Smartphones through children's eyes: perceived benefits and educational considerations

F on ie s in Psychology 01 on ie sin.o g
Sma phones h ough child en’s
eyes: pe cei ed bene i s and
educa ional conside a ions
Mi a iGaz añaga
1, NahiaIdoiaga-Mond agon
2*,
IdoiaLego bu u Fe nandez
3 and AmaiaEigu enMuni is
3
1 Depa men o Basic Psychological P ocesses and Thei De elopmen , Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y UPV/EHU, Donos ia-San Sebas ian, Spain, 2 Depa men o E olu iona y and Educa ional
Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain, 3 Depa men o Didac ics and
School O ganiza ion, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain
In oduc ion: Sma phones ha e become cen al o e e yday li e, especially among
child en and adolescen s. While hey p o ide oppo uni ies o communica ion, lea ning,
and en e ainmen , g owing conce ns pe sis ega ding hei associa ion wi h nega i e
ou comes such as anxie y, dep ession, and educed social and cogni i e de elopmen .
Despi e he p e alence o hese conce ns, child en’s own pe spec i es a e o en
o e looked in deba es abou sma phone egula ion and educa ion.
Me hods: This mixed-me hods s udy in ol ed a o al o 642 child en om he
Basque Coun y. Da a collec ion combined quan i a i e and quali a i e app oaches
o explo e child en’s pe cep ions o sma phone use. Pa icipan s sha ed hei
expe iences and opinions h ough s uc u ed ques ionnai es and open-ended
esponses, allowing o bo h s a is ical analysis and hema ic explo a ion.
Resul s: Child en iden i ied ou main bene i s o sma phone use: (1) main aining social
connec ions and con ac ing pa en s in eme gencies, (2) accessing in o ma ion, (3)
educing bo edom, and (4) engaging in mul imedia en e ainmen . Owne ship s a us
in luenced pe cei ed bene i s: hose wi h pe sonal de ices highligh ed communica ion
and academic uses, while hose using pa en s’ de ices ocused on en e ainmen .
The s udy also examined he ole o sma phone educa ion in schools and amily
discussions, e ealing signi ican co ela ions wi h child en’s epo ed bene i s.
Discussion: Findings unde sco e he impo ance o inco po a ing child en’s oices
in o digi al policy and educa ional s a egies. The s udy highligh s he need o ea ly
digi al educa ion p og ams ha p omo e balanced and esponsible use. Addi ionally,
i iden i ies bo edom as a po en ially cons uc i e d i e o c ea i e and emo ional
de elopmen . Adop ing a child-cen e ed amewo k o unde s anding sma phone
use can os e mo e e ec i e and empa he ic app oaches o digi al wellbeing.
KEYWORDS
child-cen e ed esea ch, sma phone use, digi al educa ion, child en’s pe spec i es,
lexicome ic analysis, well-being, bo edom, mobile echnology
1 In oduc ion
Sma phones ha e become an essen ial aspec o mode n socie y, g adually inc easing
hei p esence o he ex en ha hey ha e become a dominan p esence in ou pe sonal and
social li es (Oksman and Rau iainen, 2017). This end is pa icula ly e iden among child en
and adolescen s (A makolas e al., 2024). Resea ch has indica ed ha mos adolescen s acqui e
hei i s sma phone a a ound he age o 12 (Gi ela-Se ano e al., 2022; Rich e e al., 2022),
hough sma phone use o en begins yea s be o e owne ship. A 2013 s udy e ealed ha 72%
o child en aged 0 o 8 had used a sma phone o ac i i ies such as playing games, wa ching
ideos, communica ing, aking pic u es, o accessing applica ions (Rideou e al., 2013).
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Diego Gomez-Baya,
Uni e si y o Huel a, Spain
REVIEWED BY
Ma ia Fe nanda La a-Diaz,
Na ional Uni e si y o Colombia, Colombia
Mu eed Taha,
Uni e si y o Ki kuk, I aq
*CORRESPONDENCE
Nahia Idoiaga-Mond agon
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 28 Ma ch 2025
ACCEPTED 02 June 2025
PUBLISHED 19 June 2025
CITATION
Gaz añaga M, Idoiaga-Mond agon N,
Lego bu u Fe nandez I and Eigu en
Muni is A (2025) Sma phones h ough
child en’s eyes: pe cei ed bene i s and
educa ional conside a ions.
F on . Psychol. 16:1596595.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Gaz añaga, Idoiaga-Mond agon,
Lego bu u Fe nandez and Eigu en Muni is.
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A ibu ion License (CC BY). The use,
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TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 19 June 2025
DOI 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
Gaz añaga e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
F on ie s in Psychology 02 on ie sin.o g
Fu he mo e, 38% o child en aged 0 o 2 had expe ienced using a
sma phone (Rideou e al., 2013). I espec i e o owne ship, he e has
been a subs an ial ise in he use o sma phones among child en and
young people in ecen yea s (Kopecký e al., 2021).
This issue emains highly con o e sial, as ecen esea ch sugges s
ha sma phone use can ha e ad e se psychological, physical, and
social e ec s despi e ongoing echnological ad ancemen s (Gi ela-
Se ano e al., 2022). In esponse, global o ganiza ions such as he
Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) ha e es ablished clea guidelines
on sc een ime o young child en. The WHO s ongly ecommends
ha child en unde 2 a oid sc een ime en i ely, while hose aged 2 o
5 should belimi ed o a maximum o 1 h pe day (Wo ld Heal h
O ganiza ion, 2019). Mo e ecen ly, in Decembe 2024, he Spanish
Socie y o Paedia ics ecommended ha child en unde he age o 6
should no beexposed o sc eens, ci ing ad e se e ec s in a eas such
as sleep, ca dio ascula isk, b ain olume, and nu i ion (Asociación
Española de Psiquia ía, 2024).
The app op ia e age o sma phone owne ship emains unclea ;
howe e , some expe s sugges ha 13–14 is a sui able miles one
(Bouch ika, 2025; Rich e e al., 2022). By his age, child en’s p e on al
co ex has de eloped su icien ly o allow o imp o ed decision-making,
enhanced easoning abili ies, and be e impulse con ol and inhibi ion
(Casey e al., 2011). Howe e , i is c ucial o conside indi idual ma u i y,
esponsibili y, and unde s anding o limi a ions beyond age alone.
To comp ehend he inc easing p e alence o sma phone use
among adul s and child en, i is essen ial o ecognize he nume ous
ad an ages ha hese de ices o e (Sha ma e al., 2022; Li and Chan,
2022). Ini ially, mobile phones we e used solely o oice communica ion
and ex messaging. Howe e , hey ha e since e ol ed o include
came as, calcula o s, oice eco de s, gaming de ices, and music playe s.
Today, sma phones se e as ga eways o he i ual wo ld, p o iding
in e ne access and acili a ing a ious in o ma ion, communica ion,
and en e ainmen oppo uni ies (Soukup, 2015). The ad en o social
ne wo king pla o ms such as Facebook, TikTok, Wha sApp, and X has
enabled global connec i i y, online shopping, and he u iliza ion o
a ious applica ions ha ha e he po en ial o simpli y and enhance
daily li e (Wieland, 2014; Sahu e  al., 2019). The bene i s o hese
echnologies include ins an communica ion, access o en e ainmen
and in o ma ion a any ime and in any place, ime managemen , and
he main enance o social iden i y (A makolas e al., 2024; Bian and
Leung, 2015; Kuss e al., 2018; Kwon e al., 2013; Lin e al., 2014).
Fo child en and adolescen s, sma phone ad an ages mi o
hose obse ed in adul s. Du ing adolescence, social connec i i y is a
equen ly ci ed bene i (O’ eilly, 2020; Peng e al., 2025; Schnaube -
S ockmann e al., 2021). As child en g ow, hei social ci cles expand,
and hey use sma phones o communica e wi h iends ia calls, ex s,
and social ne wo king si es, os e ing eelings o social connec edness
(Dha ejo e al., 2023).
Sma phones also se e as a sou ce o ec ea ional ac i i y,
o e ing access o mul imedia con en and games. Child en can
consume digi al con en passi ely o c ea e hei own, an inc easingly
common p ac ice ha nu u es hei c ea i i y (Azna e al., 2019;
Kopecký e  al., 2020, 2021). Addi ionally, sma phones p o ide
educa ional oppo uni ies h ough in e ac i e lea ning apps co e ing
subjec s such as languages, ma h, and his o y (Me uk, 2022;
S ako á and Cime mano á, 2018; Woodcock e al., 2012). Some
schools ha e in eg a ed digi al esou ces in o hei cu icula,
ecognizing hei alue in enhancing lea ning expe iences. Fo
ins ance, esea ch indica es ha heal h apps can help child en
manage obesi y by imp o ing die and physical ac i i y, ul ima ely
educing body mass index (Vaidya e al., 2025).
F om a pa en al pe spec i e, sma phones o e acking and
moni o ing capabili ies, p o iding child en wi h a deg ee o
au onomy while ensu ing pa en al eassu ance ega ding hei
whe eabou s (Da is e  al., 2024). Addi ionally, sma phones
acili a e communica ion be ween child en and amily membe s,
enhancing amilial dialogue and cohesion (De i and Roke , 2009).
Despi e hese bene i s, conce ns emain abou whe he child en
and young people should ely solely on sma phones o en e ainmen
(Li e  al., 2018; Liu and Lu, 2022). While sma phones acili a e
communica ion wi h iends and amily, i is impo an o assess
whe he hey should be he p ima y o exclusi e medium o social
in e ac ion. Nume ous s udies ha e highligh ed he isks associa ed
wi h sma phone use (Gi ela-Se ano e al., 2022; Sy e sen e al., 2022).
Excessi e sc een ime has been shown o al e b ain de elopmen in
child en, leading o educed cogni i e abili ies (Na ional Ins i u e o
Heal h, 2018). Addi ionally, p io i izing digi al in e ac ion o e ace- o-
ace communica ion has been linked o impai ed social skills in
child en (Valdesolo, 2015). Resea ch also sugges s a co ela ion be ween
social media use and men al heal h issues such as dep ession and
anxie y (Gi ela-Se ano e al., 2022), con ibu ing o inc eased cases o
in e ne addic ion and ela ed diso de s (Mo eno-Gue e o e al., 2020;
Saquib, 2020; Ta eno e al., 2019). Fu he mo e, e idence indica es ha
social media can nega i ely impac young people’s sel -es eem and sel -
concep (Rod íguez e  al., 2019). A pa icula ly conce ning isk is
cybe bullying, which has become inc easingly p e alen in ecen yea s
(Kopecký and Szo kowski, 2017; Ál a ez-Ga cía e al., 2017).
Despi e he well-documen ed nega i e e ec s o sma phone use on
child en, hei adop ion o hese de ices con inues o ise (Kopecký e al.,
2021). To e ec i ely egula e, suppo , educa e, and explo e al e na i e
sma phone uses, i is essen ial o i s unde s and hei appeal o
child en and he pe cei ed bene i s hey de i e om hem. To ou
knowledge, no esea ch has openly ga he ed child en’s pe spec i es on
he ad an ages o sma phone use, allowing hem o exp ess hemsel es
eely. Wi hou conside ing hei iewpoin s, i is impossible o de elop
meaning ul educa ional esponses o he issue o child en’s sma phone
use. In o he wo ds, including he oices o hose di ec ly a ec ed is
c ucial. The e o e, his s udy aims o explo e child en’s pe cep ions,
iden i ying he bene i s hey associa e wi h sma phone usage.
2 Me hodology
This s udy employed a igo ous and sys ema ic app oach o
collec ing bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e da a. The p ima y da a
collec ion me hod was online ques ionnai es speci ically designed o
his esea ch. These su eys inco po a e a mix o open-ended and
closed-ended ques ions, ensu ing a comp ehensi e explo a ion o
pa icipan s’ pe spec i es. This combina ion allows o bo h
measu able da a and con ex ual insigh s, p o iding a well- ounded
analysis o he a ge demog aphic.
2.1 Sample
This s udy included 634 child en om a egion o he au onomous
communi y o he Basque Coun y (no he n Spain). Pa icipan s had
a mean age o 9.33 yea s (SD = 1.97) (age ange 6–16). Rega ding
Gaz añaga e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
F on ie s in Psychology 03 on ie sin.o g
gende dis ibu ion, 52.9% iden i ied as emale, 46.8% as male, and
0.3% as non-bina y. The majo i y o pa icipan s we e in i h g ade
(10–11 yea s, 20.4%, n = 129), ollowed by six h g ade (11–12 yea s,
18.3%, n = 116), ou h g ade (9–10 yea s, 15.9%, n = 101), hi d g ade
(8–9 yea s, 15.8%, n = 100), second g ade (7–8 yea s, 12.3%, n = 78),
i s g ade (6–7 yea s, 11.2%, n = 71) and compulso y seconda y
educa ion (12–16 yea s, 6.2%, n = 39). Rega ding sma phone use,
27.3% (n = 173) o child en owned a sma phone, 65.5% (n = 415)
used hei pa en s’ sma phone, and 6.8% (n = 45) did no use one.
2.2 P ocedu e
Be o e da a collec ion, app o al was ob ained om he e hics
commi ee o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y [M10_2024_073].
A e ecei ing de ailed in o ma ion abou he esea ch p ocedu es,
all pa icipan s and hei pa en s/gua dians p o ided w i en in o med
consen . Pa icipan s we e ec ui ed using a non-p obabilis ic
snowball sampling me hod. Resea che s c ea ed an online
ques ionnai e, which was dis ibu ed h ough schools. Child en
comple ed he ques ionnai e hemsel es, while pa en s ansc ibed
hei esponses o hose unable o w i e.
2.3 Ins umen
The ques ionnai e consis ed o wo dis inc sec ions. The i s
sec ion collec ed key socio-demog aphic da a, including pa icipan s’
age, gende (“Gi l,” “Boy,” o “Non-bina y”), school yea , and
sma phone usage (owning a sma phone, using an adul ’s
sma phone, o no using one). I also included ques ions abou
exposu e o sma phone aining in schools (“Yes, mo e han once,”
“Yes, once,” o “No, ne e ”) and discussions wi h pa en s abou
sma phone use (“Nume ous occasions,” “Occasionally,” “Ve y
a ely,” o “Ne e ”). The second sec ion explo ed child en’s
pe cep ions o sma phone use. Pa icipan s we e asked o iden i y
and desc ibe ou bene i s o “good hings” abou sma phones,
p o iding explana ions whe e ele an . These esponses se ed as
he ounda ion o u he analysis, o e ing aluable insigh s in o
child en’s pe spec i es.
2.4 Analysis
Open-ended esponses a e bes analyzed using he Reine
me hod (Reine , 1983), acili a ed by I amu eq so wa e. This
me hod is widely ecognized o i s e ec i eness in analyzing
child en’s open-ended esponses ac oss a ious disciplines
(Lego bu u e al., 2022; Idoiaga Mond agon e al., 2021) and has been
shown o success ully add ess eliabili y and alidi y issues in ex
analysis (Klein and Lica a, 2003). The Reine me hod employs a
op-down hie a chical clus e analysis, ex ac ing hema ic classes
based on s a is ical indica o s such as ypical wo ds and ex segmen s
(Idoiaga and Belasko, 2019). I amu eq iden i ies wo ds and ex
segmen s wi h he highes chi-squa e alues, highligh ing hose ha
bes ep esen each class o equen ly men ioned idea by pa icipan s.
Following p e ious applica ions o he Reine me hod (Cama go
and Bous ield, 2009), he aw da a we e en e ed in o I amu eq.
Signi ican ocabula y i ems wi hin each class we e selec ed based on
h ee c i e ia: (1) an expec ed wo d alue exceeding 3; (2) chi-squa e
s a is ical e idence o associa ion wi h he class (χ2 ≥ 3.89, p = 0.05,
d = 1); and (3) he wo d p edominan ly appea ing in ha class wi h
a equency o 50% o mo e. The so wa e also iden i ied ex segmen s
associa ed wi h each class, anking hem acco ding o hei chi-squa e
alues. Tex segmen s wi h he mos signi ican chi-squa e alues in
each class we e hen selec ed.
Once hese “lexical uni e ses” we e iden i ied, hey we e linked o
“passi e” (independen ) a iables, including gende , school yea , ype
o sma phone use, p io aining on mobile phone use, and
discussions wi h pa en s abou mobile phone use. The analys hen
de i ed hema ic classes consis ing o ypical wo ds and ex segmen s
(quo es) wi h he highes chi-squa e alues. These classes se ed as he
ounda ion o in e p e ing he lexical wo lds.
The Reine me hod p oduces s a is ical, anspa en , and
ep oducible da a up o he poin o in e p e a ion, whe e he analys
assigns labels. In he inal phase, wo esea che s independen ly named
each class based on associa ed wo ds and ex segmen s. A hi d
esea che hen inalized he labels, which we e app o ed by all
h ee esea che s.
Quan i a i e da a we e analyzed using IBM SPSS e sion 28
(A monk, NY, USA).
3 Resul s
3.1 Child en’s Main pe cei ed bene i s o
sma phone use
Using descending hie a chical analysis, he Reine me hod was
applied o iden i y child en’s pe cep ions abou he bene i s o using
sma phones. Each issue o concep is ep esen ed by a se o
cha ac e is ic wo ds and ex segmen s, o ming a “class.” The analysis
segmen ed he co pus in o 634 sec ions, esul ing in ou dis inc
classes, as illus a ed in Figu e1. These classes will beexamined
indi idually in he ollowing sec ions.
As demons a ed in Figu e1, he analysis yielded ou dis inc
classes o esponses. Two o hese classes pe ain o he ad an ages o
sma phones o child en, as epo ed by child en who possess hei
own sma phones: “Socializing wi h iends and calling pa en s in
case o p oblems” and “Sea ching o in o ma ion.” The emaining
wo classes ela e o he use o sma phones by child en who sha e
hei pa en s’ de ices, including “Alle ia ing bo edom” and
“Mul imedia en e ainmen .”
The la ges class (28.17%) highligh ed ha sma phones acili a e
social in e ac ion and communica ion wi h pa en s in eme gencies.
Child en epo ed using Wha sApp o cha wi h iends and emphasized
he impo ance o con ac ing pa en s when needed. A s a is ically
signi ican ela ionship was iden i ied be ween his pe cep ion and
sma phone owne ship (p < 0.001), as well as being in 6 h g ade o
seconda y school (p < 0.05) and ecei ing sma phone aining in school
(p < 0.05).
Sample esponses include:
• The bes hing is ha Ican mee my iends by and cha wi h hem
by Wha sApp and Ican also call my pa en s i Ineed any hing
(Gi l, 6 h g ade, χ2 = 491.46).
• Especially o alk o o cha o my iends, a home o in he s ee .
And i I’m wi h my iends and Iwan o go home, Iwill no
Gaz añaga e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
F on ie s in Psychology 04 on ie sin.o g
bewai ing like be o e — Icall my pa en s and hey come and pick
me up (Gi l, Seconda y educa ion, χ2 = 452.16).
• I can call my mo he , mee wi h my iends, play games, and easily
call my pa en s o help (Boy, 6 h g ade, χ2 = 446.95).
• I ind i good o mee ing o cha ing wi h iends and going ou .
I is e y impo an o ha e i o beable o communica e o o call
my pa en s when Iha e p oblems (Gi l, Seconda y educa ion,
χ2 = 416.63).
• Fo cha ing wi h iends, wemos ly alk on ou mobile phones,
e en when wea e on he s ee , so ha wecan alk o o he g oups,
e c. (Gi l, Seconda y educa ion, χ2 = 389.75).
The second bene i highligh ed by he child en, accoun ing o
18.17% o he o al, ela es o he ease o e ie ing in o ma ion
using sma phones. Child en emphasized how hey can quickly
sea ch o in o ma ion using Google, pa icula ly o academic
pu poses and loca ing places ia Google Maps. Addi ionally, hey
acknowledged ha sma phones p o ide access o in o ma ion
hey migh no eel com o able eques ing om o he s o ha is
no eadily a ailable h ough o he means. This end was mo e
common among child en who owned a sma phone (p < 0.01),
hose in six h g ade (p < 0.05), and hose in seconda y school
(p < 0.05).
Sample esponses include:
• You can Google, o example, he meaning o a wo d o in o ma ion
abou wha e e you wan and ind ou he esul s o oo ball
ma ches (Boy, 6 h g ade, χ2 = 315.15).
• The e a e some hings wedo no know, and Google has in o ma ion
on all opics. Wecan sea ch o any hing o anywhe e (Gi l, 6 h
g ade, χ2 = 303.31).
• Wi h Google Maps, youcan sea ch o si es and wi h Google
in o ma ion, so youdo no ha e o ask anyone, o wo k o o
you sel , o ind ou any hing (Boy, 6 h g ade, χ2 = 299.28).
• You can sea ch o in o ma ion o do wo k o abou hings ha
in e es youand youdo no wan o ask o he s. Youcan lea n a lo
o hings om he ideos (Boy, 6 h g ade, χ2 = 287.30).
The hi d bene i o sma phones, accoun ing o 18.27% o he
o al, pe ains o using sma phones as a ool o alle ia ing bo edom.
Child en desc ibed sma phones as highly engaging and en e aining
de ices ha e ec i ely pass he ime. This end was mo e commonly
epo ed among child en who used hei pa en s’ sma phones
(p < 0.001), pa icula ly hose in 1s h ough 4 h g ade (p < 0.05), and
hose who had no ecei ed o mal aining on sma phone use in
school (p < 0.05).
FIGURE1
The hie a chical clus e ing dend og am showing he mos equen wo ds and hose wi h he g ea es associa ion χ2 (1), p < 0.001 ex ac ed by he
Reine me hod.
Gaz añaga e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
F on ie s in Psychology 05 on ie sin.o g
The mos signi ican esponses include:
• I lea n new and in e es ing hings, ha e un, and do no ge bo ed
(Gi l, 3 d g ade, χ2 = 235.98).
• I Ige bo ed, Ilea n new dances and nice and unny handic a s.
Ilike ninja kids (Gi l, 3 d g ade, χ2 = 208.20).
• Time goes by as , playing. I’ e lea ned a lo ; Ialways ha e un, and
Ido no ge bo ed (Boy, 4 h g ade, χ2 = 154.96).
• Tha ime goes by e y as , and pa en s ge ang y (Boy, 4 h g ade,
χ2 = 67.57)
• You do no ge bo ed playing he games! I ’s un because youcan do
lo s o new hings, and ime lies by! (Boy, 1s g ade, χ2 = 147.54).
The inal class, accoun ing o 35.42% o he o al esponses,
highligh s he ole o sma phones in mul imedia en e ainmen .
Child en no ed ha sma phones se e as e sa ile ools o wa ching
YouTube ideos, playing ideo games, lis ening o music, aking and
edi ing pho os, eco ding ideos, and explo ing c a s. This bene i
was p edominan ly men ioned by child en using hei pa en s’
de ices (p < 0.001) ac oss a ious elemen a y g ade le els (p < 0.05),
including ea ly childhood educa ion (p < 0.05), and hose wi hou
o mal sma phone aining in school (p< 0.05).
The mos p e alen ph ases employed by he child en o a icula e
his concep we e:
• I like o wa ch ideos Ilike on YouTube, play a lo o games, dance,
and lis en o music on my mobile phone (Gi l, 2nd g ade,
χ2 = 278.25).
• I can laugh wa ching ideos, play ideo games, lis en o music in
he ca , and e en wa ch a ilm (Boy, Seconda y educa ion,
χ2 = 268.52).
• I like o lis en o music, wa ch ideo clips on YouTube, call, send
messages, and lea n how o make handic a s (Gi l, 1s g ade,
χ2 = 258.47).
• I can wa ch YouTube, play games, use Snapcha , and ake pho os
and ideos! (Boy, 2nd g ade, χ2 = 173.66).
3.2 P io aining ecei ed by child en on
he use o sma phones
Rega ding sma phone use aining in schools, 38% o child en
(n = 244) epo ed ecei ing ins uc ion on mul iple occasions, 15.6%
(n = 100) had a single ins uc ional session, and 46.5% (n= 298)
s a ed hey had ne e ecei ed any o mal ins uc ion. A signi ican
ela ionship was ound be ween a child’s school le el and he amoun
o aining ecei ed (X
2
= 149.40 (14), p < 0.001), wi h he c i ical
poin obse ed in he ou h yea o elemen a y school, as younge
child en had ecei ed minimal aining (see Table1).
Addi ionally, discussions abou sma phone use wi h pa en s
a ied widely. Among he child en su eyed, 42.2% (n = 271) epo ed
equen discussions wi h hei pa en s, 36.3% (n = 233) had
occasional con e sa ions, 15.7% (n = 101) a ely discussed he opic,
and 5.8% (n = 37) ne e engaged in such discussions. A signi ican
ela ionship was ound be ween hese discussions and he child’s
school g ade (X2 = 55.56 (12), p < 0.001) (see Table2).
4 Discussion
The objec i e o his esea ch was o unde s and he bene i s o
sma phone use om he pe spec i e o he child en hemsel es, wi h
he aim o acili a ing a smoo he ansi ion o digi aliza ion (Nansen,
2020). The indings p o ide aluable insigh s, allowing o a deepe
explo a ion o he issue.
A key obse a ion in his s udy is ha he child en’s esponses all
in o wo dis inc ca ego ies: esponses om hose who own a
sma phone (p edominan ly olde child en) and hose who do no
( ypically younge child en). Among he child en who own a
sma phone, wo p ima y bene i s eme ge: communica ion and access
o in o ma ion. Sma phones ha e become essen ial ools o olde
child en o socialize wi h iends, whe he h ough con e sa ions,
messaging, o o he o ms o digi al in e ac ion (Johnsen, 2017; Thulin
and Vilhelmson, 2017). Howe e , his dynamic can c ea e social
TABLE2 Discussion o sma phone usage wi h pa en s acco ding o school yea .
ECE 1 g ade 2 g ade 3 g ade 4 g ade 5 g ade 6 g ade CSE To al
Nume ous occasions 0 21 34 47 33 51 63 22 271
Occasional basis 4 25 23 32 39 53 42 15 233
Ve y a ely 3 17 11 14 22 2 10 2 101
Ne e 2 7 10 7 7 3 1 0 37
To al 9 70 78 100 101 129 116 39 642
ECE, Ea ly childhood educa ion (2–6 yea s); CSE, Compulso y seconda y educa ion (12–16 yea s). The i alic alue only indica es he i le o he o al numbe o child en acco ding o each
school yea . The bold alues a e he o al alues o child en in each school yea ; and he o al numbe o esponses o nume ous occasions, occasional basis, e y a ely, and ne e .
TABLE1 T aining ecei ed acco ding o school yea .
ECE 1 g ade 2 g ade 3 g ade 4 g ade 5 g ade 6 g ade CSE To al
Yes, mo e han once 0 8 15 21 47 63 70 20 244
Yes, once 1 8 5 7 19 32 19 9 100
No, ne e 8 54 58 72 35 34 27 10 298
To al 9 70 78 100 101 129 114 39 642
ECE, Ea ly childhood educa ion (2–6 yea s); CSE, Compulso y seconda y educa ion (12–16 yea s). The i alic alue only indica es he i le o he o al numbe o child en acco ding o each
school yea . The bold alues a e he o al alues o child en in each school yea ; and he o al nume o esponses o nume ous occasions, occasional basis, e y a ely, and ne e .

Gaz añaga e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
F on ie s in Psychology 06 on ie sin.o g
dispa i ies, as child en wi hou sma phones may eel excluded om
pee in e ac ions, leading o po en ial social aliena ion (Da ie e al.,
2004). This is pa icula ly conce ning du ing he ea ly s ages o
adolescence when pee g oups assume a pi o al ole in he li es o
hese indi iduals (Kindschi e al., 2019). In he con ex o digi al
socializa ion, his phenomenon wa an s ca e ul examina ion. Du ing
adolescence (ages 11 o 16), young people unde go a c i ical ansi ion
o adul hood, ma ked by signi ican social de elopmen (Hu elmann
and Baue , 2018). A his s age, child en need o build social
ela ionships independen ly, wi hou cons an adul supe ision. They
should also be able o communica e e ec i ely wi h pee s and
in e p e bo h e bal and non- e bal cues essen ial o he
communica ion p ocess (Man illa, 2007). Howe e , when pee
communica ion shi s om di ec , ace- o- ace in e ac ions o digi al
exchanges—such as cha ing and w i en messages ha ollow new
communica ion codes (Gómez-Camacho e  al., 2023)— he
socializa ion p ocess may bea ec ed (Smi h e al., 2015).
Online communica ion is o en p one o misin e p e a ion, a
pa icula ly p onounced challenge among adolescen s (Shubh a and
K ishna, 2024). This issue has ele an p ac ical implica ions, which
can be ca ego ized in o wo main a eas. Fi s , child en need o
beeduca ed abou digi al communica ion, including i s unique codes
and, mos impo an ly, he undamen al p inciples o his o m o
communica ion. Second, p o iding adolescen s wi h physical spaces
o engage in ace- o- ace in e ac ions and socialize wi hou
sma phones is impe a i e. In con empo a y socie y, sma phone
usage is pe asi e among adolescen s, e en in sha ed physical spaces
(Geo ge and Odge s, 2015). The e o e, c ea ing en i onmen s whe e
sma phone use is minimized is essen ial. One po en ial se ing o
his could beschools, hough his would equi e egula ing mobile
de ice use no only in class ooms bu also in ec ea ional a eas such
as playg ounds (Machmud, 2018). The da a also suppo he ele ance
o ex acu icula spaces—such as camps o a is ic and a hle ic
ac i i ies—whe e sma phones a e es ic ed, allowing pee in e ac ion
o lou ish (Lepp e al., 2015). These en i onmen s play a i al ole in
suppo ing he de elopmen al p ocess o child en and adolescen s,
making i he esponsibili y o he educa ional and social communi y
o p o ide hem.
Ano he commonly ci ed bene i o sma phones is hei ole in
acili a ing con ac be ween child en and hei pa en s in case o
eme gencies. Resea ch indica es ha many pa en s p o ide sma phones
o hei child en p ima ily o his eason (Kilda e and Middlemiss,
2017). While he need o pa en al con ac —pa icula ly as child en
ansi ion owa d independence—is unde s andable, he na u e o hese
in e ac ions should beca e ully examined (Ba on, 2014).
Du ing ea ly adolescence, child en mus de elop he abili y o
na iga e and esol e e e yday challenges independen ly, especially
when in public spaces. Pa en s play a c i ical ole in os e ing hese
skills by p o iding bo h au onomy and guidance. The e o e, child en
should no au oma ically ely on con ac ing hei pa en s whene e
hey ace di icul ies. This p inciple should beclea ly explained o
pa en s h ough a ge ed aining. I pa en –child communica ion
emains a p io i y, al e na i e ools o sma phones—such as mobile
wa ches o non-sma phone de ices wi hou in e ne access—should
also be conside ed. These de ices use di e en applica ions wi h
dis inc isks (Masche oni and Óla sson, 2014). I is, he e o e,
essen ial o educa e o educa e amilies be o e child en each ages 9–11,
abou hese al e na i es and hei espec i e bene i s and isks o
enable in o med decision-making ega ding he mos app op ia e
de ice o hei child en.
Olde child en who own sma phones highligh ed in o ma ion-
seeking as a key bene i . On he one hand, hey equen ly use hei
de ices o sea ch o in o ma ion ela ed o schoolwo k. This aises he
ques ion o whe he sma phones a e he mos sui able ool o
educa ional pu poses (Sung e al., 2016). P e ious esea ch, pa icula ly
du ing he pandemic, ound ha many child en wi hou access o
compu e s we e o ced o ely on sma phones o lea ning, which
hinde ed hei educa ional expe ience (Wang e  al., 2021). These
indings align wi h he child en’s esponses in ou s udy, which show
ha sma phone use o academic sea ches was closely associa ed wi h
owning a pe sonal de ice and being in highe g ade le els.
Addi ionally, child en wi h hei own sma phones epo ed using
hem o sea ch o in o ma ion ha hey may eel uncom o able
asking o he s abou o ha is o he wise inaccessible o hem. While
he in e ne o e s a weal h o aluable in o ma ion, i also con ains a
conside able amoun o alse in o ma ion. Child en (and e en adul s)
a e o en unable o dis inguish be ween c edible and un eliable
sou ces (Me zge e al., 2015). Sma phones, he e o e, become a
ga eway o in o ma ion on sensi i e opics, such as sexuali y
(Macha ia e al., 2021). Howe e , he lack o a egula o y amewo k
o online in o ma ion p esen s a majo challenge, pa icula ly in he
con ex o sex educa ion. This issue is exace ba ed by he widesp ead
a ailabili y o inapp op ia e con en , such as po nog aphy (Widman
e al., 2021). Simila conce ns apply o o he opics, including d ug use
and adicalized ideologies, whe e un eliable o ha m ul sou ces a e
easily accessible (Hol e  al., 2017). These isks ein o ce he
impo ance o in eg a ing media and in o ma ion li e acy in o ea ly
digi al educa ion.
In con as , younge child en who do no own sma phones
emphasize wo key bene i s: alle ia ing bo edom and p o iding
mul imedia en e ainmen . They highligh he ole o sma phones
in educing eelings o es lessness, which can belinked o pa en s’
endency o o e sma phones as a quick solu ion o keep child en
occupied and minimize dis up ions (Yang e al., 2020). I is now
common o see child en using sma phones in public spaces such
as es au an s, ba s, and public anspo a ion—e en while sea ed
in s olle s (Le ine e  al., 2019). Howe e , cons an ly illing
momen s o bo edom wi h sma phone use may ha e unin ended
consequences. While p olonged bo edom can nega i ely impac
child en’s men al heal h and well-being (Pano a and Lle as, 2016),
occasional bo edom is bene icial. I os e s c ea i i y (Mann and
Cadman, 2014), encou ages sel - e lec ion (Bel on and
P iyadha shini, 2007), enhances a en ion and concen a ion
(Malko sky e al., 2012), and builds emo ional esilience (Ghobadi
e  al., 2021; Isacescu e  al., 2017). I also allows space o
spon anei y and in ui ion—essen ial aspec s o child de elopmen
(Bel on and P iyadha shini, 2007). The e o e, he e ec s can
besigni ican i child en a e dep i ed o hese oppo uni ies and
a e cons an ly exposed o highly s imula ing mul imedia con en .
Indeed, some s udies sugges ha sma phone use nega i ely
impac s c ea i i y (Li e al., 2023; Olson e al., 2022). The da a also
suppo he ele ance o ex acu icula spaces—such as camps o
a is ic and a hle ic ac i i ies—whe e sma phones a e es ic ed,
allowing pee in e ac ion o lou ish. Such al e na i es include
amily games (Wang e al., 2018) and di ec con ac wi h na u e
(Chawla, 2015).
Gaz añaga e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2025.1596595
F on ie s in Psychology 07 on ie sin.o g
In conclusion, ega ding child en’s aining in sma phone use, i
is impo an o no e ha o mal ins uc ion ypically begins a ound
ages 9–10, despi e mos child en using sma phones—albei hose
belonging o hei pa en s—a a much younge age. Many schola s
emphasize he impo ance o ea ly digi al li e acy educa ion (Bjø gen
and E s ad, 2015; E s ad and Gillen, 2019; Neumann e al., 2017). In
ou s udy, only 38% o child en epo ed ha ing ecei ed digi al
aining on mul iple occasions, wi h younge child en pa icula ly
unde ep esen ed in his a ea. P o iding digi al educa ion only a age
9 o la e excludes younge use s who a e al eady engaging wi h
de ices, o en wi hou adequa e guidance. The e o e, he iming and
con en o his aining mus beca e ully designed, and his s udy
o e s se e al key a eas—such as sa e communica ion, in o ma ion
e alua ion, and esponsible use— ha should beconside ed in digi al
educa ion p og ams.
While his s udy has ou lined p ac ical implica ions, i also has
ce ain limi a ions. The sample was d awn om a speci ic a ea in
no he n Spain ( he Basque Coun y), which may limi he
gene alizabili y o he indings o o he cul u al o geog aphical
con ex s. Fu he mo e, only 26% o pa icipa ing child en owned
a sma phone, which may in oduce a bias in he esul s owa d he
expe iences and pe cep ions o child en who p ima ily use hei
pa en s’ de ices. As such, u u e esea ch should conside including
olde adolescen s o seconda y school s uden s, who a e mo e
likely o ha e pe sonal de ices and a b oade ange o
usage expe iences.
Addi ionally, al hough we pe o med chi-squa e analyses o
explo e associa ions be ween ca ego ical a iables, he main analyses
we e conduc ed using IRaMuTeQ, a lexicome ic ool based on
Reine ’s me hod o descending hie a chical classi ica ion. This
so wa e does no p oduce con en ional s a is ical indica o s such as
e ec sizes o con idence in e als, as i s ocus lies in analyzing
co-occu ences and seman ic s uc u es wi hin ex ual da a. This
me hodological cha ac e is ic imposes ce ain es ic ions on he
s a is ical in e p e abili y o ou esul s. Fu u e esea ch could
complemen his app oach wi h addi ional s a is ical ools o enhance
analy ical dep h.
Al hough sma phones o e undeniable bene i s and appeal o
child en, i is essen ial o ecognize ha hey a e in a c i ical s age o
de elopmen whe e hei well-being mus beca e ully conside ed.
Consequen ly, comp ehensi e digi al li e acy educa ion is c ucial o
bo h child en and hei amilies. Howe e , o his digi al educa ion
o be uly e ec i e, i mus begin om he pe spec i e o he child en
hemsel es — a key insigh ha has eme ged om he indings o he
p esen s udy.
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will
bemade a ailable by he au ho s, wi hou undue ese a ion.
E hics s a emen
The s udies in ol ing humans we e app o ed by e hics commi ee
o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y [M10_2024_073]. The s udies
we e conduc ed in acco dance wi h he local legisla ion and
ins i u ional equi emen s. W i en in o med consen o pa icipa ion
in his s udy was p o ided by he pa icipan s’ legal gua dians/
nex o kin.
Au ho con ibu ions
MG: Concep ualiza ion, W i ing– e iew & edi ing, W i ing–
o iginal d a , Supe ision. NI-M: Me hodology, Da a cu a ion,
Visualiza ion, In es iga ion, P ojec adminis a ion, Funding
acquisi ion, So wa e, W i ing– o iginal d a , Fo mal analysis. ILF:
Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, W i ing– e iew & edi ing. AEM:
Me hodology, So wa e, W i ing– e iew & edi ing.
Funding
The au ho (s) decla e ha inancial suppo was ecei ed o he
esea ch and/o publica ion o his a icle. This esea ch was unded by
KideOn Resea ch G oup o he Basque Go e nmen (RE .: IT1475-22).
Con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could
becons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
The au ho (s) decla ed ha hey we e an edi o ial boa d membe
o F on ie s, a he ime o submission. This had no impac on he pee
e iew p ocess and he inal decision.
Gene a i e AI s a emen
The au ho s decla e ha no Gen AI was used in he c ea ion o
his manusc ip .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he au ho s
and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may bee alua ed in his a icle, o claim
ha may bemade by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o endo sed
by he publishe .
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