Re iew
Plu al alues o na u e help o unde s and
con es ed pa hways o sus ainabili y
Ad ian Ma in,
1,
*E ik Gomez-Bagge hun,
2,3
Ma in Quaas,
4
Rica do Rozzi,
5,6
Alejand a Tau o,
5,7
Daniel P. Fai h,
8
Ri esh Kuma ,
9
Pa ick O’Fa ell,
10,11
and Unai Pascual
12,13,14
1
School o Global De elopmen , Uni e si y o Eas Anglia, No wich, UK
2
Depa men o In e na ional En i onmen and De elopmen S udies, No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences, A
˚s, No way
3
No wegian Ins i u e o Na u e Resea ch (NINA), Oslo, No way
4
Ge man Cen e o In eg a i e Biodi e si y Resea ch (iDi ), Leipzig, Ge many
5
Cape Ho n In e na ional Cen e o Global Change S udies and Biocul u al Conse a ion (CHIC), Uni e sidad de Magallanes, Pue o
Williams, Chile
6
Sub-An a c ic Biocul u al Conse a ion P og am, Depa men o Philosophy and Religion & Depa men o Biological Sciences, Uni e si y o
No h Texas, Den on, TX, USA
7
El Colegio de Puebla A.C., Puebla, Mexico
8
Cha les Pe kins Cen e, The Uni e si y o Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Aus alia
9
We lands In e na ional Sou h Asia, New Delhi, India
10
Depa men o Biodi e si y and Conse a ion Biology, Facul y o Na u al Sciences, Uni e si y o he Wes e n Cape, Cape Town, Sou h
A ica
11
Ins i u e o In eg a ed Managemen o Ma e ial Fluxes and o Resou ces, UNU-FLORES, Uni ed Na ions Uni e si y, D esden, Ge many
12
Basque Cen e o Clima e Change (BC3), Scien i ic Campus o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, Leioa, Spain
13
Ike basque Basque Founda ion o Science, Bilbao, Spain
14
Cen e o De elopmen and En i onmen , Uni e si y o Be n, Be n, Swi ze land
*Co espondence: ad ian.ma [email p o ec ed]
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.oneea .2024.04.003
SUMMARY
Despi e globally ag eed sus ainabili y goals, ad ocacy o speci ic pa hways o ac ion emains highly con-
es ed. Disag eemen abou how bes o ad ance sus ainabili y can p oduce cons uc i e deba e bu can
also lead o ma ginaliza ion, con lic , and inac ion. This e iew unco e s how di e en ‘‘ alues o na u e’’ un-
de pin allegiance o di e en pa hways o ac ion o sus ainabili y. I analyzes ou selec ed pa hways: (1)
G een Economy, (2) Na u e P o ec ion, (3) Ea h S ewa dship and Biocul u al Di e si y, and (4) Deg ow h
and Pos -G ow h. We iden i y how hese ou pa hways di e ge in he alues hey p io i ize and how hese
alues a e insepa able om he kind o knowledge and solu ions hey ad oca e o esol e en i onmen al c i-
ses. The e iew e eals he unde lying alues ha di e en ia e (and connec ) compe ing pa hways and a -
gues ha anspa ency and e lec ion on hese di e ences is a s ep owa d mo e cons uc i e use o di e -
si y. Looking o wa d, we iden i y p omising di ec ions in ol ing delibe a i e go e nance, ins i u ional
e o ms, and dis up ion o dominance.
INTRODUCTION
The ques o sus ainabili y can gi e a supe icial sense o
consensus o e he desi ed ajec o y o people and he plane .
This ag eemen disin eg a es once we look deepe in o he de-
ails o how global socie y needs o ans o m. E en ha ing
ag eed on he key ea u es o a desi ed u u e, o example based
on a se o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), he e a e s ill
mul iple and con es ed pa hways o achie ing and p io i izing
hese pa ially con lic ing goals. A pa hway o sus ainabili y is
de ined he e as a comp ehensi e s a egy o achie ing a ision,
based on a ecognizable body o sus ainabili y hinking and
p ac ice.
1
Pa hways a e some imes conside ed as ine-g ained
and sec o -speci ic s a egies and ac ions
2
and some imes as
mo e holis ic amewo ks.
3
We adop he la e concep ion,
conside ing pa hways as comp ehensi e amewo ks in ol ing
concep s, heo ies, na a i es, and alues abou he kinds o
changes ha a e needed o enhance sus ainabili y and jus ice.
Ma u e pa hways a e o en suppo ed by a body o knowledge
and a e ad oca ed by coali ions o ac o s who s a egically u i-
lize e idence and o he esou ces in he con ex o powe ela-
ions.
4,5
They p o ide a na a i e aming o he sus ainabili y
p oblem ha iden i ies p oblem causes o d i e s, make explici
no ma i e judgmen s abou esponsibili ies o he p oblem, and
p omo e a co esponding pe spec i e abou he kind o solu ions
likely o be ai and e ec i e.
6
While he p oponen s o a pa hway
migh no ag ee abou e e y speci ic in e en ion, hey a e mo e
o less uni ed, o a leas able o comp omise, in hei basic
app ecia ion o he main na a i e and i s co e alues.
Whe e he ‘‘ ac s a e unce ain, alues in dispu e, s akes
high and decisions u gen ,’’
7
i is ine i able ha p oblems such
as clima e change and biodi e si y loss will be amed in
di e en ways by obse e s who p io i ize di e en alues abou
na u e. While ad ocacy o compe ing pa hways can s imula e
cons uc i e dialogue, oo o en i esul s in he ma ginaliza ion
o al e na i es by mo e powe ul coali ions, na owing he
ll
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806 One Ea h 7, May 17, 2024 ª2024 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie Inc.
This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
po en ial o mo e adical and collabo a i e solu ions.
3,8–10
Fo
example, some schola s eel ha dominan na a i es o sus ain-
abili y p edica ed on e iciency gains and (g een) economic
g ow h, a e p omo ed o he exclusion o compe ing no ma i e
concep s such as su iciency and equi y.
11
Pa hways o sus ainabili y a e inhe en ly no ma i e because
he ways in which we know and ep esen na u e a e bound up
wi h how we belie e we should li e in i .
12
Allegiance o sus ain-
abili y pa hways e eals posi ionali ies in ol ing pa icula ways
o seeing and inhabi ing he wo ld ha a e shaped by wo ld-
iews, social lea ning, socio-economic condi ions, en i on-
men al cons ain s, sense o place, cul u al iden i y, poli ical pe -
spec i es, language, and knowledge adi ions.
13–15
While he
In e go e nmen al Science-Policy Pla o m on Biodi e si y and
Ecosys em Se ices (IPBES)
16
and o he s call o mo e e lexi i y
and openness abou such posi ionali ies, he e emains a en-
dency o hose wedded o speci ic ways o seeing and li ing
in he wo ld o ‘‘close down’’ on al e na i es.
17–19
One eason o his pe asi e closing down is ha pa hways
a e dis inguished by di e en unde lying alues and in e es s.
As p oposed in li e a u e on le e age poin s, pa hways o ans-
o ma ion equi e mul iple places o in e en ion in socie y, om
mo e supe icial sys em ‘‘pa ame e s’’ (such as wha ma ke
p ice o place on a on o ca bon) o mo e deeply held alues
and no ms ha shape he unde lying ‘‘in en ’’ o socie y (such
as why na u e ma e s and wha i means o a human o li e
well).
20–22
Mo eo e , pa hways can e lec unde lying poli ical
mo ali ies abou who is en i led o in e ene in socie y, a ying
be ween s ic ly democ a ic and dic a o ial endencies.
23
The IPBES Values Assessmen
14
ound ha ways o aluing
na u e (e.g., s ewa dship) as well as ele an ways o aluing
o he humans (e.g., in e gene a ional equi y) a e wo en in o
pa hways owa d sus ainable u u es. The p io i iza ion o pa ic-
ula belie s and alues ul ima ely shapes choices abou wha na-
u e people wan and how, including no ions abou sus ainabili y
i sel , and also, o example, ideas abou op imali y in na u al
esou ce use, s ewa dship o ecosys ems, o ca ing o na u e
o u u e gene a ions. While some undamen al alues appea
widely sha ed ac oss pa hways (such as ecognizing he needs
o u u e gene a ions), p io i iza ion o di e en ‘‘speci ic alues’’
o na u e, i.e., judgmen s ega ding he impo ance o na u e and
i s con ibu ions o people in ‘‘speci ic’’ con ex s (e.g., ins u-
men al, ela ional, o in insic alues)
16,24
s ill se es o dema -
ca e compe ing pa hways, p esen ing ela i ely unexamined
ba ie s o a sha ed agenda.
1
He e we explo e ou pa hways ha a e well-es ablished as
po en ial app oaches o esol ing cu en en i onmen al c ises.
While compa a i e e iews o al e na i e pa hways and na a-
i es ha e been p e iously unde aken,
4,5,25
we hink ha a e-
iew ha ocuses on unde pinning alues p o ides new and
use ul unde s anding. Fi s , a alues-cen e ed analysis o pa h-
ways helps o unde s and he ounda ions o pa hway plu al-
i y
26
and why suppo o pa icula pa hways s ems om o en
s ongly held no ma i e posi ions. Second, his unde s anding
could suppo ad ocacy o engaging wi h he ‘‘plu ali y u n,’’
and hus ecognizing and in eg a ing mo e di e se alues and
alua ion app oaches in decision-making.
27
Re ealing alue
plu ali y and he unde lying alues o sus ainabili y pa hways
acili a es anspa ency, mu ual unde s anding and dialogue in
suppo o building b idges ac oss hose pa hways.
28–31
Recen
e iews ha e shown ha some ways o aluing na u e
ha e become dominan , no ably ins umen al, ma ke -o ien ed
alues.
14
Such dominance helps o explain he discu si e land-
scape in which some pa hway isions gain ac ion while o he s
end o be ma ginalized, o example why a g een economic
g ow h na a i e o en domina es in e na ional- and na ional-
le el policy.
1
This is impo an because openness o mo e
di e se alues—dis up ing his o ically en enched na a i es—
is inc easingly seen as a equi emen o he kind o ans o ma-
i e change ha mos now accep is necessa y.
27
Jus as
go e nance in e en ions o sus ainabili y need o be ‘‘scaled
up’’ o igge ans o ma i e change, so oo hey need o be
‘‘scaled deep,’’
32
add essing he easons why ce ain alues
become ma ginalized in o de o ‘‘unleash alues di e si y’’ in
decision making
16,33
and dis up cu en ly dominan na a i es
o p og ess.
He e we explo e ou well-es ablished ye con es ed pa hways
o esol ing cu en en i onmen al c ises. The objec i e is o
e eal he alues ha a e mos salien o each pa hway h ough
applica ion o he ypology o na u e’s alues de eloped by
IPBES. While we ind ha some b oad alues such as ca e o
u u e people a e held in common, we also ind compelling di e -
ences in he way na u e is alued ac oss he pa hways. We a gue
ha hese indings a e impo an o unco e ing oo s o
disag eemen and o de eloping ways o wo king ha b eak
down ba ie s o ans o ma ion, including app oaches ha os-
e anspa ency abou alues and challenge exclusion o some
people’s alues.
CATEGORIZING PATHWAYS FOR BIODIVERSITY
CONSERVATION
Ou me hod in ol es a compa a i e analysis o ou coexis ing,
ye pa ially con lic ing pa hways o sus ainabili y: ‘‘na u e p o-
ec ion,’’ ‘‘g een economy,’’ ‘‘ea h s ewa dship and biocul u al
di e si y,’’ and ‘‘deg ow h and pos -g ow h.’’ These ou a e
pu pose ully selec ed o ep esen a well-es ablished ypology
o classi ying di e en app oaches o na u e conse a ion.
Mace
34
desc ibed an e olu ion o conse a ion app oaches,
om he mo e biocen ic ‘‘na u e o i sel ,’’ o he an h opocen-
ic ‘‘na u e o people,’’ o a mo e ela ional, biocul u al
app oach ha she e med ‘‘people and na u e.’’ This ypology
has endu ed as a use ul sho hand o cha ac e izing compe ing
pe spec i es on conse a ion.
14,35–37
In his pape , we ollow
Mace’s ypology bu no he e olu iona y analysis because ou
in e es is in plu alism and he ways o hink abou and espond
o he con empo a y coexis ence o di e se pa hways. We
ecognize hese as pa hways as powe ul na a i es ha shape
communi ies o conse a ion p ac ice and hei in e ac ions,
a he han as o ms o ac ually exis ing p ac ice ha appea in
pu e isola ion. As such, he bounda ies be ween pa hways a e
necessa ily blu ed; o example, a pu e ‘‘na u e o i sel ’’ posi-
ion is unlikely gi en ha mos en i onmen alis s also ca e abou
human wel a e. Simila ly, a ‘‘na u e o people’’ na a i e may
go beyond pu ely economic iews o na u e by including jus i i-
ca ion o conse a ion based on na u e’s imma e ial con ibu-
ions o well-being (e.g., men al heal h, knowledge, inspi a ion,
a s e c.).
ll
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Re iew
Ou use o his amewo k is he e o e o iden i y pa hways
ha a e mo e s ongly (bu no exclusi ely) a ac ed o one o
hese pola i ies (Figu e 1). Na u e P o ec ion lies closes o he
‘‘na u e o i sel ’’ (o na u e o na u e) posi ion, cha ac e ized
he e wi h a compa a i ely s ong emphasis on non-an h opo-
cen ic alues o na u e, in pa icula he in insic alue o
biodi e si y.
38,39
G een Economy is closes o he ‘‘na u e
o people’’ posi ion ha emphasizes he ins umen al alues
o na u e as a se o esou ces and asse s o sus ain human
well-being.
40,41
Ea h S ewa dship and Biocul u al Di e si y
ep esen s a socie y and na u e (o na u e as cul u e)
app oach ha emphasizes ela ionships be ween humans
and na u e, and how hese shape, and a e shaped by, ela-
ions among humans.
13,42
Deg ow h and Pos -G ow h is
selec ed o occupying a c oss-cu ing posi ion, ha empha-
sizes in insic, ins umen al, and ela ional alues, ad oca ing
su iciency and adhe ence o plane a y bounda ies as a basis
o sus ainabili y.
43–45
The pu pose is no o sys ema ically e-
iew he ull ange o a iance composing each pa hway, bu
o use au ho s wi h pa icula expe ise in each pa hway o
iden i y seminal ex s as well as hose who e eal emblema ic
policy p oposals in ela ion o ou selec ed ocus on biodi e -
si y conse a ion.
Ou analysis o ex s employs he IPBES amewo k’s dis inc-
ion be ween b oad and speci ic alues. B oad alues a e o e -
a ching p inciples and goals ela ing, o example, o jus ice,
de elopmen , and ca e. These can shape indi idual and social
beha io in ways ha a e no es ic ed o speci ic con ex s. By
con as , speci ic alues a e exp essed in pa icula con ex s.
Speci ic alues o na u e include ins umen al alues (na u e
as an asse o esou ce alued o i s con ibu ions o people’s
well-being), in insic alues (na u e alued in i s own igh as an
end in i sel ), and ela ional alues ( alue loca ed in human-na u e
in e ac ions such as ia sense o place and belonging, s ewa d-
ship and ecip oci y).
24
NATURE PROTECTION PATHWAY
Re e ed o elsewhe e as ‘‘ adi ional conse a ion’’
36
and ‘‘neo-
p o ec ionis conse a ion,’’
46
he na u e p o ec ion pa hway is
de ined he e by i s ejec ion o an h opocen ism, i s cen e ing
o biodi e si y as he ocus o p o ec ion, and i s posi ioning o
in insic alues o na u e as a coun e and balance o ins u-
men al and ela ional ones.
37,47
The na u e p o ec ion pa hway is unde pinned by an e olu-
iona y-ecological iew o social-en i onmen al sys ems ha
emphasizes he cen al impo ance o biological di e si y o
ecosys em unc ioning.
48
Some impo an ela ed insigh s om
conse a ion biology include he impo ance o keys one spe-
cies, including he ole o op p eda o s and g aze s in ophic
cascades,
49
he p oblems a ising om habi a agmen a ion
50
such as he accele a ed occu ence o zoonosis,
51
and ecolog-
ical ne wo ks.
52
This pe spec i e on he na u e c isis iden i ies
p o ec ion o biological di e si y h ough p o ec ed a eas as a
p ima y goal. Fo he na u e p o ec ion pa hway, a na ow ocus
on p o ec ing wha di ec ly bene i s humans (p o ec ing na u e
o socie y) will ail o p o ec wha is necessa y o ecological
unc ioning ( o example, la ge p eda o s) and will s eng hen
he an h opocen ic wo ld iew ha c ea ed he c isis in he i s
place.
53
Role o alues and alua ion o na u e
P oponen s classi y his as a bio- o eco-cen ic app oach, call-
ing o he p o ec ion o biodi e si y o i s own sake and empha -
ically ejec ing he idea ha conse a ion can be achie ed p i-
ma ily h ough appeal o he ins umen al alue o na u e,
including o sus aining economic g ow h.
38,47
This has a imes
been pi ched as opposi ion o calls om ‘‘new conse a ion’’
p oponen s
54
o p io i ize ins umen al (e.g., ecosys em se -
ices) alues o na u e.
34,55
Howe e , he cen al conce n o
biodi e si y de ies simple cha ac e iza ion as ‘‘in insic’’ alua-
ion. While elemen s o biodi e si y such as species and en i ies
such as i e s a e seen o hold in insic alue, i is ha de o say
he same abou di e si y i sel .
56
Fu he mo e, while he cen al
ocus on he in insic wo h o biodi e si y is essen ially a non-
an h opocen ic posi ion, biodi e si y is s ill concei ed as he ba-
sis o sus aining all li e on ea h, en ailing b oad alues ela ing
o he well-being o cu en and u u e humani y and o he
han-humans.
39
A en ion o na u e’s ins umen al alues is e i-
denced by he ways in which biodi e si y unde pins ecosys em
unc ioning in ways ha lead o g ea e p oduc i i y and s abili y
o na u e’s bene i s o humans, including esilience o clima e
change.
33,57,58
P o ec ing biodi e si y is hus a gued o ha e a
s abilizing e ec on ecosys em unc ioning and is hus a way o
ensu e a mo e sus ainable u u e.
59
The na u e p o ec ion pa hway emphasizes ce ain b oad
alues ega ding human in e ac ion wi h na u e bu is less
ocused on social alues han o he pa hways. Fo example,
ecological jus ice, implying he need o ca e and os e empa hy
o na u e, a e o eg ounded
60
while social jus ice ends o be
concei ed as seconda y and sepa able
61,62
despi e some ecen
calls in conse a ion science o in eg a e he wo.
63
This
Figu e 1. Sus ainabili y pa hways selec ed o e iew
Pa hways a e p esen ed in ela ion o he Na u e Fu u es F amewo k
37
(bold)
and IPBES ypology o speci ic alues o na u e
14
(i alic). A ows deno e ha
pa hway posi ions a e no absolu e bu o e lapping.
ll
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808 One Ea h 7, May 17, 2024
Re iew
p io i iza ion o human-na u e alues o e human-human (i.e.,
social) alues can be illus a ed h ough wo deba es abou
po e y and abou expanding p o ec ed a ea co e age.
The deba e abou po e y is pa ly d i en by a geog aphical
o e lap be ween biodi e si y and po e y in he opics, leading
o a shi om an ea ly eco-cen ic pe spec i e o mo e an h o-
pocen ic conse a ion.
62,63
The B und land epo cha ac e -
ized po e y as an ins umen al cons ain on conse a ion
64,65
while la e ini ia i es such as he Conse a ion Ini ia i e on Hu-
man Righ s p esen ed a mo e no ma i e case ha conse a ion
mus be p o-poo .
66,67
The linking o po e y and conse a ion
goals became embedded in conse a ion policy h ough he
2003 Wo ld Pa ks Cong ess and he subsequen Du ban
Ac ion Plan ha included a ge s o p o ec ed a eas o
educe po e y.
67
In con as , ad oca es o a na u e p o ec ion
pa hway ha e a gued ha po e y and biodi e si y migh be
bes add essed sepa a ely.
65
One a gumen o his is ha he
complexi y o ea ing po e y and conse a ion oge he
(combining alues abou how we ea na u e wi h alues abou
how we ea humans) de lec s om he p ima y e olu iona y-
ecological goal o sa ing he a ie y o li e on ea h, wi h he
isk o ecological deg ada ion wo sening po e y p oblems in
he long un.
38,48
As such, he e is skep icism abou an app oach
o conse a ion ha in eg a es ins umen al alues o na u e
such as i s use o comba po e y, and especially so whe e he
solu ion o po e y is s ongly linked o he iew ha con inuous
g ow h in ma e ial consump ion is always desi able.
48
One o he deba es abou expanding p o ec ed a ea conse a-
ion is abou he ex en o which conse a ion equi es a sepa a-
ion o humans om na u e. The ‘‘hal ea h’’ p oposal a gues
ha we need o de o e hal o he plane o na u e p o ec ion i
we a e o espec he in insic alue o na u e and sa e mos bio-
logical di e si y.
39
This diagnosis is dispu ed by hose who
emphasize he p ospec i e injus ices o massi ely expanding
an exclusiona y model o p o ec ed a eas
68
and who poin o
he iabili y o al e na i e models, such as land sha ing, coexis-
ence, and local s ewa dship, ha a e seen o o e mo e e hical
ela ionships wi h na u e.
46,69,70
Main policy p oposals
G ow h o he human popula ion and o e -consump ion a e seen
as key d i e s o ecological collapse, in u n associa ed wi h
di ec d i e s o biodi e si y loss including land use in ensi ica-
ion, habi a agmen a ion, clima e change, in asi e species,
and o e -exploi a ion. Howe e , indi ec d i e s ela ed o s uc-
u al powe ela ions (e.g., ia ade) a e ypically no o e-
g ounded in his pa hway na a i e.
71
Fo conse a ion, he key
policy esponse will hen be he sa ing o ‘‘p is ine’’ na u e
h ough expanded ne wo ks o p o ec ed a eas, in ways ha
es o e balance be ween he needs o humans and he needs
o non-human na u e.
GREEN ECONOMY PATHWAY
Failu e o ma ke o ces o cap u e he di e si y o na u e’s
alues, and no accoun ing o he economic cos s associa ed
wi h biodi e si y loss, ha e been iden i ied as majo d i e s
behind he clima e and biodi e si y c ises.
40,41,72
Many cos s
caused by biodi e si y loss a e no included in economic deci-
sion-making, gi ing ise o ex e nal e ec s— he uncompen-
sa ed cos s imposed on hi d pa ies, ha a e no cap u ed in
he accoun s o na ions o businesses. A g een economy
pa hway ocuses on ways o in eg a e he ull sui e o ins u-
men al alues o na u e in o economic decisions, wi h he o e -
a ching goal o educe en i onmen al impac while secu ing
economic g ow h in o de o imp o e human well-being and
equi y.
73
Tha is o say ha he dominan (bu no only) e sion
o his pa hway cen e s on pu suing ‘‘g een g ow h,’’ which is
cu en ly ad oca ed by mos na ion-s a es as well as majo in-
e na ional o ganiza ions such as he Wo ld Bank. I is based on
he belie ha economic g ow h and en i onmen al impac s can
be decoupled in absolu e e ms h ough echnological inno a-
ion.
74
G een economics also emphasizes he use o economic
ins umen s o p omo e his decoupling, such as en i onmen al
axes and subsidies, cap and ade mechanisms, and pay-
men s o ecosys em se ices o in e nalize ex e nali ies om
biodi e si y loss.
Role o alues and alua ion o na u e
Acco ding o s anda d economic heo y, iden i ying he socially
op imal le el o en i onmen al p o ec ion equi es ha he cos s
o p o ec ing en i onmen al goods and se ices should equal
he sum o bene i s a ising om hem.
75
The ocus is on he mul-
iple ins umen al alues ha na u e has o many people, o
example, h ough he p o ision o ecosys em se ices. The
mo al p inciple on which in e en ions a e de ended is ha
hey should b ing abou a posi i e o a leas non-nega i e
change in well-being o all humans in socie y, by enhancing
he mul iple alues hey de i e om na u e. Whe e some people
a e nega i ely impac ed by g een policies, he nega i e cos s
would be ou weighed and hus compensa ed o by he bene i s
om en i onmen al p o ec ion (p oducing a Pa e o imp o e-
men ). Dis ibu ional issues a e hus no ed ypically in a sequen-
ial way ( i s maximize ne social bene i s, hen ix nega i e
dis ibu ional e ec s).
76
One p oposal o maximize ne ins umen al bene i s by p o-
ec ing he en i onmen is o issue en i onmen al axes o sub-
sidies equal o he sum o all ne ma ginal bene i s agg ega ed
ac oss hose a ec ed by an ac i i y.
77
Fo example, a ax on
he use o pes icides equi alen o he ma ginal ne bene i s
om educing he isks o human heal h and ecosys ems.
78
Such a ax would ac as an incen i e o a me s o ake he isks
o pes icides in o accoun and o subs i u e o less isky plan
p o ec ion measu es.
78
As a consequence, he bene i s in e ms
o ecosys em and human heal h should be la ge o e all han he
cos s o changed land managemen o he a me , i.e., he ne
bene i s a e op imized. As men ioned, his o m o ma ke in e -
en ion gene a es social cos s, i.e., cos s o he go e nmen
and o pa icipan s in ma ke ansac ions. Fu he , his may
no always be he bes solu ion, especially when lose s a e no
adequa ely compensa ed.
79
Al e na i es in ol e keeping essen-
ial pa s o na u e ou side he ma ke sys em. Examples include
p o ec ed a eas o s anda ds o good a ming p ac ice such as
maximum li es ock le els pe hec a e, compulso y se -aside,
o egula ion o ha m ul pes icides, al hough such measu es
a e o en implemen ed insu icien ly.
80
Howe e , olun a y and
ma ke -based in e en ions end o be p e e ed in he g een
economy pa hway.
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Social equi y (a b oad alue) ea u es in g een economy con-
cep s o h ee key easons. Fi s , he alue o na u e’s con ibu-
ions o indi iduals depends on hei income and weal h, mean-
ing ha he agg ega e economic alues o na u e depend on he
dis ibu ion o income and weal h in socie y.
81–84
Fo ins ance, i
has been es ima ed ha he global economic alue o biodi e -
si y would be 16% highe i income was pe ec ly e enly dis ib-
u ed.
81
Second, a co e conce n o he g een economy is he abil-
i y o mee he basic needs o all, wi hou unde mining ecological
li e-suppo sys ems. Cu en ly, some high-income coun ies
sa is y basic needs, bu o e shoo ecological limi s, whe eas
some low-income coun ies ope a e wi hin ecological limi s,
bu ail o p o ide people’s basic needs.
41,85
The G een Econ-
omy pa hway calls o in e na ional coope a ion, especially
h ough echnological ans e s and ade ag eemen s, o mee
bo h basic needs and ecological sus ainabili y a he global
le el.
86
Thi d, exploi ing na u al esou ces gene a es cu en
economic bene i s, bu o en diminishes ins umen al alues o
na u e o u u e gene a ions. Compa ing cos s and bene i s
ac oss ime in ol es ‘‘discoun ing’’ u u e alues, a p ocedu e
equi ed because, o se e al easons, a dolla ecei ed in 100
yea s is alued less han a dolla oday. The highe he discoun
a e applied, he highe u u e ne bene i s ha e o be o wa an
cu en in es men o p o ec hem.
40
In a g een economy, dis-
coun a es applied o u u e bene i s om na u e should be sub-
s an ially lowe han a es o p i a e consump ion goods, o
ensu e he e is an economic case o na u e p o ec ion.
41,82,87–89
Main policy p oposals
To achie e he ansi ion owa d a sus ainable u u e, some
o ms o ma e ial esou ce use ha e o be educed whe e insu -
icien p og ess has been achie ed o decouple hem om
embedded ene gy use, biodi e si y loss, and o he ways o
exceeding plane a y bounda ies. A he same ime, non-ma e ial
goods and se ices (e.g., na u e-based ec ea ion and educa-
ion) can con inue o g ow and inc ease p ospe i y.
90
Economic
ools ha hold po en ial o ans o ma ion owa d a g een econ-
omy include na ional accoun ing sys ems; ecological ax and
subsidy e o ms; p omo ing en i onmen ally iendly echnolo-
gies,
91
and economic ins umen s like adable pe mi s o
esou ce use and pollu ion, liabili y law, o olun a y incen i e
schemes such as paymen s o ecosys em se ices (PES).
92
Such economic ins umen s can gi e isibili y o unde - ecog-
nized alues and cos s, c ea ing incen i es o p o-en i on-
men al beha io . Fo example, he ax on plas ic bags in I eland,
accompanied by a sensi iza ion campaign on he en i onmen al
ha m o plas ic, esul ed in a massi e d op in hei use. Howe e ,
hese ins umen s a e no a panacea,
93
and he e a e also cases
whe e inapp op ia ely designed incen i es ha e led o he
e osion o non-economic mo i a ions o en i onmen al ca e.
94
Measu ing economic de elopmen in a g een economy e-
qui es a e o m o na ional accoun ing schemes, because
cu en measu es o g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP), do no
adequa ely include alues o na u e and hei connec ion o hu-
man well-being.
41,95
As a esponse, mos s a es commi ed o
in eg a e na u al capi al in o na ional accoun s by 2020, and
new in e na ional guidelines o accoun ing inclusi e weal h a e
on he way. Howe e , his has no ye been accomplished in
mos coun ies.
96
In p ac ice, unaccoun ed cos s a e o en
shi ed owa d u u e gene a ions,
40,97
which is becoming a
undamen al ba ie o achie ing sus ainable and jus u u es.
To o e come hese issues, inclusi e weal h accoun ing has
been p oposed,
98,99
measu ing he social wo h o all na u al
and human-made asse s in e ms o hei con ibu ions o human
wel a e.
41
By and la ge, go e nmen s and in e go e nmen al o ganiza-
ions like he OECD o Wo ld Bank ha e p io i ized economic
g ow h as he p ima y mechanism o li people ou o po e y.
Pas economic g ow h, howe e , has been accompanied by an
unsus ainable exploi a ion o na u al esou ces and ecosys em
deg ada ion.
100–103
The ansi ion o a g een economy emains
an eno mous challenge and he po en ial o ‘‘g een g ow h’’ is
dispu ed.
EARTH STEWARDSHIP AND BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY
PATHWAY
Ea h s ewa dship e e s o esponsible use and p o ec ion o he
land h ough sus ainable p ac ices,
42
as well as alues and con-
cep s ha guide local ini ia i es o biocul u al conse a ion.
13
I
can be conside ed o be a biocul u al p ac ice because i ope -
a es a he in e ace o biophysical and cul u al domains and
hus p io i izes ela ional alues ha encompass spi i ual,
aes he ic, economic, and communi a ian alues g ounded on
biocul u al di e si y.
104,105
Human languages, cul u es, and local
en i onmen s a e conside ed as co-cons i u i e, leading, o
example, o a spa ial co ela ion be ween biological and linguis-
ic di e si y.
106,107
Ea h s ewa dship is dis inguished by i s
emphasis on mul iple social and en i onmen al alues associ-
a ed wi h a ple ho a o ancien and cu en wo ld iews and cul-
u es, hei a achmen s o local e i o ies, and hei eligious
and philosophical adi ions.
108
Exe cising ea h s ewa dship in-
ol es enabling he exp ession o hese exis ing ways o knowing
and li ing wi h na u e,
109,110
as well as in eg a ing adi ional
and scien i ic ecological knowledge o biocul u al conse -
a ion.
105,111,112
Role o alues and alua ion o na u e
An ea h s ewa dship pa hway na a i e p io i izes biocul u al di-
e si y based on he co e b oad alues o esponsibili y and ca e
o bo h human and non-human na u e
22
o en ela ed o a mo e
di e se se o ela ed alues such as e e ence, espec , equi y,
solida i y, and collabo a ion.
113–116
These alues a e ansla ed
in o di e se p ac ices by ac o s in ol ed in ac i i ies such as
pa icipa o y conse a ion, al e na i e educa ion, ag oecology,
and cus odianship o biocul u al igh s. Ac oss hese p ac ices
is a social and en i onmen al jus ice agenda o p e en de elop-
men ac i i ies ha cons i u e o ms o agg essions agains local
cul u es and en i onmen s. Loss o biocul u al di e si y con-
nec ed o land s ewa dship p ac ices has a long his o y and
has ecen ly been d i en by global p ocesses o enclosu e and
accumula ion o land p ope y (including land-g abbing) ha
displace Indigenous and peasan communi ies om hei e i-
o ies.
117,118
Fo example, he con empo a y concen a ion o
ood p oduc ion by a ew co po a ions is iden i ied as a d i e
ha supplan s he alues and li e-habi s o local communi ies,
exace ba ing hei dependence and unde mining
hei li elihood.
119,120
These p ocesses a e d i ing biocul u al
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homogeniza ion.
121,122
The need o p o ec and es o e he di-
e si y o biocul u al alues equi es p ac ices ha p omo e dia-
logue and esu gence o Indigenous and local knowledge
(ILK).
123
Resu gence o ILK is o en insepa able om land,
dependen on edis ibu ing powe o e e se he loss o local
con ol o e e i o ies. The e a e cases o local esis ance o dia-
logue due o ea o cul u al assimila ion, o due o limi a ions o
genuine ep esen a ion o di e en cul u al alues and habi s.
Fo his eason, he need o ecogni ion, us , and espec in
condi ions o powe asymme y need o be highligh ed in p o-
cesses o ea h s ewa dship and biocul u al conse a ion.
124,125
Main policy p oposals
An ea h s ewa dship pa hway seeks o link biocul u al conse -
a ion o he well-being o local communi ies.
126,127
This equi es
condi ions o conse a ion and es o a ion ha suppo he con-
nec ions o Indigenous and local communi ies (IPLCs) wi h hei
e i o ies. Because local e i o ies a e he sou ce o mul iple
alues, he p o ec ion o e i o y is a key means o enhance ea h
s ewa dship and hus o conse e biocul u al di e si y.
112,125
Pa hway p oponen s d aw on a g owing body o e idence o
his posi i e associa ion be ween secu e local e i o ies and
igh s, and e ec i e conse a ion.
96
An ea h s ewa dship app oach calls o policies o ake ac-
coun o he his o ical ole ha di e se communi ies ha e played
in he main enance o biodi e si y in di e en ecosys ems, and o
he cu en ole played by cus odians o biocul u al igh s.
128
Engagemen and pa icipa ion o people is cen al o an
app oach o p o ec ed a eas ha pu s ea h s ewa dship in o ac-
ion.
129
In ol ing local communi ies as co-manage s o s ewa ds
o en leads o mo e socially and ecologically posi i e ou comes
han ea ing hem as me e bene icia ies o excluding all o ms o
uses as p oposed in s ic p ese a ionis c i e ia.
130,131
Models o p o ec ed a eas ha con ibu e o ea h s ewa d-
ship include UNESCO Biosphe e Rese es, O he E ec i e
a ea-based Conse a ion Measu es (OECMs), and Indigenous
and Communi y Conse ed A eas (ICCAs).
129,132,133
Fo
example, he e a e mo e han 700 Biosphe e Rese es globally
ha ha e po en ial o conse ing p io i y conse a ion land-
scapes and expanding posi i e people and na u e ela ionships
h ough biocul u al conse a ion a egional scales.
134
Howe e ,
nei he he biosphe e ese e model no OECMs a e exemp
om ensions such as hose ha occu be ween he equi e-
men s o ex end ag icul u al ac i i ies in he ace o na u e p o-
ec ion, and he p essu es o economic de elopmen .
135
This
highligh s he challenge o mo ing away om p o ec ionis
models o a ea-based conse a ion in which he exclusion o
local people is mainly jus i ied using na ow economic
alues.
14,136
Educa ion is seen as a ounda ion o ea h s ewa dship and
biocul u al di e si y, se ing a undamen al ole in conse ing
o eco e ing ela ions be ween people and na u e. Educa ional
p og ams ha e been de eloped ha p omo e alues and e lec-
ion based on a di e si y o eligious and philosophical adi ions,
including ela ional IPLC philosophies such as good li ing (‘‘buen
i i ’’) in Sou h Ame ica, ‘‘ubun u’’ in Sou h A ica, and ‘‘sa-
oyama’’ in Japan.
108,110,137
Fo example, he co e p inciples o
‘‘buen i i ’’ educa ion a e in e cul u al coope a ion, ecip oci y,
collec i e ac ion, and solida i y.
138,139
Educa ion eaches a
beyond he school and is embedded in e e yday communi y
li e, including close ela ionships wi h na u e
140,141
guided by
Indigenous and peasan wo ld iews and p ac ices.
142,143
IPLC
philosophies and educa ion os e ea h s ewa dship h ough
including models o conse a ion and he implemen a ion o
he biocul u al igh s.
144,145
DEGROWTH AND POST-GROWTH PATHWAY
Deg ow h is a poli ical, economic, and social mo emen , oo ed
in ecological economics and poli ical ecology, and in luenced by
an i-consume is and an i-capi alis ideas. I does no claim one
uni a y heo y o plan o ac ion.
45
Ra he , i co e s a wide
ensemble o discou ses and p ac ices aiming o s ee ans o -
ma i e change while no assigning a special s a us o ins u-
men al, in insic, o ela ional alues, al hough he la e a e o en
emphasized h ough he no ion o con i iali y.
146
Deg ow h calls
o an o ganized slowing down o socie y, o minimize ha m o
humans and o he species.
45,147
Deg ow h and pos -g ow h p o-
ponen s concei e economic g ow h as a majo d i e o en i on-
men al deg ada ion.
102
Beyond a ce ain scale, he economy is
seen o en e in o con lic wi h ecological li e-suppo sys-
ems,
41,43
he cos s o g ow h accele a e,
148
and en i onmen al
con lic s mul iply.
149
Consequen ly, a deg ow h pa hway would
equi e downscaling p oduc ion and consump ion in indus ial-
ized coun ies, as a means o p omo e en i onmen al sus ain-
abili y, social jus ice, and well-being.
44
The deg ow h pa hway es s on a he modynamic ision o he
economy, i s elabo a ed by
150
and la e popula ized by he ield
o ecological economics.
43,151,152
This ision po ays he econ-
omy as a subsys em o he biosphe e, whe e he economy de-
pends on ecosys ems as bo h sou ce o esou ces and as sink
o was e.
43
Recycling is a pa ial solu ion bu has a high ene gy
cos . Renewable echnologies a e seen as pa o he solu ion
oo, bu deploying hem a scale, keeping pace wi h con inued
economic g ow h, would equi e inc easing inpu s o ini e ma e-
ials, including a e mine als
153
as well as g owing space equi e-
men s (e.g., o windmills and sola panels). Hence, acco ding o
his pe spec i e, he economy canno g ow pe pe ually because
he scale o he economic subsys em is limi ed by he size o he
hos ecosys em.
43,154
Role o alues and alua ion o na u e
A deg ow h pa hway would in ol e mobilizing alues and e-
o ming ins i u ions o allow socie ies o lou ish wi hou g ow h
o h oughpu (ene gy and ma e ial lows). Deg ow h concei es
he b oad alues o sus ainabili y and jus ice as insepa able,
equi ing in eg a ed s a egies o p omo e bo h alues and asso-
cia ed ou comes (e.g., income dis ibu ion, li ing wi hin biophys-
ical limi s). Redis ibu ion is a o ed o e economic expansion as
a means o secu e decen li ing s anda ds o all. Social jus ice is
he eby de ined by bo h minimum and maximum h esholds o
consump ion
155
and he idea o ai sha ing wi hin plane a y
bounda ies.
156
P oponen s o deg ow h emphasize b oad alues aligned wi h
he concep o ‘‘s ong sus ainabili y,’’ whe eby ecosys em
p ocesses ha sus ain p ospe i y and well-being a e seen as
i eplaceable by echnology and o he o ms o human-made
capi al. O he b oad alues o deg ow h include au onomy,
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su iciency, ca ing, con i iali y, and commoning.
157
In line wi h
he iews om ecological economics, deg ow h acknowledges
incommensu abili y and alue plu alism,
158
opposing he domi-
nance o ma ke alues d i ing he commodi ica ion o na u e.
159
Main policy p oposals
This pa hway ocuses s ongly on he ins i u ional and ideolog-
ical d i e s o en i onmen al deg ada ion, including loss o biodi-
e si y. Majo policy p oposals in he deg ow h and pos -g ow h
li e a u es include he adop ion o al e na i e indica o s o eco-
nomic p og ess, g een and p og essi e ax e o ms, subsidy e-
o ms ( o emo e e.g., ossil uel subsidies), wo k ime educ ion
and sha ing, e- egula ing ade, es ablishing maximum-mini-
mum income a ios, and secu ing uni e sal basic needs h ough
public se ices and uni e sal allowances.
44,102,154,157,160,161
Mac oeconomic indica o s such as GDP ail o alue social
and en i onmen al cos s, economic inequali ies, and domes ic
wo k, esul ing in poo measu es o human well-being.
16,43
While
cau ious o commodi ying na u e h ough p icing i , al e na i e
indica o s a e a o ed ha inco po a e unaccoun ed social and
ecological alues and cos s, including he Genuine P og ess In-
dica o (GPI), he Indica o o Sus ainable Economic Wel a e
(ISEW), he Sus ainable De elopmen Index (SDI), and Inclusi e
Weal h. Deg ow h p oponen s emphasize he need o g een
and p og essi e ax e o ms. Economic ac i i ies in ol ing la ge
en i onmen al cos s would need o be axed.
160
Deg ow h also
makes a case o axing and egula ing ad e ising, and o
educing axes on epai s o p omo e mo e ci cula economies
and coun e ‘‘planned obsolescence’’ o p oduc s.
Wo k ime educ ion is one o deg ow h’s lagship policy p o-
posals o educing en i onmen al p essu e while also bu e ing
he unemploymen e ec s o au oma iza ion and inc easing li e
sa is ac ion. This would in u n ely on using a leas some p o-
duc i i y gains ha may a ise om echnological de elopmen
o expanding leisu e ime ins ead o economic ou pu .
162–164
Howe e , as mode n economic heo y pe cei es echnological
de elopmen as a ising om p o i -seeking in es men s,
165
i is
an open ques ion o wha ex en au oma iza ion and echnolog-
ical imp o emen s would go on in a deg ow h and pos -g ow h
economy.
A deg ow h pa hway would also in ol e e- egula ing in e na-
ional comme ce, mo ing away om ee ade, ee capi al
mobili y, and economic globaliza ion,
160
a o ing an ‘‘open
localism’’ wi h la ge deg ees o au onomy and sel -su iciency.
Measu es o educe inequali ies in income and weal h dis ibu-
ion include axes on income, weal h, and capi al, as well as
he es ablishmen o minimum and maximum allowed income
(and weal h) le els.
155,166
DISCUSSION
Sus ainabili y pa hways embody dis inc and con es ed ap-
p oaches o mobilizing he ans o ma i e po en ial o alues.
The ou pa hways e iewed he e a e inhe en ly no ma i e
because hei di e se concep ualiza ions o sus ainabili y a e
bound up wi h di e en wo ld iews and bundles o b oad and
speci ic alues. Indeed, he di e ences be ween hem a e so
deeply oo ed in alues ha hey may appea insu moun able,
leading o con inuing con lic s ha can pa alyze ac ion when
we y o choose be ween hem.
26
Howe e , we sugges ha
he di e si y o po en ial pa hways owa d sus ainabili y also in-
c eases he weal h o possibili ies. Mo eo e , he abili y o
bene i om such possibili ies will be imp o ed h ough be e
unde s anding hei no ma i e con en and by ongoing anspa -
ency and delibe a ion abou hei unde lying alues.
14,24
In wha
ollows, we summa ize he main ways in which pa hways
di e ge, wi h e e ence o di e ences in alues and associa ed
wo ld iews and ideologies. We hen conside ways o wo king
wi h his di e si y ha ha e he po en ial o mo ing beyond con-
lic and building s onge coali ions o sus ainabili y.
Values di e gence ac oss pa hways
As summa ized in Table 1, pa hways p io i ize di e en disci-
plina y and heo e ical adi ions ha unde pin dis inc p oblem
amings, exempli ied by di e ing assump ions abou he unda-
men al d i e s o en i onmen al deg ada ion. P oblem amings
a e closely linked o he kinds o solu ions ha a e conside ed
o be mos e ec i e, ep esen ed he e as wha is conside ed
he key equi emen o ans o ma ion o sus ainabili y and he
emblema ic policies o achie ing hese.
The ou pa hways we e pu pose ully selec ed o di e in
e ms o he speci ic alues hey p io i ize (ins umen al, in insic,
and ela ional), bu we also ind some a ia ion in he b oad
alues, including guiding p inciples o jus ice deemed o be
aligned wi h sus ainabili y (Table 1). Na u e P o ec ion d aws
on conse a ion science knowledge abou he undamen al
impo ance o p o ec ing he di e si y o li e on ea h, o en,
hough no exclusi ely, emphasizing ecological jus ice (jus ice
o o he - han-human na u e) and he in insic alue o biodi e -
si y, while also d awing on he impo ance o ecosys em unc-
ions, and b oade alues ela ed o humani y’s du y o o he
species and o u u e humans. The G een Economy pa hway p i-
o i izes ins umen al alues o na u e closely aligned wi h ma -
ke -based app oaches o sus ainabili y, emphasizing u ili a ian
p inciples o jus ice common in libe al democ acies. Ea h S ew-
a dship de elops a biocul u al concep ion o alue ha empha-
sizes ela ional alues oo ed in local e i o ies, suppo ing calls
o mo e communi y-o ien ed app oaches o sus ainabili y ha
es on b oad alues ela ed o e i o ial igh s and poli ical
empowe men o ma ginalized oices. The deg ow h pa hway
p io i izes he idea o li ing wi hin en i onmen al limi s and edis-
ibu ion o weal h, hence emphasizing he need o adical eco-
nomic and poli ical ans o ma ions, wi h special a en ion o
educ ion o ma e ial and ene gy h oughpu , dis ibu ional jus-
ice, and he expansion o public se ices and he commons
( om local o global).
Unde s anding di e ences in unde lying alues helps o
explain why pa hway p oponen s a e o en no ecep i e o
possibili ies o ans o ma ion ha s em om al e na i e
pa hway concep s o na a i es. B oad alues a e known o be
highly du able and while hey can and do change, his a ely hap-
pens quickly o wi hou signi ican con ex ual mo i a ion o do
so.
167–169
B oad alues can he e o e be seen o be ‘‘non-nego-
iable’’ and unde pin a deg ee o in ansigence, o example, sus-
aining disag eemen s abou he ex en o which biodi e si y
conse a ion and ecological jus ice objec i es should be
winned wi h social jus ice objec i es. Di e ences o e he
aming o social jus ice a e cen al o disag eemen s be ween,
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e.g., Ea h S ewa dship and Na u e P o ec ion o e how o
deli e global na u e conse a ion a ge s such as he
Kunming-Mon eal Global Biodi e si y F amewo k (Box 1).
Ou look: S a egies o mo e e ec i e pa hway
coexis ence
How can socie y espond o a si ua ion in which some c i ical,
high-le el goals a e sha ed bu whe e he pa hways owa d
hese goals a e o en deeply con es ed? By ocusing on unde ly-
ing alues, we ind ha a mo e cons uc i e coexis ence o
pa hway elemen s will equi e ways o wo king ha os e ecog-
ni ion and espec o di e se alues. Con e sely, his means
mo ing away om a s a us quo in which na ow se s o alues
egula ly domina e en i onmen al decision-making, c ea ing
ba ie s o sus ainabili y and denying he igh s o some s ake-
holde s o meaning ully pa icipa e in decisions ha a e c i ical
o hei well-being. Mo e e ec i e coexis ence o pa hways e-
qui es alue plu alism ha can be ac ioned h ough ways o
wo king ha enable a di e si y o wo ld iews, b oad and speci ic
alues o be ecognized, espec ed, and embedded in economic
and poli ical decision-making. While no exclusi ely he case,
his will o en in ol e mo ing away om pu ely economic and
ins umen al ways o aluing na u e and ensu ing ha al e na i e
alues gain meaning ul ecogni ion.
24,174
So wha a e he ways o wo king o sus ainabili y ha p omise
o ad ance his agenda o be mo e inclusi e o di e se alues
and he eby mo e open o engagemen wi h mul iple pa hways?
The esea ch li e a u e does no ha e all he answe s o his ye ,
bu a help ul s a ing poin is o conside ac ions a di e en
le els o in e en ion (o le e age poin s). We conside h ee
in e en ion le els he e, p o iding some indica i e examples o
p ac ices ha ha e p o ed e ec i e in some con ex s.
Making di e se alues o na u e isible and usable o
decision-making
The e a e many a ailable me hods o elici ing and communi-
ca ing di e se alues o na u e including me hods based on na-
u e-based, s a emen -based, beha io -based and in eg a ed
me hods o alua ion.
175
Me hods can in ol e mo e o mal p o-
cedu es such as mul i-c i e ia analysis bu also less o malized
quali a i e desc ip ions a ising om pa icipa o y and delibe a-
i e p ocedu es. Fo example, kelp o es es o a ion ini ia i es
in he Haida Gwaii a chipelago o B i ish Columbia ha e in ol ed
a pa icipa o y p ocess o iden i ying local alues ha a e
hen inco po a ed in o he design o in e en ions.
176
This p o-
cess has ende ed ela ional alues isible, helping o b ing
Table 1. O e iew o na u e p o ec ion, g een economy, Ea h s ewa dship, and deg ow h pa hways
Na u e p o ec ion G een economy Ea h s ewa dship Deg ow h All pa hways
Key bodies o
knowledge
highligh ed
Conse a ion
science,
e olu iona y
ecology, cological
jus ice
En i onmen al
economics,
ecosys em science,
enginee ing, law
Biocul u al
di e si y, adi ional
ecological
knowledge, social-
en i onmen al
jus ice
Ecological
economics,
poli ical ecology,
pos -de elopmen
Ea h sys ems
science,
sus ainabili y
science, clima e
science
Main d i e o
deg ada ion
highligh ed
Failu e o espec
and ca e o o he -
han-human li e
Ins i u ional and
in o ma ion ailu es
(esp. ma ke ailu e)
S uc u al powe
imbalance blocking
plu ali y o alues
Th oughpu
expansion d i en by
economic g ow h
Failu e o espec
biophysical
bounda ies
Key equi emen o
ans o ma i e
change
Biodi e si y
conse a ion,
p o ec ed a eas,
ecognize non-
an h opocen ic
alues
Enable accoun ing
o alues o na u e,
economic
incen i es o p o-
en i onmen al
beha io
Biocul u al
conse a ion, local
so e eign y linked
o e i o y and
ag a ian e o m
Reducing ma e ial
h oughpu o
a luen socie ies,
weal h
edis ibu ion,
decommodi ica ion
Respec
biophysical
bounda ies
P io i y b oad
alues
Bio- and eco-
cen ism, ca e,
esponsibili y
E iciency, libe al
democ acy,
u ili a ianism
Responsibili y,
ca e, biocul u al
di e si y
Su iciency,
au onomy,
commoning
Sus ainabili y,
in e gene a ional
jus ice
P io i y speci ic
alues
In insic Ins umen al Rela ional, in insic Ins umen al,
in insic, ela ional
–
Co e alues agenda Recognize and
p io i ize he non-
an h opocen ic
alue o he
di e si y o li e a all
scales
Ensu e na u e’s
alues in o m
ins i u ions and
incen i es
Challenge
disc imina ion and
ma ginaliza ion o
social g oups o
mobilize mo e
di e se alues
Rebalance
economic wi h
social and
ecological alues
(escape
economism)
Di e si y and
balance alues o
na u e inco po a ed
in decision-making
Emblema ic
policies
Majo expansion o
a ea-based
conse a ion, ‘‘Hal
Ea h’’ o be
gaze ed as
p o ec ed a eas
Al e na i e me ics
o GDP, g een
axa ion,
edi ec ing ma ke
incen i es, g een
echnologies
Shi om
p ese a ionis o
biocul u al models
o a ea-based
conse a ion, land
e o ms and IPLC
igh s
Wo k ime
educ ion, basic o
ca ing income,
max-min income
a ios, esou ce and
pollu ion caps
Fo mal and in o mal
educa ion o
sus ainabili y
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cons uc i e coexis ence be ween in e na ional conse a ionis
and local communi y isions o sus ainabili y. A se o six local
alues we e iden i ied: Respec , Responsibili y, In e connec ed-
ness, Balance, Seeking Wise Council, and Gi ing and Recei ing.
These we e seen o align wi h b inging a ‘‘people as pa o eco-
sys ems’’ pa hway pe spec i e, aligning di e se alues wi h,
e.g., biocul u al conse a ion app oaches.
176
While no all delibe a i e app oaches a e scalable, na ional-
le el examples exis . Fo example I eland’s 2023 Ci izens’ As-
sembly on Biodi e si y Loss in ol ed o e 2,000 pa icipan s in
delibe a ing how o add ess con inuing biodi e si y decline.
177
The esul ing p io i y ac ions e eal he po en ial o ag eemen
on p io i y ac ions, e en whe e some o hese appea o low
om di e en alue ounda ions. Fo example, ins umen al
alues o na u e a e embedded in p io i y ac ions o he g een
economy and sus ainable inance, bu hese coexis wi h
in insic alues o na u e, o example, calls o embed he igh s
o na u e in o I eland’s cons i u ion, and ela ional alues, o
example, in calls o a new ‘‘Well-being F amewo k.’’
Re o ming ins i u ions o enable inco po a ion o
di e se alues and pa hways
Making di e se alues and pa hways isible is a i al s ep, bu
usabili y can be cons ained by p e ailing ins i u ions ( he ules
and no ms ha egula e decision-making) ha limi hose alues,
and wha alues can be ac ed upon. Fo mal ins i u ions (such as
p ope y igh s) and in o mal ins i u ions (such as a poli ical no m
o p oduc i ism) ensh ine and ep oduce dominan alues and
pa hways. Again, he e a e p omising ini ia i es a di e en
scales ha may help o ‘‘ge he ins i u ions igh ’’ o mo e
cons uc i e coexis ence o pa hways. A a na ional scale,
e ised sys ems o pe o mance indica o s (such as he new
Well-being F amewo k p oposed by I eland’s ci izens) can help
o embed plu al alues in o measu es o socie al p og ess. Fo
example, he G oss Na ional Happiness indica o s in Bhu an
inco po a e Buddhis ela ional philosophy in o goals o g een
economic g ow h.
178
Na ional cons i u ions can also ins i u ion-
alize di e se alues, as o example in he cons i u ion o Boli ia
ha ensh ines ela ional alues o na u e and ea h s ewa dship
h ough he philosophy o Buen Vi i .
179,180
The UN Con en ion on Biological Di e si y (CBD) highligh s
impo an in insic, ins umen al and ela ional alues o global
biodi e si y-as- a ie y.
56
Biodi e si y op ion alue, o example,
is undamen al o sus ainabili y.
64
The CBD and i s Global Biodi-
e si y F amewo k (GBF) p o ide a ious s a egies in eg a ing
hese global alues wi h mo e local alues o na u e/biodi e si y,
including mixed-use P o ec ed A eas and O he E ec i e A ea-
based Conse a ion Measu es (OECMs) ha ocus on local na-
u e alues, bu ne e heless make con ibu ions o conse ing
globally impo an biodi e si y (e.g., a globally h ea ened spe-
cies). OECMs also con ibu e o a sys em o p o ec ed a eas
ha is ep esen a i e o egional and global biodi e si y (see
GBF Ta ge 3 in Box 1). An ea ly exempla o such in eg a ed
biodi e si y-inclusi e planning adop ed Papua New Guinea’s
Indigenous and adi ional e i o ies as he co e o a ep esen-
a i e ne wo k o global biodi e si y conse a ion a eas,
acknowledging mul iple IPLC alues o na u e.
181
Fu he , plan-
ning lexibili y allowed pu sui o land uses elsewhe e, deli e ing
o he (ins umen al) local alues. Challenges aised by c oss-
scale in eg a ion o alues may equi e c oss-scale managemen
and decision-making. Papua New Guinea’s IPLC a eas p o ided
incomple e ep esen a ion o he coun y’s biodi e si y,
181
equi ing u he decisions abou complemen a y conse ed
a eas. Fu he , IPLCs may ail o conse e some globally impo -
an biodi e si y,
182
calling o a ge ed managemen and und-
ing locally.
Add essing he powe asymme ies ha p oduce
pa e ns o domina ion
Dis up ing he s a us quo equi es powe o be econ igu ed in
ways ha can ensu e ecogni ion and jus ice o cu en ly
ma ginalized g oups.
183–185
This challenge goes well beyond
Box 1. Global Biodi e si y F amewo k a ge s 2 and 3
The Kunming-Mon eal Global Biodi e si y F amewo k (CBD 2022) includes he ollowing:
Ta ge 2 ‘‘Ensu e ha by 2030 a leas 30 pe cen o a eas o deg aded e es ial, inland wa e , and ma ine and coas al ecosys-
ems a e unde e ec i e es o a ion in o de o enhance biodi e si y and ecosys em unc ions and se ices, ecological in eg i y
and connec i i y.’’
Ta ge 3 ‘‘Ensu e and enable ha by 2030 a leas 30 pe cen o e es ial and inland wa e a eas, and o ma ine and coas al a eas,
especially a eas o pa icula impo ance o biodi e si y and ecosys em unc ions and se ices, a e e ec i ely conse ed and
managed h ough ecologically ep esen a i e, well-connec ed and equi ably go e ned sys ems o p o ec ed a eas and o he
e ec i e a ea-based conse a ion measu es, ecognizing Indigenous and adi ional e i o ies, whe e applicable, and in eg a ed
in o wide landscapes, seascapes and he ocean, while ensu ing ha any sus ainable use, whe e app op ia e in such a eas, is ully
consis en wi h conse a ion ou comes, ecognizing and espec ing he igh s o Indigenous peoples and local communi ies,
including o e hei adi ional e i o ies.’’
These ‘‘30 330’’ a ge s can be app oached in di e en ways ha p o oundly in luence how hei implemen a ion migh impac on
he igh s and li elihoods o Indigenous peoples and local communi ies as well as ecological ou comes,
135,170,171
gi ing ise o
ea s o social injus ices.
70,172
While some na u e p o ec ion p oponen s emphasize expansion o exclusiona y p o ec ed a eas
o mee Ta ge 3, his is con es ed by many Ea h S ewa dship p oponen s who p io i ize os e ing associa ions be ween biological
and cul u al di e si y. Those ep esen ing IPLCs du ing inal nego ia ions insis ed on inse ing quali ying ex such as Ta ge 3’s
ca ea ega ding IPLCs. While such aming p inciples should anyway apply o each a ge , he e was demand ha hey appea
speci ically in his a ge , o ea ha mo e exclusiona y/p o ec ionis pa hway na a i es p e ail.
173
Addi ionally, he e a e signi -
ican di e ences be ween G een Economy and o he pa hway p oponen s ega ding he ex en o which commodi ica ion o na-
u e’s ins umen al alues can help owa d hese a ge s.
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