Leisure time activities in adolescents predict problematic technology use

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Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s00787-023-02152-5
ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION
Leisu e ime ac i i ies inadolescen s p edic p oblema ic echnology
use
IzaskunIbabe1 · A anzazuAlbe os2 · C is inaLopez‑delBu go2
Recei ed: 31 July 2022 / Accep ed: 26 Janua y 2023 / Published online: 15 Feb ua y 2023
© The Au ho (s) 2023
Abs ac
The p oblema ic use o echnology o child en and adolescen s is becoming a g owing p oblem. Resea ch has shown ha
excessi e echnology use p edic s a a ie y o psychological and physical heal h p oblems. The aim o his s udy was o
analyze he ole o leisu e ime ac i i ies (s uc u ed and uns uc u ed) in adolescen s as a p edic o o p oblema ic echnol-
ogy use. Pa icipan s we e 7723 adolescen s, o which 55% we e gi ls, om ou Spanish-speaking coun ies (Chile, Spain,
Mexico, and Pe u) be ween he ages o 13 and 18yea s. The e alua ion ins umen applied was he YOURLIFE p ojec
sel - epo ques ionnai e. Two execu i e unc ions we e measu ed: goal se ing and inhibi o y con ol. Using s uc u al
equa ion modeling, indings indica ed ha s uc u ed leisu e ime ac i i ies p edic ed less PTU, whe eas uns uc u ed ac i i-
ies p edic ed mo e PTU, MLχ2 (69, N = 7723) = 806.60; CFI = 0.929, RMSEA = 0.042, and he model had good p edic i e
capaci y o PTU (R2 = 0.46). S uc u ed and uns uc u ed ac i i ies also showed indi ec e ec s on PTU h ough execu i e
unc ions. As adolescen s spen mo e ime in uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies, poo e goal se ing, inhibi o y con ol skills,
and mo e PTU we e ound. The opposi e was ue o s uc u ed leisu e ime ac i i ies. Implica ions o s uc u ed leisu e
ac i i ies o de elop execu i e unc ioning and o p e en PTU o adolescen s a e discussed.
Keywo ds P oblema ic echnology use· Execu i e unc ions· Leisu e ac i i ies· Uns uc u ed leisu e· Inhibi o y con ol·
Goal se ing· Adolescen s
In oduc ion
Technology has eme ged in young people's li es in a apid
and p og essi e manne in bo h basic communica i e and
ec ea ional-exp essi e oles. Some adolescen s and young
adul s ha e di icul ies in egula ing echnology use. P ob-
lema ic echnology use (PTU) is cha ac e ized by maladap-
i e beha io s, wi hou eaching le els o addic ion [1],
and en ails nega i e consequences a a physical, emo ional,
social and unc ional le els [2].
A ecen s udy conduc ed wi h young people showed h ee
di e en g oups o con lic ega ding mobile phone use and inap-
p op ia e emo ional and communica ion pa e ns [3]: a i s g oup
(65.9%), cha ac e ized by low le els o con lic ela ed o mobile
phone abuse and low le els o communica i e and emo ional use
( e e ed o as non-p oblema ic use); a second g oup (25.8%),
wi h mode a e le els o con lic ela ed o mobile phone abuse
and communica i e and emo ional use ( e e ed o as mode a e
p oblema ic use); and a hi d g oup (8.3%), wi h high le els in
bo h ac o s. The nega i e consequences o young people who
use de ices, acco ding o an analysis o da a om 23,860 Span-
ish households, a e highe isk o men al heal h p oblems, sig-
ni ican ly educed sleep hou s and g ea e likelihood o su e ing
om physical heal h p oblems such as obesi y [4].
Execu i e unc ions: goal se ing
andinhibi o y con ol
A a iable ha may be undamen al in he de elopmen o PTU
is execu i e unc ions (EFs). EFs a e all he skills ha enable
people o ha e goals and o achie e hem h ough planning and
* Izaskun Ibabe
[email p o ec ed]
A anzazu Albe os
aalbe os@una .es
C is ina Lopez-del Bu go
cldelbu go@una .es
1 Depa men o Clinical andHeal h Psychology andResea ch
Me hodology, Uni e si y College o Psychology, Uni e si y
o  heBasque Coun y UPV/EHU, A da. Tolosa 70,
20018Donos ia-SanSebas ián, Spain
2 Uni e si y o Na a a, Pamplona, Spain
280 Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
1 3
he con ol o hough s, emo ions and beha io s ha in e e e
wi h hei achie emen [5]. In gene al, EFs play an impo an
ole in adolescen de elopmen [6] and in childhood p edic
impo an li e ou comes [7], such as academic and pe sonal
de elopmen . Goal se ing and inhibi o y con ol a e wo impo -
an componen s o EFs. Goal se ing implies o ganizing a se ies
o s eps o a plan owa d goal achie emen [8], while inhibi o y
con ol is he abili y o inhibi goal-i ele an s imuli and c ea e
esponses using a en ion and easoning [9].
The e is e idence on he ela ionship be ween goal se ing
and he p omo ion o au onomy suppo in physical educa ion
lessons, p oducing posi i e e ec s on leisu e- ime physical
ac i i y- ela ed cogni ion [10]. Acco ding o Picha do e al.
[11], emo ional con ol is one he a iables wi h he mos di ec
e ec s on PTU. Some s udies ound ha low le els o emo ional
egula ion o impulsi e beha io s we e ela ed o PTU [12],
o o in ensi e mobile phone use [13, 14]. Simila ly, a ecen
s udy based on 3831 school-going adolescen s aged 13–18yea s
showed ha inhibi o y con ol as well as goal se ing in e sely
p edic ed PTU [15].
Inhibi o y con ol is a he co e o he emo ional egula o y
p ocess, and his skill de elops meaning ully du ing he p e-
school s age [16]. Sel - egula ion has ecei ed massi e a en ion
in he las yea s as a key p edic o o a a ie y o ou comes [17].
I was ound ha childhood sel - egula ion is associa ed wi h
mo e educa ional success, physical long- e m heal h and ewe
c iminal o ence ou comes [18]. Al hough many s udies ha e
es ablished a ela ionship be ween he p esence o a de ici in
inhibi o y con ol and PTU, mos o hem e e exclusi ely o
addic ion o online gaming (see he sys ema ic e iew o B o-
ons [19]). In e ms o communica ion, adolescen s wi h low
sel -con ol a e mo e likely o eply immedia ely o no i ica ions
hey ecei e because hey desi e immedia e g a i ica ion and
o en ail o ecognize nega i e consequences [20]. I seems ha
loss o con ol is a undamen al an eceden ac o in unde s and-
ing PTU [21] o dys unc ional sma phone use [22].
S uc u ed anduns uc u ed leisu e ime
ac i i ies
S uc u ed leisu e ime is de ined as any ime ou side o o -
mal schooling spen in ac i i ies o ganized and supe ised by
adul s [7]. These ac i i ies ha e a challenging componen and
equi e concen a ion [23], p o ide pe sonal well-being [24],
and p o ec agains beha io p oblems [25]. They also help
o exe cise sel -con ol, and p omo e posi i e psychological
adjus men [26]. As u o and Ruck [27] ound signi ican ela-
ionships be ween a is ic ac i i ies, spo s, and he numbe o
hou s young people will in es in ex acu icula ac i i ies and
EFs in childhood. These au ho s no ed ha he di ec ionali y
o links be ween child en’s engagemen in play and execu i e
unc ion should be examined in u u e s udies. Speci ically, i
could be explo ed whe he s uc u ed leisu e ime ac i i y in
adolescence imp o es execu i e unc ions and p e en s PTU.
In some p e ious s udies, signi ican associa ions be ween
engagemen in s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies and academic pe -
o mance ha e been ound [28], bu o he s udies sugges ha
pa icipa ion in s uc u ed ac i i ies p edic s poo e sel -di ec ed
execu i e unc ions [7]. A p e ious s udy conduc ed by Albe -
os and Ibabe [15] based on adolescen s om ou Spanish-
speaking coun ies ound ha wo ypes o s uc u ed leisu e
ac i i ies in pa icula ( amily ac i i ies and ec ea ional ead-
ing) we e in e se p edic o s o PTU. In u n, i was ound ha
he pa icipa ion in s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies was associa ed
wi h he exis ence o amily sc een ime ules [29].
Uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies a e cha ac e ized by being
adul -unsupe ised, lacking skill-building aims, aking place
in public spaces and ha ing a socializing cha ac e [30]. P e-
ious s udies in you h cen e s ha e e ealed ha young peo-
ple’s pa icipa ion in uns uc u ed ac i i ies was ela ed o poo
adolescen adjus men and delinquency [31, 32]. To da e, some
uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies (spending ime in you h enues,
leisu e cen e s o nigh clubs) ha e been associa ed wi h PTU
[15].
Al hough he li e a u e is sugges i e o ac o s ha may con-
ibu e o PTU, he e a e no p e ious simila s udies analyzing
di e en s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies. Some p e ious s udies
ela ed s uc u ed leisu e ac i i y o goal se ing ocused on
only one ac i i y, such as physical educa ion [10, 33]. Thus,
he p ima y aim o he p esen s udy was o ill his gap in he
li e a u e.
Objec i es andhypo heses
The i s objec i e o he s udy was o analyze p oblema ic ech-
nology use and leisu e ime ac i i ies (s uc u ed and uns uc-
u ed leisu e) o adolescen s o signi ican di e ences among
ou Spanish-speaking coun ies o o igin (Chile, Spain, Mex-
ico, Pe u), con olling o age and gende o adolescen s. Rel-
e an di e ences in PTU be ween coun ies we e no expec ed,
because he esul s o p e ious s udies ha e no shown such
a ia ion [15].
The second objec i e was o in es iga e he explana o y
ac o s o PTU, examining a iables associa ed wi h leisu e
ime ac i i ies and execu i e unc ions. A p edic i e model o
PTU based on s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies, uns uc u ed leisu e
ac i i ies, inhibi o y con ol and goal se ing was explo ed,
using s uc u al equa ion models (SEM). Al hough a ecen
s udy [15] sugges ed possible ela ionships be ween PTU and
leisu e ac i i ies, he dynamic ela ionships o s uc u ed and
uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies wi h execu i e unc ions a e ye
o be disco e ed. Th ee hypo heses we e posi ed in ela ion o
his objec i e:
281Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
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(a) A highe le el o uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies was
expec ed o be associa ed wi h mo e PTU, aking in o accoun
he esul s o a simila s udy [15] and nume ous o he s udies
which ha e ound ha uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies could be a
isk ac o o alcohol and subs ance use [32] o o delinquen
beha io in gene al [31].
(b) The amoun o ime adolescen s spen in s uc u ed ac i -
i ies would ela e o hei execu i e unc ions such as goal se -
ing, because in p e ious s udies, physical educa ion imp o e-
men was ela ed o goal se ing [10, 33].
(c) Inhibi o y con ol would be associa ed wi h a lowe
le el o PTU. De ici s in emo ional con ol ha e been linked o
PTU [11, 12] as well as o in ensi e mobile phone use [13, 14].
Mo eo e , i is known ha sel - egula ion has been ound o be
a p edic o o adap i e de elopmen ac oss many domains [18].
Me hod
Pa icipan s
Sample selec ion was ca ied ou using he con enience sam-
pling me hod. The sample consis ed o 7723 in-school ado-
lescen s be ween he ages o 13 and 18yea s a he ime o
ec ui men (Median = 15, SD = 1.48), o which 55% we e gi ls,
om ou coun ies (Chile = 15%, Spain = 24%, Mexico = 29%,
Pe u = 32%). Pa icipan s we e om mixed schools (50%) and
single-sex schools (50%). Rega ding hei academic pe o -
mance, 42% o pa icipan s had ob ained good g ades, 42% had
passed all subjec s, and 16% had ailed one o mo e subjec s.
O e 98% li ed in an u ban a ea while 2% li ed in a u al a ea.
Socio-economic le els may be qui e high because he pe cen -
age o pa en s (a leas one o he wo pa en s) wi h uni e si y
s udies was high (Chile 39%, Spain 81%, Mexico 74%, and Pe u
69%).
Ins umen and a iables
The e alua ion ins umen used was he YOURLIFE p ojec
sel - epo ques ionnai e [34], wi h h ee di e en e sions
depending on age (13, 15 and 17yea s). This ins umen has
been used in se e al na ional and in e na ional su eys ca ied
ou among adolescen s and based on o he ques ionnai es [35]
(see Appendix).
Socio‑demog aphic a iables
In o ma ion conce ning he socio-demog aphic da a o he
pa icipan s was collec ed, among hem sex, age, coun y o
esidence, o pa en s’ educa ional le el.
P oblema ic echnology use
This was assessed on he basis o ou ques ions ha included
ime spen using mobile de ices, in e ac ing wi h pee s h ough
social ne wo ks, w i ing emails, cha s o wee s, and ea ing
while looking a one’s sma phone (e.g., I spend my ime dis-
ac edly, looking a my sma phone, able o compu e , e en
when I could be doing mo e p oduc i e hings). The esponse
o ma was a Like - ype scale om 0 (S ongly disag ee) o
4 (Comple ely ag ee). P incipal componen analysis was pe -
o med on ou i ems, one ac o based on he s anda d eigen-
alues > 1 c i e ion was ound, explaining 51% o he o al
a iance. The in e nal consis ency o his scale (α = 0.68) was
accep able.
S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies
The equency o s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies ( olun ee , a is ic,
spo s and amily ac i i ies) du ing he las yea was measu ed.
The esponse o ma had i e esponse op ions (Ne e ; Less
han 1day a mon h; 1–3days a mon h; 1–2days a week; and 3
o mo e days a week).
Uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies
The equency o uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies (in public
spaces, leisu e cen e s, and you h enues o nigh clubs) du ing
he las yea was measu ed based on ou ques ions, wi h he
same esponse o ma as o s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies.
Inhibi o y con ol
This execu i e unc ion was measu ed on he basis o esponses
o one s a emen (I do hings wi hou hinking abou hem) wi h
i e op ions (Ne e ; Almos ne e ; Some imes; Almos always;
Always). In o de o measu e inhibi o y con ol, an in e se i em
was used and sco es we e in e sed.
Goal se ing
Two execu i e unc ions (planning, and achie emen o
goals) we e measu ed on he basis o esponses o wo
s a emen s (I plan he hings I do; I usually inish wha I
s a ) wi h i e op ions (Ne e ; Almos ne e ; Some imes;
Almos always; Always). P incipal componen analysis
was pe o med on wo i ems; one ac o based had eigen-
alues > 1, which explained 69% o he o al a iance.
The in e nal consis ency o his ins umen (α = 0.55) was
weak.
282 Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
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P ocedu e
Educa ional cen e s om ou coun ies we e in i ed o ake pa
by email which p o ided he link o he websi e designed o
o e de ailed in o ma ion o he pa icipan s (h p:// www. p oye
c oyo u li e. com/). Schools ag eeing o pa icipa e in he p ojec
ecei ed a p o ocol wi h ins uc ions on he su ey p ocess, and
on he speci ied da e, each school adminis e ed he ques ion-
nai e in pe son du ing school ime. The gene al design o he
s udy was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y
o Na a a, and each new pa icipan school was asked o ollow
he p ojec ’s speci ic e hical guidelines. The espec i e e hics
commi ee o each pa icipa ing coun y had access o he ques-
ionnai e p io o applica ion.
The a ionale o he s udy was explained e bally o he
s uden s in all schools in ol ed in he s udy. Mo eo e , pa ici-
pan s ecei ed w i en in o ma ion de ailing he objec i es o
he p ojec as well as hei igh s. The amewo k ques ionnai e
was adminis e ed a e pa en al pe mission o his esea ch
was ecei ed. A sel -adminis e ed anonymous ques ionnai e
was adminis e ed. No incen i e o pa icipa ion was o e ed,
bu each school was sen a epo wi h he o e all esul s o hei
cen e , and he implemen a ion o speci ic educa ional p og ams
was encou aged o p e en he p oblems de ec ed in he s udy.
The da a o he p esen s udy we e collec ed be o e he COVID-
19 pandemic, and he de ailed da a collec ion p ocedu e can be
ound in a p e ious publica ion [34].
Da a analysis
The p e alence a e o PTU was calcula ed on he basis o pa ic-
ipan s sco ing 4 (To ally ag ee) on any o he ou ques ionnai e
i ems. S a is ical con ol o po en ial con ounding a iables was
applied ac oss he whole se o ANCOVA analyses, including
as co a ia es adolescen age and adolescen gende . Fi s , one-
way ANCOVA wi h Coun y o o igin (Spain, Chile, Mexico,
Pe u) was conduc ed o PTU. Then, a mixed model ANCOVA
4 (Coun y o o igin) × 4 (S uc u ed leisu e: olun ee , a is-
ic, spo s, amily) was conduc ed, wi h S uc u ed leisu e as a
epea ed measu es ac o . A simila mixed model was execu ed,
wi h Uns uc u ed leisu e (public spaces, nigh clubs, leisu e cen -
e s, you h enues) as a epea ed measu es ac o . In hese analy-
ses he G eenhouse–Geisse deg ees o eedom co ec ion was
applied when necessa y. As an index o e ec size, he pa ial
e a-squa ed s a is ic was used (small e ec η2 = 0.01; medium
e ec η2 = 0.06; la ge e ec η2 = 0.14) [36]. Fo he pos e io
con as analysis, he Bon e oni co ec ion me hod was used
o con ol he ype I e o a e, wi h α < 0.05. The co ela ion
ma ix be ween PTU and he s udy a iables (inhibi o y con ol,
planning goals and leisu e ac i i ies) was conduc ed. These da a
analyses we e pe o med using IBM SPSS S a is ics 27.
Robus s a is ics a e mo e app op ia e when he da a a e no
mul i a ia e no mal (Ma dia’s no malized coe icien exceeded
23.76). Goodness-o - i o he model was assessed wi h he no -
mal heo y maximum-likelihood (ML). A numbe o i indices
we e calcula ed, including: (a) he o e all χ2, (b) Sa o a and
Ben le [37] (1994), obus maximum-likelihood (S–B), (c)
he compa a i e i index (CFI), (d) he Sa o a–Ben le obus
compa a i e i index (RCFI), (e) he oo mean squa e e o o
app oxima ion (RMSEA). The mos commonly used c i e ion
o an accep able i is CFI ≥ 0.90, and RMSEA ≤ 0.06 [38]. A
con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA) assessed he adequacy o he
hypo hesized measu emen model and he associa ions among
he la en a iables: P oblema ic echnology use (indica o s: ou
i ems), Goal se ing (indica o s: planning and achie emen o
goals), S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies (indica o s: olun ee , spo s,
amily), and Uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies (indica o s: public
spaces, shopping cen e s, you h enues, and nigh clubs). The
a is ic ac i i ies indica o was dele ed o S uc u ed leisu e
ac i i ies because he ac o loading was smalle han 0.32 in
an ini ial CFA. Inhibi o y con ol was included as an obse ed
a iable.
In he s uc u al model, S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies, Uns uc-
u ed leisu e ac i i ies we e p edic o s o PTU. Mo eo e , S uc-
u ed and Uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies p edic ed Goal se ing
and Inhibi o y con ol, which se ed as he in e ening a iables
in he ela ionship be ween leisu e ac i i ies and PTU. Signi i-
can co ela ions we e allowed among he Uns uc u ed and
S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies. The es ima ion o indi ec e ec s
was accomplished using a SEM model. These analyses we e
pe o med using he EQS 6.2 S uc u al Equa ion P og am.
Resul s
PTU andleisu e ac i i ies asa unc ion o coun y
PTU p e alence was 22% (boys 19%; gi ls 24%), χ2 = 32.81,
p < 0.001, = 0.06. ANCOVA analysis o PTU showed main
e ec s o Coun y F(3, 6821) = 23.50, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.01.
Acco ding pos hoc analysis, Spanish pa icipan s (M = 1.38)
showed less PTU han he o he pa icipan s (Pe u ian M = 1.51;
Chilean M = 1.53; Mexican M = 1.59).
The second ANCOVA indica ed ha S uc u ed leisu e, F(3,
20,508) = 209.85, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.030, and Coun y o o igin,
F(3, 6871) = 38.22, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.016, we e signi ican .
Mo eo e , he in e ac ion was signi ican , F(9, 20,508) = 21.24,
p < 0.001, η2 = 0.009. Bon e oni pos hoc analysis o he in e ac-
ion indica ed ha Mexican (M = 2.92) and Spanish (M = 2.84)
pa icipan s had highe sco es in spo s han Chileans (M = 2.63)
o Pe u ians (M = 2.52), bu in olun ee and amily ac i i ies,
Mexican pa icipan s (M = 0.96; M = 1.93) showed sligh ly
highe sco es han he pa icipan s o o he coun ies (Chileans
M = 0.60 s. M = 1.71; Pe u ians M = 0.67 s. M = 1.77; Spanish
M = 0.73 s. M = 1.78) (p < 0.05).
283Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
1 3
In he hi d ANCOVA, esul s indica ed ha Uns uc u ed
leisu e, F(3, 20,610) = 290.94, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.041, Coun y
o o igin, F(3, 6870) = 24.80, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.011, and in e -
ac ion, F(9, 20,610) = 65.02, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.028 we e sig-
ni ican . Bon e oni pos hoc analysis o in e ac ion indica ed
ha Spanish pa icipan s p esen ed mo e ac i i ies in public
space (M = 3.03) han o he pa icipan s did (Chilean M = 2.50;
Pe u ian M = 2.45; Mexican M = 2.40). Mo eo e , Mexicans
showed mo e leisu e cen e ac i i ies (M = 1.90) and you h
enues (M = 1.94) han pa icipan s o o he coun ies (Chilean
M = 1.78 s. M = 1.63; Pe u ian M = 1.61 s. M = 1.72; Spanish
M = 1.56 s. M = 1.71) (p < 0.05).
Co ela ion ma ix amongobse ed a iables
Table1 p esen s he co ela ion ma ix be ween PTU and he
o he obse ed a iables. The mos no able esul s we e ound
in he ela ionship be ween PTU and uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i-
ies (leisu e cen e s = 0.229, p < 0.001; nigh clubs = 0.206,
p < 0.001; public space = 0.185, p < 0.001), as well as in goal
se ing (goal achie emen = −0.176, p < 0.001; planning
= −0.129, p < 0.001). A same ime, PTU was associa ed wi h
less s uc u ed leisu e (a is ic ac i i ies = −0.114, p < 0.001;
spo s = –0.088, p < 0.001).
Execu i e unc ions we e ela ed o leisu e ac i i ies. Plan-
ning was mos ly ela ed o s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies ( am-
ily ac i i ies = 0.141, p < 0.001; a is ic ac i i ies = 0.111,
p < 0.001; spo s = 0.109, p < 0.001; olun ee ing = 0.094,
p < 0.001). In he same way, goal achie emen was linked o
s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies ( amily ac i i ies = 0.159, p < 0.001;
spo s = 0.154, p < 0.001). Ne e heless, inhibi o y con ol was
associa ed in e sely wi h uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies (you h
enues = –0.140, p < 0.001; nigh clubs = –0.118, p < 0.001;
leisu e cen e s = –0.086, p < 0.001).
S uc u al equa ion modeling
In he con i ma o y ac o analysis, all ac o loadings and la en
ac o s we e signi ican (p < 0.001). Fi indices o he CFA
model which equi ed no model modi ica ion we e all accep -
able MLχ2 (68, N = 7723) = 799.13; CFI = 0.929; NNI = 0.905;
IFI = 0.929; RMSEA = 0.042 [90% CI 0.039—0.045];
S–B χ2 (68, N = 7723) = 735.09;CFI = 0.927; NNI = 0.902;
IFI = 0.927;RMSEA = 0.041 [90% CI 0.038—0.043].
The s uc u al model is p esen ed in Fig.1. This model had
good i s a is ics: MLχ2 (69, N = 7723) = 806.60, p < 0.001;
CFI = 0.929; NNFI = 0.906; IFI = 0.929; RMSEA = 0.042 [90%
CI 0.039–0.044], S–B χ2 (69, N = 7723) = 752.54, p < 0.001;
CFI = 0.927; NNFI = 0.904; IFI = 0.927; RMSEA = 0.040 [90%
CI 0.038–0.043]. Fo y-six pe cen o he a iance in PTU was
explained by he model. A di ec e ec o S uc u ed leisu e
ac i i ies (β = − 0.55, p < 0.001) and o Uns uc u ed leisu e
ac i i ies (β = 0.75, p < 0.001) on PTU was ound. S uc u ed
ac i i ies was a p o ec i e ac o , whileUns uc u ed ac i i ies
was a isk ac o  o PTU. The wo ypes o leisu e we e signi i-
can ly and posi i ely associa ed ( = 0.57, p < 0.001). Mo eo e ,
S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies was a signi ican p edic o o Goal
se ing (β = 0.62, p < 0.001) and Inhibi o y con ol (β = 0.30,
p < 0.001). A he same ime, Uns uc u ed leisu e in e sely p e-
dic ed Goal se ing (β = –0.31, p < 0.001) and Inhibi o y con ol
(β = –0.37, p < 0.001).
Mo eo e , we also examined indi ec e ec s media ed
h ough he in e media e a iables ela ed o Goal se ing and
Inhibi o y con ol. S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies had signi ican
Table 1 Co ela ion ma ix be ween PTU and he s udy a iables
**: p < 0.01; *: p < 0.05
a You h clubs and/o iends' houses
Va iables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. PTU –
2. Inhibi o y con ol –0.243** –
Goal se ing
3. Planning –0.129** 0.072** –
4. Goal achie emen –0.176** 0.072** 0.388** –
S uc u ed leisu e
5. Spo –0.088** 0.037** 0.109** 0.154** –
6. Volun ee ing –0.035** 0.017 0.094** 0.084** 0.163** –
7. A is ic ac i i ies –0.114** 0.039** 0.111** 0.068** 0.115** 0.261** –
8. Family ac i i ies –0.056** 0.042** 0.141** 0.159** 0.282** 0.157** 0.169** –
Uns uc u ed leisu e
9. Public spaces 0.185** –0.056** 0.041** 0.050** 0.283** 0.103** 0.085** 0.159** –
10. Nigh clubs 0.206** –0.118** 0.015 0.014 0.112** 0.194** 0.023 0.043** 0.153** –
11. Leisu e cen e s 0.229** –0.086** 0.020 0.011 0.177** 0.100** 0.082** 0.198** 0.279** 0.236** –
12. You h enuesa0.083** –0.140** 0.016 0.001 0.150** 0.147** 0.036** 0.116** 0.255** 0.348** 0.321**

284 Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
1 3
nega i e indi ec e ec s on PTU media ed h ough Goal se ing
and Inhibi o y con ol (β = –0.072; p < 0.01), while Uns uc-
u ed leisu e ac i i ies had indi ec e ec s media ed h ough
Goal se ing and Inhibi o y con ol (β = 0.076; p < 0.01).
Discussion
Nowadays, child en and adolescen s li e in an en i onmen
sa u a ed wi h sc een-based echnology [39]. I is known ha
eenage s a e a pa icula ly ulne able popula ion due o he
psychological impac o p olonged use o digi al echnologies.
Ou indings ep esen he i s demons a ion ha ime spen in
a b oad ange o s uc u ed ac i i ies ou side o o mal school-
ing p edic s mo e goal se ing, inhibi o y con ol compe ences
and less PTU, while mo e ime spen in uns uc u ed ac i i ies
p edic s poo e execu i e unc ions.
This s udy was based on a b oad sample om ou Span-
ish-speaking coun ies, and one objec i e was o analyze PTU
and leisu e ac i i ies by coun y o esidence, con olling o
age and gende o adolescen s. No ele an di e ences we e
ound ega ding PTU and leisu e ac i i ies be ween coun ies
(η2 < 0.017), bu he in e ac ion be ween coun y and uns uc-
u ed leisu e ac i i ies was sligh ly highe (η2 < 0.028). Spanish
adolescen s showed mo e ac i i ies in public spaces han adoles-
cen s om o he coun ies, while Mexican adolescen s p esen ed
mo e leisu e cen e ac i i ies and you h enues.
The second objec i e was o show a p edic i e model o
PTU in adolescen s based on leisu e ac i i ies, goal se ing and
inhibi o y con ol. As hypo hesized, a highe le el o uns uc-
u ed leisu e ac i i ies was associa ed wi h PTU, aking in o
accoun he esul s o a simila s udy [15]. The co ela ion
ma ix and SEM model suppo ed his hypo hesis, explaining
46% o he a iance in PTU. Caldwell and Smi h [31] summa-
ized esea ch ela ing o leisu e and c ime among adolescen s
in ou pe spec i es, wi h one o hese pe spec i es ocusing on
ac i i y s uc u e. The pe spec i e o ac i i y s uc u e a gues
ha ime spen in unsupe ised ac i i ies is likely o de elop
de iance, while ime spen in supe ised ac i i ies p o ec s
agains i .
The esul s o he p esen s udy a e in acco dance wi h his
pe spec i e because he s uc u ed leisu e ime ac i i ies ac o
was shown o be a p o ec i e ac o agains PTU wi h di ec
and indi ec e ec h ough EFs. In gene al, s uc u ed leisu e
ac i i y pe o mance p o ec s agains isky beha io s [25]. As
was expec ed, s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies we e associa ed wi h
highe le el o goal se ing compe ences acco ding o SEM
model. To ou knowledge, he e a e no p e ious simila s udies
analyzing di e en s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies, because p e ious
s udies ela ing s uc u ed leisu e ac i i y o goal se ing ha e
ocused on only one ac i i y, such as physical educa ion [10,
33]. Mo eo e , in he p esen s udy, he ela ionships be ween
wo ypes o execu i e unc ions and PTU ha e been deepened.
Indi ec e ec s o s uc u ed ac i i ies on PTU we e ound, wi h
he execu i e unc ions being media ional a iables. An in e se
ela ionship be ween goal se ing and PTU was epo ed.
The hypo hesis ha inhibi o y con ol would be associa ed
wi h less PTU was con i med. In p e ious s udies, PTU has been
Fig. 1 S uc u al model p edic ing PTU based on 7723 pa icipan s om a communi y popula ion. All es ima ed pa ame e s a e s anda dized.
All ac o loadings, co ela ion and eg ession coe icien s a e signi ican a p < 0.001 excep ªp < 0.01
285Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
1 3
ela ed o inhibi o y con ol [15, 22, 40], impulsi e beha io s,
lack o concen a ion, and de ici s in emo ional con ol [13, 14].
These esul s a e in line wi h a la ge body o e idence suppo -
ing ha impulsi i y- ela ed ai s show associa ions wi h alco-
hol use ou comes in adolescence [41]. In gene al, di icul ies in
con olling impulses, pe o ming goal-di ec ed beha io s, and
limi ed access o emo ion egula ion s a egies could be isk ac-
o s o PTU [42]. Ho execu i e unc ions e e o sel -con ol,
used when emo ions a e p esen , while cold execu i e unc ions
a e skills used when emo ions a e no s ongly p esen [43]. In
adolescence, i may be ha ho and cold execu i e unc ions
de elop une enly and ha ho EFs ollow a di e en , pe haps
slowe , de elopmen al p ocess han cold EFs. This could explain
disc epancies be ween adolescen s' heo e ical unde s anding o
he possible nega i e consequences o hei beha io and hei
eal-li e choices in emo ionally cha ged si ua ions, such as pee
p essu e [6].
The main limi a ion o his s udy is associa ed wi h
he c oss-sec ional design; his means ha i is no possi-
ble o es ablish he di ec ion o causali y be ween leisu e
ime ac i i ies, execu i e unc ions and PTU. Rega dless
o he esul s ob ained om he SEM model, i is c ucial
o emphasize ha accu a e p edic ions canno be gua an-
eed by c oss-sec ional s udy [44]. PTU (dependen a i-
able) would ha e o occu a e s uc u ed o uns uc u ed
leisu e ac i i ies (independen a iables), and his mus be
ensu ed in he p edic ion model. The bes esea ch designs
o es he medi a ional e ec s o execu i e unc ions in he
ela ionship be ween leisu e ime ac i i ies and PTU would
be longi udinal o expe imen al designs. Ano he limi a ion
o he p esen s udy ela es o he assessmen o PTU and
execu i e unc ion measu es, which should i comple ely
wi h heo e ical unde s anding. Goal se ing compe ence
included wo execu i e unc ions (planning, and achie e-
men o goals). Howe e , goal se ing is one o he mos e-
quen ly used componen s o beha io al in e en ions aimed
a heal h beha io change [45]. Fu he mo e, i is neces-
sa y o indica e ha PTU and execu i e unc ions should be
measu ed wi h alida ed ins umen s wi h e idence o hei
psychome ic p ope ies.
The in e nal consis ency coe icien s do no each he
desi ed le el (α ≥ 0.70), bu he use o hese measu es was
jus i ied. The insu icien le el o he in e nal consis ency
coe icien o goal se ing migh be due o he small numbe
o scale i ems ( wo i ems). Acco ding o Dall'Oglio e al.
[46], a C onbach α o 0.50 can be legi ima e and accep able
wi h a sho scale (i.e., ew i ems).Pa icipan s may unde -
epo he se e i y o equency o beha io associa ed wi h
PTU due o a social desi abili y bias. Mo eo e , i seems
ha he socio-economic le el o pa icipan s was qui e high,
aking in o accoun pa en al educa ion. This means ha he
esul s o he p esen s udy a e only gene alizable o he mid-
dle o uppe classes o Spanish-speaking coun ies. A en ion
de ici hype ac i i y diso de can a ec a pe son in many
ways, wi h impeded execu i e unc ion skills. Howe e , in
he cu en s udy, i was no con olled o a po en ial con-
ounde a iable.
The ele ance o his s udy lies in he o iginali y o he
subjec ma e , he p edic i e powe o some execu i e unc-
ions and leisu e ac i i ies wi h espec o PTU, as well as
he la ge sample size. To he bes o ou knowledge, his is
he i s s udy which con ibu es o explaining PTU among
young people based on leisu e ac i i ies using SEM mod-
eling. Fu u e s udies could explo e he ex en o which ace-
o- ace pee in e ac ions and adul -led ac i i ies ha e been
eplaced by media ime.
Conclusions andp ac ical implica ions
The mo e ime adolescen s spen in s uc u ed leisu e ac i i-
ies, he be e goal se ing and inhibi o y con ol compe-
ences we e shown o be, and PTU was lowe . The oppo-
si e was ue o uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies, which we e
associa ed wi h poo e goal se ing and inhibi o y con ol
and mo e PTU. These ela ionships we e obus , bu u u e
s udies should in es iga e hem u he . Al hough his s udy
has been ca ied ou in an o iginal way, p edic ion models
esul ing om c oss-sec ional designs can be misleading
[44]. I is, he e o e, necessa y o conside in e se causa-
ion in he in e p e a ion o he esul s o he p esen s udy.
In ac , PTU could cause mo e ime spen in uns uc u ed lei-
su e ac i i ies and less ime in s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies. In
he same way, EFs (goal se ing and inhibi o y con ol) could
p opi ia e mo e ime in s uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies. Fu u e
s udies could examine he po en ial bidi ec ional ela ionship
be ween leisu e ac i i ies and PTU.
In any case, i would be in e es ing o p omo e s uc u ed
leisu e o adolescen s and a oid o con ol uns uc u ed
leisu e ac i i ies, applying amily sc een ime ules. A he
same ime, i would be desi able o speci ically ain pa en s
in he p omo ion o an adequa e balance be ween digi al
echnology use and o he daily ac i i ies, adap ing he ules
o he de elopmen s age o hei child. Young people mos
a isk o nega i e ou comes a e hose wi h a high le el o
emo ional p oblems o low sel -es eem [47]. Nowadays,
he e a e new pa e ns o socializa ion and use o ee ime
h ough echnologies, bu es ablishing heal hy sc een ime
ules aking in o accoun he age o child en seems essen ial
o p e en PTU. The e is an u gen need o de elop p e en-
ion p og ams di ec ed a child en and adolescen s o di e -
en a - isk popula ions ha should be igo ously e alua ed,
and da a should be published on he e ec i eness o hese
in e en ions [48]. In e en ions a an ea ly age would be
necessa y o suppo a heal hy adolescen ela ionship wi h
he echnologies.
286 Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
1 3
Appendix
Ques ionnai e adminis e ed in he p esen s udy
Socio-d
emog aphic da a
Sex:
Boy Gi l
Age: .…..
yea s
Uni e si y g adua
e, mo he : Yes No
Uni e si y g adua
e, a he : Yes No
P oblema ic use o echnology
Please indica e he ex en o which you
ag ee wi h he ollowing si ua ions
S ongly
disag ee
Disag ee Neu alAg ee Comple ely
Ag ee
P e e no
o answe
I spend my ime dis ac edly, looking a
my sma phone, able o compu e , e en
when I could be doing mo e p oduc i e
hings.
I spend my ime eading o answe ing e-
mails, cha s, wee s ... a all hou s, e en
in e up ing o he ac i i ies.
I o en eel uncom o able when I o ge
my cell phone o o he elec onic de ice.
While I ea , I usually ha e my mobile in
on o me.
Execu i e unc ionsNe e Almos
ne e
Some imesAlmos
always
Always P e e no o
answe
Please indica e how o en he ollowing
si ua ions apply o you li e
I do hings wi hou hinking (Inhibi o y
con ol)
Goal se ing
I plan he hings ha I do (Planning)
I usually inish wha I s a (Goal
achie emen )
287Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y (2024) 33:279–289
1 3
S uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies
In he las 12 mon hs, how o en
ha e you done he ollowing
ac i i ies?
Ne e Less han 1
day pe mon h
1-3
days pe
mon h
1-2 days pe
week
3 o mo e days
pe week
P e e no o
answe
Do spo s, go hiking, e c. (Spo )
Volun ee ing (collabo a e wi h
an NGO, cha i y associa ion,
e c.) (Volun ee ing)
Do o a end a is ic and
educa ional ac i i ies (music,
pain ing, hea e, cou ses, alks,
Sunday school, e c.) (A is ic
ac i i ies)
Do leisu e ac i i ies ou side o
home wi h you pa en s (Family
ac i i ies)
Uns uc u ed leisu e ac i i ies Ne e Less han 1
day pe mon h
1-31-2 days pe
week
3 o
mo e
P e e no
o answe
In he las 12 mon hs, how o en
ha e you done he ollowing
ac i i ies?
days pe
mon h
days pe
week
Hanging ou on he s ee , in a pa k,
on he beach o in o he public
places (Public spaces)
Spending ime in shopping cen e s,
gaming ooms, pool halls, oo ball
s adium (Leisu e spaces)
Mee ing in a place o iends only,
wi h no adul s p esen (You h
enues)
Going o discos (Nigh clubs)