
The goal o his chap e is o ca y ou an analysis o he gende
app oach in EU coope a ion in Colombia and i s ans o ma ional po en-
ial in e m s o mo ing owa ds a peace ha includes gende jus ice,
unde s ood as he end o inequali ies and subo dina ion be ween gende s
(Goe z, 2007). In o de o do his, I will i s ly o e some backg ound
o he inclusion o he gende app oach in he peace p ocess and he
cen al ole played in his by he Colombian women’s and eminis mo e-
men . Secondly, I will look a he gende and peace agenda in he EU’s
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 211
coope a ion in Colombia, based bo h on he pe inen body o egula-
ions and how he gende app oach has been implemen ed in i s ini ia i es
suppo ing he peace p ocess.
A he me hodological le el, his s udy is essen ially based on a biblio-
g aphical e iew and documen a y analysis o , mainly, EU egula o y and
planning ex s ela ed o he gende agenda and peacebuilding, as well
as documen s ega ding he applica ion o he gende app oach in he
Eu opean coope a ion ins umen s employed in Colombia. I is impo -
an o unde line he ac ha hese ins umen s a e e y di e se and
hey ha e been implemen ed o many yea s, and so his analysis can
in no way, in in en ion o in ac , be exhaus i e. In his espec , I add
h ee conside a ions: i s ly, o o de he analysis I ollow he desc ip ion
o ins umen s p oposed by he Eu opean Coope a ion in Colombia’s
In o ma ion Sys em (known as SICEC)1 ; secondly, I desc ibe he assess-
men s o he EU’s mos ecen ac ions ela ed o he gende and peace
agenda in he coun y (p ojec s unde way o ecen ly inalized); and
las ly, in e iewing p ojec s I ha e aken as a c i e ion he appea ance o
aspec s ela ed o “gende ”, “gende equali y”, “women’s empowe men ”
and/o “LGBTI popula ion” in hei i les, desc ip ions, goals and/o
indica o s. Addi ionally, I ha e in e iewed wo people wi h echnical
esponsibili ies in he EU Delega ion in Colombia, and ep esen a i es
o wo ne wo ks o Colombian women’s o ganiza ions wi h expe ience in
ca ying ou Eu opean coope a ion p ojec s.
2Backg ound o he Inclusion o he Gende
App oach in he Peace P ocess: The
Leading Role o he Women’s Mo emen
In Colombia, he women’s and eminis mo emen has played an
ou s anding ole o decades in e ms o o ganizing and mobilising
owa ds a nego ia ed solu ion o he a med con lic , in b inging o
ligh iolence agains women, and in demanding u h, jus ice, epa a-
ion and gua an ees o non- epe i ion (Gallego Zapa a, 2017; Gómez &
Mon ealeg e, 2021). I is a b oad and di e se mo emen , which includes
di e en eminis cu en s, and which o en ac s by joining empo a y o
pe manen ne wo ks and associa ions o g oups.
1 h ps://sicec.eu/basic/.
212 I. MENDIA AZKUE
In he pe iod 1982 o 2017, women’s o ganiza ions became in ol ed
in 363 collec i e p o-peace ac ions, as o ganize s in 33% and as pa ic-
ipan s in 67% o he cases, which shows ha i is a social mo emen
wi h a conside able capaci y o build alliances wi h o he sec o s o ci il
socie y. The majo i y we e ac ions ha we e agains he a med con lic ,
and iola ions o human igh s and In e na ional Humani a ian Law, and
abou seeking peace ul al e na i es and in a ou o dialogue p ocesses
and n ego ia ed ou comes. These ac ions ha e included a b oad ange o
me hods, o example: ma ches and allies, mee ings, o ums and semi-
na s, cul u al e en s, ac ions o ien ed a memo y, ci il esis ance ac ions,
collec i e s a emen s, walkou s and s ikes (Pa ado Pa do, 2018:4–6).
Du ing he peace nego ia ions held in Ha ana be ween he Colom-
bian go e nmen and FARC-EP, he women’s mo emen managed o
p omo e he c ea ion o a Gende Subcommi ee, in Sep embe 2014,
wi h he goal o including he gende pe spec i e in he pa ial ag eemen s
al eady adop ed, as well as in he e en ual Ag eemen ha esul ed om
he dialogues. As a esul o he wo k o his subcommi ee, he gende
app oach o he Peace Ag eemen included con en in eigh speci ic
a eas: (1) Access and o maliza ion o igh s o u al p ope y unde
equali y o condi ions; (2) Gua an ee o economic, social and cul u al
igh s o women and people wi h di e se sexual iden i ies om he u al
popula ion; (3) P omo ion o he pa icipa ion o women in ep esen-
a ion, decision-making and con lic esolu ion spaces; (4) P e en ion
and p o ec ion measu es ha a end o speci ic isks o women; (5)
Access o he u h and j us ice, and o gua an ees o non- epe i ion;
(6) Public ecogni ion, non-s igma iza ion and dissemina ion o he wo k
done by women as poli ical subjec s; (7) Ins i u ional managemen o he
s eng hening o women’s o ganiza ions and LGBTI mo emen s o hei
social and poli ical pa icipa ion; and (8) Sepa a e in o ma ion s ys ems.
Since 2016, he women’s mo emen in Colombia has con ibu ed o
he implemen a ion o he Peace Ag eemen in he di e en e i o ies.
The condi ions o iolence and disc imina ion in which his ask has
been ca ied ou a e ala ming. The al eady high a es o emicide, he
mos impo an indica o o he le els o inequali y be ween women and
men, ha e inc eased since he Peace Ag eemen . In he pe iod be ween
2017 and 2021, 2,722 emicides we e egis e ed in he coun y, wi h
ou p o inces leading in e m s o he p e alence o his c ime: An io-
quia (488), Valle del Cauca (397), Cauca (181) and Bogo á D.C. (161)
(Obse a o io Feminicidios Colombia, 2021). Tha is o say, he Peace
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 213
Ag eemen has no b ough a educ ion in he le els o iolence agains
women in Colombia, as exp essed in emicides. The same happens wi h
iolence agains LGBTI people, gi en he a e age o 110 mu de s pe
yea since 2011 and a conside able inc ease o 226 in 2020, an espe-
cially iolen yea o his g oup. The Repo on he Human Righ s o
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and T ans Pe sons in Colombia epo , whose i le
eloquen ly s a es Nada que celeb a (“No hing o Celeb a e”), egis e s
1,060 ic ims, including ic ims o h ea s (443), mu de (333) and police
iolence (284) in 2019 and 2020. Mos ic ims a e loca ed, once again, in
An ioquia, Valle del Cauca and Bogo á D.C. (Colombia Di e sa, 2020).
F om a e i o ial poin o iew, he g ea es numbe o eminis peace
ac ions be ween 1982 and 2017 we e concen a ed in An ioquia (25%),
Bogo á D.C (21%), San ande (14%) and Valle del Cauca (9%) (Pa ado
Pa do, 2018). Tha is o say, in h ee o he ou p o inces whe e he
highes a es o emicides ha e occu ed in he las i e yea s (as well
as mu de s o LGBTI people in 2020). This could indica e a ce ain
ela ionship be ween he dynamic o p o-peace eminis ac i ism and he
e i o ial occu ence o emicide. In ac , his occu ence e lec s a geog-
aphy o iolence ha is much mo e complex han he one o e ed in he
usual analyses o he con lic , which ocus on he a iabili y o he a eas
o e i o ial con ol by he a med ac o s.
Fu he mo e, acco ding o igu es om he Somos De enso es
P og amme (2020), be ween 2013 and 2019 1,338 inciden s o iolence
agains women human igh s de ende s we e egis e ed, 31% o he o al
a acks on de ende s. The igu es o a acks on hem ha e inc eased,
pa icula ly wi hin he amewo k o he implemen a ion o he Peace
Ag eemen , wi h a g ea e pe cen age ise (165%) when compa ed o
a acks on men de ende s (a ise o 116%), and a signi ican inc ease since
2018. Many women de ende s, whe he in women’s o ganiza ions o
peasan , indigenous, A o-descenden , popula , ic ims’ and sexual di e -
si y o ganiza ions, ha e s ood ou o hei wo k in a ou o peace, in
such a way ha , bo h be o e and a e he Peace Ag eemen , women and
hei o ganiza ions a e a a ge o iolence.
In his con ex o s uc u al iolence agains women and LGBTI
people h oughou he coun y, bo h sec o s emphasize he ac ha
peace demands a p o ound ans o ma ion o he se o disc imina o y,
unequal and iolen ela ions in Colombian socie y. In his ega d, hey
poin o he ways in which sexis , homophobic, ansphobic, acis , clas-
sis and colonial ela ions eed on each o he and a e behind he a med
214 I. MENDIA AZKUE
con lic i sel and he cons uc ion o iolen masculini ies ha con ibu e
o main aining i . Upon hese bases, he eminis mo emen , as a di e se
poli ical subjec , has been c ucial o include he di e en ial app oach in
he Colombian peace p ocess. This co e s no only he gende app oach
and sexual di e si y, bu also app oaches ha conside e hnic a ilia ion,
age o li e cycle and disabili y, as well as dealing wi h psychosocial and
cul u al ma e s, as has been assumed by he Colombian T u h Commis-
sion. The a icula ion o app oaches based on in e sec ionali y is a eminis
con ibu ion ha challenges bo h he Colombian S a e, gi en i s pa i-
a chal, he e ono ma i e, acis and classis ounda ions (Cu iel, 2013),
and he in e na ional coope a ion, s ill sa u a ed wi h essen ialis iews
ega ding he gende and peace agenda (Mendia Azkue, 2014)and wi h
legacies o colonial mode ni y (Gómez Co eal, 2016; Gómez Co eal &
Mon ealeg e Mog o ejo, 2021).
3The Eu opean Union’s Gende
and Peace Agenda in Colombia
3.1 In e na ional and Regional Regula o y Re e ences
The ac ions aken by he EU in Colombia wi h ega d o gende equali y
a e based on a ious in e na ional and Eu opean egional ins umen s.
Among he in e na ional sou ces o e e ence, i is wo h highligh ing ha
he Fou h Wo ld Con e ence on Women (Uni ed Na ions, 1995)u ged
o adop he gende mains eaming s a egy in o all public policies and
encou aged an in e es in gende as a key dimension o he in e na ional
peace and secu i y agenda. Fo he i s ime in hese kinds o con e ences,
a wo king g oup on Women and A med Con lic s was c ea ed, one o
whose esul s was he adop ion o six goals in he Beijing Decla a ion and
Pla o m o Ac ion, which espond o s a egic in e es s o he gua an ee
o women’s igh s in si ua ions o a med con lic .2
2 The goals ag eed we e: (1) Inc ease he pa icipa ion o women in con lic esolu ion
a decision-making le els and p o ec women li ing in si ua ions o a med o o he con lic s
o unde o eign occupa ion; (2) Reduce excessi e mili a y expendi u e and con ol he
a ailabili y o a mamen s; (3) P omo e non- iolen o ms o con lic esolu ion and educe
he incidence o human igh s abuse in con lic si ua ions; (4) P omo e women’s con i-
bu ion o os e ing a cul u e o peace; (5) P o ide p o ec ion, assis ance and aining o
e ugee women, o he d isplaced women in need o in e na ional p o ec ion and in e nally
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 215
Ano he e e ence poin in e ms o EU ac ions in Colombia is Reso-
lu ion 1325 on Women, Peace and Secu i y passed by he Uni ed Na ions
Secu i y Council (2000). This ecognizes di e en expe iences o con lic s
acco ding o gende , calls o he p o ec ion o women om all kinds o
iolence agains hem and u ges gua an ees in e ms o hei pa icipa ion
in he p omo ion o peace a all decision-making le els. Resolu ion 1325
(R1325) was conside ed o be a wa e shed in e ms o egula o y p og ess
in he sphe e o gende , con lic s and peacebuilding, la gely because he
UN Secu i y Council app o ed i , an en i y ha had p e iously no been
eady o conside iolence agains women as an in e na ional secu i y
and peace ma e . In ac , he R1325 ga e ise o app o al by he Secu-
i y Council o new esolu ions on he same ma e , con ibu ing o he
consolida ion o wha is known as he In e na ional Agenda on Women,
Peace and Secu i y (WPS).3 Taken as a whole, his agenda p omo es
he pa icipa ion o women in con lic esolu ion and peacebuilding, he
p e en ion o iolence, p o ec ion agains iolence and he ehabili a ion
o ic ims. In e ms o gende and peace, he R1325 has become he main
e e ence, and occasionally he only one, o go e nmen s and mul ila -
e al, in e na ional and local o ganiza ions. This includes he EU, which
e e s o R1325 much mo e equen ly han o he Beijing Decla a ion
and Pla o m o Ac ion. In any case, his Resolu ion does no con ain
binding commi men s o S a es (and so he e a e no in e na ional mech-
anisms o demanding compliance), bu a he i lea es o he disc e ion
o coun ies whe he o no hey pass a Na ional Ac ion Plan (NAP) o
i s applica ion, bo h in e ms o domes ic and o eign policy.4
Las ly, a he in e na ional le el, he UN’s Agenda 2030 o Sus ainable
De elopmen and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) ha e now
become a dimension o be mains eamed a all le els in EU ac ions, pa ic-
ula ly in i s coope a ion ins umen s (Sanahuja & Ruiz Sando al, 2019).
The e o e, SDG numbe 5, “Achie e gende equali y and empowe
displaced women; and (6) P o ide assis ance o women in colonies and non-sel -go e ning
e i o ies (Uni ed Na ions, 1995: pa ag aphs 131–149).
3 These a e UNSC Resolu ions 1820 (2008); 1888 (2009); 1889 (2009); 1960 (2010);
Resolu ion 2106 (2013); Resolu ion 2122 (2013); Resolu ion 2242 (2015); Resolu ion
2067 (2019); Resolu ion 2493 (2019) and Resolu ion 2538 (2020).
4 Colombia is one o he coun ies ha has no ye passed a Na ional Ac ion Plan o
he implemen a ion o R1325, despi e demands in his ega d om nume ous women’s
o ganiza ions in he coun y.
222 I. MENDIA AZKUE
O he Eu opean coope a ion mechanisms ha ha e simila i ies wi h
budge a y suppo p og ammes a e: ha known in Spanish as he
“P esupues o-P og ama” and he La in Ame ica In es men Facili ies
(LAIFs).9 In he i s case, he eigh in e en ions ha we e unde way
in 2018 in Colombia co e ma e s such as: mine clea ance, penal sys em,
anspa ency, peacebuilding, digi al ele ision and public inances, wi h
no sigh o ac ions ocusing on gende equali y o women’s and/o
LGBTI igh s. In he second case, he LAIF p ojec s in Colombia a e
aimed a suppo ing: he managemen o wa e esou ces; he sus ainable
de elopmen o ci ies and egions; and he implemen a ion o a “clima e
in elligen ” u al landscape (SICEC, 2018); simila ly, in his case, he e
a e no ac ions ha explici ly, cen ally o signi ican ly suppo gende
equali y o he empowe men o women and LGBTI communi ies.
b. Eu opean Fund o Peace
The Eu opean Union T us Fund o Colombia (EUTF), also known
as he Eu opean Fund o Peace, is one o he main ins umen s by means
o which he EU channels i s suppo o he peace p ocess in Colombia,
pa icula ly poin 1 o he Peace Ag eemen : In eg a ed Ru al Re o m.
The Fund is based on six pilla s o s a egic lines ha gi e ocus o he
EU’s p ojec -based in e en ions in he coun y. The e o e, a desc ip ion
o hem o e s a i s le el o in o ma ion ega ding he inclusion o he
gende app oach in his ins umen (Table 1).
A close look a he p ojec s suppo ed by he Eu opean Fund o
Peace makes i possible o b oaden he analysis. O he 10 p ojec s classi-
ied by he SICEC as in he “gende equali y” ca ego y as o Decembe
2021, a majo i y a e suppo ed by his und (66.26%), ollowed by he EU
(32.21%) and Spain (1.53%), which e lec s he impo ance o his ins u-
men , compa ed o o he s, in he p omo ion o his goal in Colombia.
Among hem, he ollowing s ands ou : Poli ical and economic e i o ial
empowe men wi h a ocus on u al women. Women ans o ming Pu u-
mayo (2019–2024). This p ojec , designa ed by he EU as “Women who
T ans o m”, appea s as an in e en ion o ien ed owa ds Poin 1 o he
9 The LAIFs a e a mix u e o Eu opean Union dona ions wi h loans om inancial
o ganisa ions and o he public o p i a e subsidies, bo h egional and in e na ional.
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 223
Table 1 Gende app oach in he desc ip ion o he pilla s o he Eu opean Fund
o Peace
Pilla Desc ip ion
Reconcilia ion and con lic de-escala ion Does no explici ly es ablish goals o
ac ions ela ed o gende equali y o he
empowe men o women and LGBTI
people and hei o ganiza ions
Social and economic einco po a ion o
o me FARC-EP comba an s Includes among i s a eas o ac ion, he
“empowe men o women in he p ocess
o einco po a ion”
Social inclusion: you h, women and e hnic
g oups Aims a he “in eg a ed a en ion and
e ec i e p o ec ion o he igh s o
you h, women and e hnic g oups, as well
as he p omo ion o social and cul u al
ini ia i es, he gene a ion o income and
he s eng hening o he social ab ic in a
way ha esponds o hei in e es s and
needs”. I es ablishes ac ions o suppo
speci ically o women: pa icipa ion in
economic ac i i ies as p oduce s wi hin
amily uni s and as en ep eneu s;
s eng hening o mechanisms o poli ical
incidence and pa icipa ion; p e en ion o
and a en ion o gende iolence,
pa icula ly amily and sexual iolence;
and suppo o women’s o ganiza ions in
he implemen a ion o hei own social
and cul u al p ojec s
Sus ainable and inclusi e p oduc i i y Does no explici ly es ablish goals o
ac ions ela ed o gende equali y o he
empowe men o women and LGBTI
people and hei o ganiza ions
Legi imacy o he s a e and local
go e nance Does no explici ly es ablish goals o
ac ions ela ed o gende equali y o he
empowe men o women and LGBTI
people and hei o ganiza ions
(con inued)
Peace Ag eemen , and i is conside ed by he EU Delega ion in Colombia
as he mos emblema ic example o his ins umen aimed a women.
The main local pa ne is he Alianza de las Muje es Tejedo as de
Vida del Pu umayo, a la ge ne wo k o g ass oo s women’s o ganiza ions
c ea ed in 2003. A i s he unds we e channelled h ough he Ge man
Ca i as associa ion (ac ing ia he Pas o al Social de Colombia) and,
224 I. MENDIA AZKUE
Table 1 (con inued)
Pilla Desc ip ion
Eu opean Union alue added Does no explici ly es ablish goals o
ac ions ela ed o gende equali y o he
empowe men o women and LGBTI
people and hei o ganiza ions. I aims o
capi alize he expe ience o he EU and
isibilize he di e en ial ac o s o i s
coope a ion, in e ms o inno a ion (in
echnology and echnical knowledge),
coope a i ism, ma ke ing, democ a ic
alues, ins i u ion building and public
policy design. Eu opean skills and
knowledge in he a eas o “ he
consolida ion o peace, human igh s,
humani a ian ac ion and/ local
de elopmen ”, and aspi es o he
“s eng hening o he comme cial and
in es men ies and ela ions be ween he
Eu opean and Colombian p i a e sec o s”
s and ou . Gende equali y is no
men ioned among he alues added
Sou ce Own elabo a ion, based on Eu opean Fund o Peace (n.d.)
a e i le he p ojec , h ough he in e na ional NGO, he In e chu ch
O ganisa ion o De elopmen Coope a ion based in he Ne he lands.
These a e wo o ganiza ions ha , in p inciple, a e no cha ac e ized by
hei le el o specializa ion in gende and women’s empowe men .
The ac ion, p omo ed o iginally by he Ge man and F ench embassies,
has a e y high budge —6.34 million Eu os—compa ed o he o he
ac ions suppo ing gende equali y and women’s empowe men in
Colombia. I was ini ially di ec ed a women and hei o ganiza ions, in
o de o hem o de elop p oduc i e and social p ojec s and gain spaces
o poli ical pa icipa ion and incidence in he e i o y. Howe e , he
p ojec was opened up a an ea ly s age o nume ous mixed local o ga-
niza ions, which mean , o he Tejedo as de V i da alliance, an inc ease in
he complexi y o managing he p ojec , due o he manda o y eo ien-
a ion o he subjec popula ion, o he many ac o s in ol ed (135 local
o ganiza ions), and o he esis ance o some mixed o ganiza ions o he
inclusion o he gende app oach and women’s igh s in hei ac i i ies. A
he p esen ime, he p ojec —hal ed on a numbe o occasions—ca ies
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 225
ou h ee lines o ac ion: women’s igh s (including psychosocial and legal
a en ion in cases o gende iolence, building women’s o ganiza ional
and leade ship skills, and peacebuilding); economic empowe men o
women h ough p oduc ion-based ini ia i es in a ious indus ies, pa ic-
ula ly he ag icul u e and ishing sec o ; and he p omo ion o legal and
sus ainable local economies wi h a gende app oach. Looking a he indi-
ca o s o he esul s o he ac ion, i can be seen ha women a e gi en as
he s ubjec popula ion in hal o hem, while in he es he subjec s a e
“people” o “ amilies”.
The p ojec has also in ol ed local au ho i ies,10 in ha pa o he
Fund ha p omo es links be ween au ho i ies and social o ganiza ions.
The dynamics o in e ela ion in his case add complexi y o he p ojec ,
pa icula ly when si ua ions a ise such as: a lack o poli ical will o keep
commi men s ha ha e been aken on, omission o ins i u ional espon-
sibili y in gua an eeing women’s igh s, s ongly- oo ed clien elism and
e en co up ion. Gi en hese kinds o di icul ies, and despi e he e o s
o he Tejedo as de Vida alliance as he main local pa ne , he sus ain-
abili y o he social and p oduc i e p ocesses gene a ed by he p ojec can
be se iously ques ioned.
Ano he gende and peace ac ion suppo ed by he Fund o Peace,
al hough wi h a subs an ially smalle con ibu ion om he EU (522,000
Eu os), is he p ojec MIA: Mes iza, Indígena, A odescendien e (“Mixed
ace, indigenous, A o-descenden women”), aimed o acili a e he an-
si ion o ci ilian li e o women ex-comba an s in pa s o Caque á and
Chocó h ough pe sonal, economic and poli ical empowe men . This
ini ia i e is o ien ed a he und’s second pilla , ega ding he einco -
po a ion o o me FARC-EP membe s.
O he Fund o Peace p ojec s do no mains eam he gende app oach
h oughou hei ac i i ies, al hough hey may con ain occasional ac ions
wi h women, o example: he Sus ainable e i o ies o Caque á o peace:
a commi men o building de elopmen , peace and legal obse ance in
pos -con lic Caque á municipali ies,o he Te i o ial de elopmen in he
Depa men o Na iño in condi ions o peace ini ia i e. In he i s case,
he subjec e e ed o in he esul s indica o s is amilies, and only in
10 Alcaldías (municipal councils) o Mocoa, O i o, Pue o Asís, Pue o Caicedo, Pue o
Guzmán, Pue o Leguízamo, San Miguel, Valle del Guamuez and Villaga zón, as well as
he Gobe nación (depa men al go e nmen ) o Pu umayo.
226 I. MENDIA AZKUE
one indica o ou o 20 is he e a e e ence o women, when a e e -
ence is made o a numbe o hem being e ec i ely linked o ci izen
pa icipa ion and de elopmen p ocesses p omo ed by he local au ho -
i ies. In he second case, women appea as he a ge g oup in ac ions o
p omo ing he pa icipa ion o ci il socie y, oge he wi h o he subjec s
such as p oduce s, you h and ic ims o he con lic . In mo e de ail, only
wo o he 19 p ojec indica o s men ion women, e e ing o he numbe
o hem who access p o ec ion o and a en ion o ic ims o gende
iolence, as well as economic empowe men a en ion se ices se up by
he p ojec .
c. IcSP p ojec s
The Ins umen Con ibu ing o S abili y and Peace (IcSP) is he
ins umen pa excellence o he Eu opean Ex e nal Ac ion Se ice
(EEAS) o gua an ee he p e en ion o con lic s and si ua ions o c isis o
h ea s in s able coun ies and o s eng hen secu i y and peacebuilding in
coun ies in c isis. O he 15 IcSP p ojec s ca ied ou in Colombia, wi h
a o al budge o 27.9 million Eu os (SICEC, 2018), no a single one can
be seen, based on i s i le, o indica e ha i is di ec ed a ans o ming
gende ela ions o he empowe men o women and/o LGBTI people.
Taking as a basis he conclusions and ecommenda ions o he E al-
ua ion o IcSP ac ions suppo ing he Colombian Peace P ocess epo
(Gua dans e al., 2019: 46–53), in only one o he 13 p ojec s assessed
is he e a e e ence o he gende ques ion. This is he Ba ome e Ini ia-
i e: echnical suppo o o icial e i ica ion o he applica ion o he peace
ag eemen in Colombia, included among he EU coope a ion ac ions
suppo ing ini ial implemen a ion o he Peace Ag eemen . Women’s
o ganiza ions a e ci ed among he sou ces o da a o his ini ia i e,
which supe ises he obse ance o 578 Peace Ag eemen commi men s,
including he gende measu es p o ided o . I can be said, hen, ha he
sum o al o IcSP p ojec s ha p io i ize gende equali y in he ac i i ies
suppo ed is a he a low one.
d. Eu opean Pa liamen Pilo P ojec s and P epa a o y Ac ions
The Eu opean Pa liamen Pilo P ojec s and P epa a o y Ac ions
(PP-PAs) a e “ ools o he o mula ion o poli ical p io i ies and he
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 227
in oduc ion o new ini ia i es ha can e en ually become speci ic Eu o-
pean Union ac i i ies and p og ammes wi h hei own budge a y lines”
(SICEC, 2018). They ha e an expe imen al na u e and hey ac o es
he iabili y and use ulness o an ac ion.
Eu opean coope a ion suppo s h ee PP-PAs in Colombia, wo o
which p omo e economic-labou ini ia i es and access o p oduc i e,
inancial and comme cial esou ces and land o women in sou he n
Cauca. The p ojec s a e: Economic au onomy and empowe men o u al
women in Sou h Cauca,and Economic and social empowe men o u al
women in he Al o Pa ía egion in he sou h o Cauca depa men , as a
commi men o peacebuilding and e i o ial de elopmen . Bo h ha e he
same budge , 0.83 million Eu os, he i s wi h an EU con ibu ion o
0.75 million Eu os and he second o 0.68 million. These a e ac ions
aimed a he empowe men o u al women ha a e in line wi h he
women’s au onomy ocus and espond o s a egic gende in e es s.11 The
hi d pilo p ojec , Ha es s o peace: A sus ainable in es men o peace,
wi h a o al budge o 1.875 million Eu os and an EU con ibu ion o
1.5, seeks he “ eac i a ion o he economy o small peasan p oduce s in
he depa men o Cauca”. I does no ha e a gende ocus no is i aimed
a bene i ing women, bu a he “ amilies”, and i p esen s as a posi i e
esul he pa icipa ion o women in leading p oduc i e p ocesses. No
women’s o LGBTI o ganiza ions lead any o he h ee p ojec s.
e. Thema ic lines o Eu opean coope a ion
The EU implemen s six hema ic coope a ion p og ammes in
Colombia: ou ha a e pa o he De elopmen Coope a ion Ins umen
(DCI) (Suppo o non-s a e ac o s and local economic de elopmen ,
En i onmen , In es ing in people and Managing mig a ion and mig a-
o y i egula i ies); he Eu opean Ins umen o Democ acy and Human
Righ s (EIDHR), and Food Secu i y (IFS-FOOD) (SICEC, 2018).
O he six hema ic p og ammes, wi h a o al o 45 p ojec s, we
ind ac ions explici ly ela ed o gende equali y o he empowe men o
women o he LGBTI popula ion in h ee o hem, wi h a o al o eigh
11 The women’s au onomy ocus wo ks based on he no ion ha his au onomy has
a ious dimensions: physical, decision-making and economic. These pe manen ly in e ac ,
in such a way ha hey canno be ei he unde s ood o deal wi h in an isola ed way.
228 I. MENDIA AZKUE
p ojec s (17.7%). They ha e a budge o 1.32 million Eu os, ha is o
say, only 2.3% o he o al sum o he p ojec s.
Fi s ly, and by way o example, he DCI p og ammes include he E ec-
i e pa icipa ion o women in moni o ing he implemen a ion o he PA
and igilance o secu i y condi ions o women’s o ganiza ions and pla -
o ms commi ed o a s able and las ing peace in Colombia p ojec . This
is he only one ocussing on suppo o women’s o ganiza ions and he
only one ca ied ou di ec ly by an o ganiza ion in his sec o , namely he
Ru a Pací ica de las Muje es.
Secondly, in he Eu opean Ins umen o Democ acy and Human
Righ s, in whose desc ip ion women and LGBTI people appea as “ ul-
ne able g oups”, o he 11 p ojec s unde way in 2018, ou ha e an
explici link wi h he gende app oach o he empowe men o women o
he LGBTI popula ion. Among hem, he p ojec Rein o cing he s a egic
wo k o he de ence and en o ceabili y o he human igh s o he LGBT popu-
la ion in Colombia, as a gua an ee o he de elopmen and consolida ion
o democ acy and he ule o law (2015–2017), speci ically a ends o he
igh s o he LGBTI popula ion and is execu ed by an o ganiza ion wi hin
his mo emen , namely Colombia Di e sa.
In June 2021 he numbe o p ojec s in his line ell o six, wi h
he gende app oach appea ing in wo, in he desc ip ion o hei added
alue: he p ojec Sa egua ding peace. Ac ions aimed a communi y p o ec-
ion, de ence o human igh s and he cons uc ion o his o ical memo y in
indigenous communi ies o he depa men s o Chocó and An ioquia,which
seeks “ he pa icipa ion o gi ls and women in communi y leade ship
spaces”; and he p ojec P o ec ion o leade ships o an inclusi e democ-
acy, ca ied ou in Guaji a, Césa and Có doba, which ecognizes ha
iola ing he human igh s o poli ical, social and communi y leade s “pa -
icula ly a ec s women”. A women’s, eminis o LGBTI o ganiza ion
had ca ied none o hese p ojec s ou .
4Conclusions
The Eu opean Union is an in luen ial ac o in e ms o he i n e na ional
peace and secu i y agenda. In i s ex e io ac ion, i s posi ions in a ou
o democ acy, human igh s, he pa icipa ion o ci il socie y and gende
equali y in he p e en ion o con lic s and peacebuilding ha e o e ed i a
sou ce o legi imacy wi h espec o o he in e na ional ac o s.
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 229
Howe e , he abundan EU documen s ha poin o gende equali y
and women’s empowe men as a p io i y in i s ex e io ac ion a e only
pa ly e lec ed in Eu opean coope a ion in Colombia. I is no possible
o conclude om his e iew, based on documen s and in e iews, ha
gende mains eaming has been achie ed in he ins umen s implemen ed
and in he p ojec s suppo ed in he coun y, al hough he EU Delega ion
is making e o s in his di ec ion. I is likely ha he pa hway indica ed
in he new EU Gende Ac ion Plan (GAP III) will enable new le els o
p og ess and impac , gi en ha by 2025 85% o i s ac ions a e supposed
o con ibu e o gende equali y and he empowe men o women.
In gene al, EU p ojec s in Colombia ha explici ly include he ma e
o gende equali y and women’s empowe men seek: (a) o inc ease
women’s pa icipa ion in communi y spaces ha c ea e mul i-ac o
dialogue and in poli ical and decision-making p ocesses a he ins i u-
ional le el; (b) s eng hen he skills o women as ega ds he p e en ion
o iolence and peacebuilding; and (c) sus ain women’s economic and
social empowe men p ocesses.
The ins umen h ough which he EU is, o he g ea es ex en ,
p omo ing hese goals is he Eu opean Fund o Peace, which unds he
majo i y o he p ojec s included by he SICEC in he gende equali y
ca ego y. An ou s anding example is he Pu umayo-based “Women who
T ans o m”, a majo ini ia i e and one ha ep esen s an example wi h a
e i o ial ocus by he Fund. Once i has been comple ed and assessed,
his p ojec could esul in impo an lea nings o u u e EU gende
ac ions. Taking e e y hing in o accoun , i can be p oposed ha hese
kinds o expe iences indica e he need o place special a en ion on ma e s
such as: he le el o comple eness o he poli ical, socio-economic and
o ganiza ional analyses o he con ex s in which hey a e occu ing; he
ope a ional di icul ies esul ing om he Fund’s complex adminis a-
i e p ocedu es, which equi e high adminis a i e capaci ies om he
g ass oo s o ganiza ions in ol ed; de ini ion o he in e media y ole ha
in e na ional o ganiza ions ha e in he execu ion and, abo e all, hei
le el o specializa ion in gende and women’s empowe men ; he ela ion-
ship and powe dynamics be ween he local pa ne o ganiza ions and he
au ho i ies ha he Fund in ol es in he p ojec s; and, linked o his las
poin , planning o mechanisms ha gua an ee he sus ainabili y o he
p oduc i e and social p ocesses c ea ed.
Toge he wi h he Fund’s ac ions, impo an p ojec s a e he wo EU
Pilo P ojec s ha p omo e he economic au onomy and empowe men
230 I. MENDIA AZKUE
o u al women. I is in e es ing o no e ha hese p ojec s ha e been
conside ed and included in he ca ego y o “expe imen al”, when (phys-
ical, poli ical and economic) au onomy is an essen ial pa o he s a egic
gende in e es s ha ha e been p omo ed by he eminis mo emen o
decades. In ac , his kind o p ojec should o m pa o he habi ual
ac ions o he EU, and be g an ed wi h su icien esou ces o p oduce
no able p og ess in he au onomy o women and in he ans o ma ion o
gende inequali ies.
Wi h espec o he gende app oach, i is possible o iden i y some
ends in he gende ac ions suppo ed by he EU ha need be looked a
c i ically: (a) “adding” women o ac i i ies ha ha e no necessa ily been
designed based on c i ical analyses o he causes o gende inequali y; (b)
adop ing a “ amily ocus” ha p esupposes equal impac s on all amily
membe s ega dless o gende conside a ions; (c) ein o cing homoge-
nizing and ic imizing images o women when hey a e educed o he
ca ego y o “ ulne able g oups”; (d) subsuming suppo o women in o
ac ions di ec ed a a di e se g oup o ci il socie y subjec s, pa icula ly
you h and e hnic popula ions, wi hou a ending o hei di e en ia ed
eali ies; (e) su e ing om a lack o in eg a ed gende and in e sec-
ionali y ocuses wi h he po en ial o e lec he ma ix o inequali ies
oo ed in he pa ia chy, capi alism and colonialism ha pu s obs acles in
he way o implemen ing peace; ( ) lacking a dual s a egy ha , while
p omo ing he in eg a ion o he gende pe spec i e in exis ing coop-
e a ion ins umen s, also de elops a speci ic line o ac ion wi h i s own
unding.
In e ms o inancial esou ces, i is e iden ha he EU’s na a i e
ega ding he cen ali y o gende equali y does no co espond o he
sums i is alloca ing o his objec i e in Colombia. This is a ecu ing
poli ical incohe ence ha a ec s he o ms o ac ion o mos in e na ional
coope a ion ac o s, no only in Colombia. A leas un il now, he EU
has no alloca ed unds o gende equali y in signi ican amoun s and
in p opo ions able o c ea e subs an ial ans o ma ions in ei he social
ela ions o in he li ing condi ions o women and LGBTI people in his
coun y.
Las ly, in e ms o he subjec s p io i ized, i he o ganized ac ion o he
women’s mo emen in Colombia has enabled he inclusion o he gende
app oach in he Peace Ag eemen , a s eng hening o he mo emen ’s
o ganiza ional and mobilizing capaci ies would seem o be he mos p ob-
ably way o a ou ing he go e nmen al implemen a ion o he Ag eemen
8 A REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GENDER … 231
and in o de o achie e impo an esul s wi h ega d o gende equali y.
I migh be use ul o emembe ha Colombia has, o decades, had one
o he mos ad anced bodies o egula ions and public policies in e ms o
gende equi y, a leas in he La in Ame ican egion, and ha he p oblem
con inues o be he epea ed ailu e o comply wi h hese a all le els
o go e nmen . Howe e , in i s ac ions ega ding women’s pa icipa ion,
he EU does no gi e su icien cen ali y o he mo emen ’s au onomous
o ganiza ion and mobiliza ion when i comes o demanding compliance
wi h exis ing policies, bu a he ocuses on he mo emen ’s p esence in
“go e nmen -socie y dialogue spaces”. This way o ac ing is acco ding
o a “democ a ic go e nance” ocus ha may be igno ing he his o ical
co ela ion o powe ha has no been a ou able o he coun y’s social
and popula sec o s, pa icula ly he women’s mo emen .
This s udy shows ha women’s, eminis and LGBTI o ganiza ions
a e ecipien s o a conside ably lowe p opo ion o Eu opean unding
and, wha is mo e, hey do no ha e pe manen mechanisms o dialogue
wi h he EU. This is he esul o compa isons wi h unds aimed a s a e
building and o spaces o in e -ins i u ional a icula ion c ea ed be ween
he EU and he Colombian go e nmen , in which he ue nego ia ion
and decision-making dynamics ega ding he o ien a ion o Eu opean
coope a ion occu . In hese unbalanced condi ions, pushing o women’s
pa icipa ion o happen in go e nmen -socie y dialogue spaces can ac
o e ode hese o ganiza ions, s imula e hei ins umen aliza ion by he
au ho i ies and, in he wo s o cases, hei pe secu ion h ough poli ical
and penal channels, pa icula ly in hose e i o ies whe e powe dynamics
esul ing om he con lic and high le els o iolence agains hem s ill
las . This las case is a s ong a gumen o , i s ly, paying mo e a en-
ion o s eng hening he women’s and eminis mo emen and, secondly,
o p omo ing such dialogue spaces in ci cums ances in which women’s
o ganiza ions ha e a solid local and na ional posi ion, capaci y o eal
incidence and secu e condi ions.
Re e ences
Colombia Di e sa. (2020). Nada que celeb a . In o me de de echos humanos de
pe sonas lesbianas, gays, bisexuales y ans en Colombia. Bogo á.
Council o he Eu opean Union. (2008, Decembe 1). Comp ehensi e app oach
o he EU implemen a ion o he Uni ed Na ions Secu i y Council Resolu ions
1325 and 1820 on Women, Peace and Secu i y. 15671/1/08. B ussels.
