Trade Networks in the Neighbouring Roman Provinces of Aquitania-Tarraconensis on the Bay of Biscay: Evidence from Petrographic and Chemical Analyses of Common Coarse Ware Pottery

Ci a ion: Alonso-Olazabal, A.;
Zuluaga, M.C.; Ma ínez-Salcedo, A.;
Es eban-Delgado, M.;
Izquie do-Ma cule a, M.T.; Rechin, F.;
O ega, L.Á. T ade Ne wo ks in he
Neighbou ing Roman P o inces o
Aqui ania-Ta aconensis on he Bay
o Biscay: E idence om
Pe og aphic and Chemical Analyses
o Common Coa se Wa e Po e y.
Mine als 2023,13, 887. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/min13070887
Academic Edi o : Albe o De Bonis
Recei ed: 14 Ap il 2023
Re ised: 27 June 2023
Accep ed: 27 June 2023
Published: 29 June 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
mine als
A icle
T ade Ne wo ks in he Neighbou ing Roman P o inces o
Aqui ania-Ta aconensis on he Bay o Biscay: E idence om
Pe og aphic and Chemical Analyses o Common Coa se
Wa e Po e y
Ainhoa Alonso-Olazabal 1,*, Ma ia C uz Zuluaga 1, Ana Ma ínez-Salcedo 2, Milag os Es eban-Delgado 3,
Ma ia Te esa Izquie do-Ma cule a 4, F ançois Rechin 5and Luis Ángel O ega 1,*
1Depa men o Geology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Sa iena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
2Sociedad pa a el Es udio de la Ce ámica An igua en Hispania (SECAH), P.O. Box 33, 28086 Mad id, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
3Facul y o Social and Human Sciences, Uni e si y o Deus o, Mundaiz Kalea 50, 20012 Donos ia, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
4Basque Cul u al He i age Cen e, Basque Go e nmen , Donos ia-San Sebas ian Kalea 1,
01010 Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
5ITEM (UR 3002), Uni e si éde Pau e des Pays de l’Adou , A . du Doyen Poplawski, 64000 Pau, F ance;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (A.A.-O.); [email p o ec ed] (L.Á.O.)
Abs ac :
Common non-wheel- h own Roman po e y om he sou he n Aqui ania and no h-eas e n
o Ta aconensis p o inces (CNT-AQTA) o he Ea ly and La e Roman Empi e (1s o 5 h cen u ies
AD) has been s udied. Pe ological, mine alogical, and chemical analyses we e conduc ed o con as
wi h he a chaeological s udy o he po e y. The chemical composi ion o many po e y samples
displays di e en pa e ns o bu ial chemical modi ica ion, limi ing hei use o p o enance and
di usion s udies. Pa icula emphasis has been paid o he pe og aphic ea u es o he ab ics, as
hey do no change du ing bu ial, e lec ing he na u e o he aw ma e ial and making i possible
o iden i y he p o enance a eas o he aw ma e ials. A ound he Bay o Biscay, he same po e y
adi ion con inued in he neighbou ing p o inces du ing Roman imes. Pe og aphic s udies make
i possible o de e mine he dis ibu ion o po e y and he changes in ade ne wo ks du ing he
Roman pe iod ac oss he a ea o he Bay o Biscay being s udied.
Keywo ds:
coa se po e y; bu ial chemical modi ica ions; p o enance a eas; ade ne wo ks;
Bay o Biscay; Roman Empi e
1. In oduc ion
Po e y is an impo an sou ce o he econs uc ion o he socio-economic amewo k
o di e en pe iods and cul u es since i p o ides clues no only abou echnological skills,
bu also abou cul u al and ade ne wo ks [
1
–
3
]. The Roman pe iod is a pa icula ly
good example o how he analysis o po e y dis ibu ion e eals pa e ns o exchange
and in e ac ion be ween di e en a eas o socie ies. A Roman si es in he Medi e anean
and A lan ic egions, bo h ine and coa se wa es a e p o use, e ealing ade be ween he
Medi e anean Sea and A lan ic Ocean and e idencing no only long-dis ance mo emen s
bu also c oss-bo de ade ela ions.
The Roman occupa ion o he neighbou ing a eas o he no he n Ibe ian Peninsula
and sou he n F ance is well documen ed by nume ous a chaeological exca a ions ca ied
ou in his geog aphic a ea [
4
–
12
]. The communica ion ne wo k, by bo h e es ial and
ma i ime ou es, linking he Can ab ian coas o he es o he Roman wo ld, is well
Mine als 2023,13, 887. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/min13070887 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/mine als
Mine als 2023,13, 887 2 o 21
known [
13
–
19
]. The connec ion be ween he Can ab ian coas and he coas s o Aqui aine
and B i any was men ioned by Caesa (CAES. Gal.3.26.6), S abo (STR. 3.4.18) and O osius
(OROS. His .6.21.4) in de So o [
20
]. Impo an ha bou s such as Oiasso (I un), Lapu dum
(Bayonne) and Bu digala (Bo deaux) as well as seconda y ha bou s in i e s and es ua ies
(e.g., Po us Amanum-Fla iob iga in Cas o U diales, Fo ua in Ge nika, Za au z, Donos ia
and Honda ibia) ha e been iden i ied o he ade o goods (e.g., wine, ish p oduc s,
la d, b oad beans and mine al esou ces). All o hem a icula ed a ne wo k o po s ha
gua an eed ma i ime communica ions a ound he Bay o Biscay [
21
–
26
]. The ma i ime
ou e was ac i e oge he wi h he main con inen al oads o Ab As u ica-Bu digalam and
seconda y ou es c ossing he Py enees, Ta aco-Oiasso and Piso aca VI-Po u Amamus.
Ma i ime, wa e way, and con inen al ou es cons i u e he main ading communica ion
ne wo k ope a ing in he eas e n Can ab ian egion, linking he Roman p o inces o
Aqui ania and Ta aconensis. In his way, he no heas o Hispania was ully in eg a ed
in o he amewo k o Roman ade ac oss he Can ab ian Sea.
The mos equen ype o po e y ound a Roman si es on he Bay o Biscay
(
Sinus Aqui anicus
) was he common non-wheel- h own po e y, known as “ce ámica
común no o neada Aqui ano-Ta aconensis” (CNT-AQTA) [
27
]. This ype o po e y
occu s a all si es on he Can ab ian coas , in Aqui aine and in he middle and uppe Eb o
alleys [
4
,
27
,
28
]. Ve y ew s udies abou his coa se po e y ha e been ca ied ou due o
i s ough appea ance and lack o aes he ic appeal. Howe e , in ecen decades, in e es in
his ype o po e y has inc eased due o i s mul iple uses in e e yday ac i i ies, allowing
coa se po e y o be used as a ool o assessing he way o li e in Roman se lemen s.
The s udied po e y was collec ed om si es in he neighbou ing impe ial p o inces o
Ta aconensis and Aqui ania, in di e en adminis a i e dis ic s, bu wi hin he o ganisa-
ional amewo k o he Roman s a e. Some si es we e associa ed wi h p oduc i e ac i i ies
(A biun) o une a y ac i i ies (San a Elena). O he si es co espond o di e en se lemen
models: u ban cen es (I uña/Veleia), ci i as Aq ensium (Dax) o Lapu dum (Bayonne),
u al se lemen s o illae (Alo ia, Lalonque e and Pa dies). Small empo a y se lemen s
(Molie s) and coas al encla es wi h indus ial and ma i ime ac i i ies (Fo ua, San a Ma ía la
Real and Za au z-Jau egia) we e also conside ed. Finally, he San iagomendi si e ep esen s
he ansi ion om he p e-Roman way o li e o he new Roman socio-economic, poli ical
and cul u al pa e ns [29,30].
Mine alogical, pe og aphic, and chemical analyses we e conduc ed o suppo he
a chaeological s udy based on he examina ion o wa e shape, s yle, colou , deco a ion, and
he o e all ab ic o he po e y. Pe og aphic, mine alogical, and chemical cha ac e isa-
ion can p o ide signi ican in o ma ion on aw ma e ial p o enance and po en ially he
echnology in ol ed in he manu ac u ing p ocess. The aim o his s udy is o assess he
pe o-mine alogical and geochemical composi ion o de e mine di e ences in he composi-
ion and p o enance o Roman coa se po e y, o de ine an accu a e dis ibu ion pa e n and
o es ablish connec ions wi h di e en Roman pe iod p oduc ions (1s –5 h AD cen u ies) o
ace he e olu ion o ade ne wo ks a ound he Bay o Biscay.
2. Geological Backg ound
The s uc u e and geology o he s udied egion a e highly complex as a esul o
he con e gence o he Ibe ian and Eu asian pla es du ing he C e aceous-Miocene. The
Bay o Biscay and he wes e n Py enean domains ep esen a s ongly s uc u ed egion
as a consequence o consecu i e ex ensi e and comp essi e ec onic cycles ha s a ed
in he ea ly Palaeozoic. The Palaeozoic basemen complex, known in he s udied a ea
as he Palaeozoic Basque Massi s: Aldudes, Cinco-Villas and U suya massi s, is o med
by O do ician o Ca boni e ous sedimen a y ocks, limes ones, sands ones and shales
whe e Pe mian Aya g ani e and andesi e dykes in uded, and he U suya massi consis s o
high-g ade g anuli es, pa agneisses and migma i es. Du ing he Pe mian-Ea ly T iassic,
a ed de i al uni was deposi ed in ex ensional condi ions wi h abundan olcanic ma-
e ials. La e T iassic o Ju assic i e en s de eloped he o ma ion o in acon inen al
Mine als 2023,13, 887 3 o 21
basins illed by hick sequences o siliciclas ics, ca bona es, and e apo i es wi h associa ed
man le-de i ed in usions, ophi es. The la es T iassic and Ju assic ma ine ansg ession
esul ed in ma ls and limes one deposi s. Du ing he ea ly C e aceous, ex ension led o
he de elopmen o se e al oughs ha consis o limes ones, sands ones and ma ls ha
a e su ounded by con inen al and pla o m domains co e ed by hick lu ial o del aic
sands ones and ma ls, and shallow ma ine limes ones. Ex eme c us al hinning in he Bay
o Biscay led o he exhuma ion o he subcon inen al man le and esul ed in con inen al
b eakup and sea loo sp eading ini ia ion. This e en was eco ded by he deposi ion o
deep ma ine sedimen s and was accompanied by alkaline magma ism, bo h in usi e and
olcanic, om he la e Ap ian o he ea ly San onian.
The beginning o comp essional de o ma ion is ma ked by a egional uncon o mi y in
San onian sedimen s. The ansi ion om pos - i o syn-o ogenic e olu ion is eco ded
by he deposi ion o siliciclas ic u bidi es da ed om he Cenomanian o he Eocene,
opped by Oligocene sands ones, conglome a es and e apo i es. The majo collision phase
was eached du ing he Eocene and con inued un il he end o he Oligocene wi h he
gene alised upli o he chain and he o ma ion o o eland basins. Be ween he la e
Miocene and he ea ly Pleis ocene, in he no h Py enean oo hills, he las main lu ial
deposi ional s age occu ed wi h siliciclas ic an deposi s ed by he e osion o he Py enees
and he Massi Cen al. Du ing he Pleis ocene, oo hills unde wen s ong incisions on
s age, de eloping allu ial shee s, some o hem con olled by glacial pulses. The clima ic
al e na ions, oscilla ions in sea le el and a succession o episodes o exca a ion and illing
in he hyd og aphic ne wo k p omo ed he ie ing o allu ial e aces along he i e s, and
he no h-wes e ly winds de eloped dune deposi s along he A lan ic edge [31–33].
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Ma e ials
The po e y included in he p esen s udy co esponds o Roman non-wheel- h own
po e y p oduc ions om di e en a chaeological si es in he eas e n Can ab ian egion
(Spain) and sou he n Aqui aine (sou h F ance) on he Bay o Biscay (Figu e 1). The po e y
analysed co esponds o ough, handmade domes ic po e y, mainly used o e e yday
ac i i ies (cooking, able and s o age wa e). This unsophis ica ed po e y, coa se and
essen ially unc ional, lacks majo changes in o m and s ylis ic e olu ion o e he cou se
o he cen u ies.
The selec ed samples co espond o he mos ep esen a i e and p o usely common
non-wheel- h own po e y p oduc ions a he s udied si es. The mac oscopic analysis
based on he abundance and g ain-size o inclusions, i ing condi ions, ha dness, ac u e,
compac ion, and inishing allowed us o classi y he po e ies in o h ee main g oups,
named G1, G2 and G3 p oduc ions [
4
,
28
,
29
,
34
]. G1 p oduc ion (86 po she ds) is composed
o g ey (7.5R 6/0, 7.5R 5/0), wi h some supe icial pa ches o eddish-yellow (5YR 5/8) and
ligh ed (2.5YR 6/8). This p oduc ion shows medium sand g ains wi h well-so ed whi e,
g ey, black, eddish, golden and sil e ounded inclusions (0.5–2 mm). The ab ic is ha d
and ough, wi h a smoo h ac u e. The G2 p oduc ion (45 she ds) is composed o a ious
g ey (7.5R 4/0; 7.5R 5/0), g ey-pink (7.5YR 6/2) and yellow- eddish (5Y 6/6) bodies wi h
sca ce oids. This medium-coa se sand-g ained (0.5–3 mm) ab ic is cha ac e ised by poo ly
so ed whi e, g ey, b ownish, blackish, eddish, and sil e inclusions. The ab ic is ha d and
ough, wi h a smoo h ac u e. The G3 g oup (55 po she ds) is eddish-o angish (5YR 5/6;
2.5YR 5/8) colou ed a he ex e nal bo de s and g ey (7.5R 6/0; 7.5R 5/0) colou ed in esh
cu s o he in e nal body. Medium-coa se sand-g ained (0.5–3 mm) ab ic is cha ac e ised
by poo ly so ed whi e, g ey, sil e , and golden inclusions wi h oids. The inclusions
a e di e en in ype, abundance, and size. The ab ic is ha d and ough, wi h smoo h
ac u es. The s udied G1, G2 and G3 g oups co espond o he G3, G1 and G2 po e y
g oups desc ibed by Ma ínez-Salcedo [
34
]. A o al o 186 po she ds we e selec ed o he
a chaeome ic analyses om eigh Ta aconensis a chaeological si es and eigh Aqui ania
Mine als 2023,13, 887 4 o 21
si es. The main dis inguishing ea u es a e summa ised in Figu e 2and co espond o
a ious ypes o wa es, mainly po s, pla es, ja s and bowls (Table S1).
Mine als2023,13,8874o 22



Figu e1.Geog aphicloca iono  hea chaeologicalsi eswhe esampleswe eanalyseda ound he
Bayo Biscay:si eso Alo ia(Amu io,A aba);I uña‐Veleia(I uñadeOca,A aba);Fo ua‐PeñaFo‐
ua(Fo ua,Bizkaia);Ge a ia‐Za au zJau egia(Ge a ia,Gipuzkoa);San aMa iaLaReal(Za au z,
Gipuzkoa);A bium(Za au z,Gipuzkoa);San aElena(I un,Gipuzkoa);San iagomendi(As iga ‐
aga,Gipuzkoa)inTa aconensianp o ince,Spain.Si eso Sain ‐Paul‐en‐Bo n(Landes,Nou elle‐
Aqui aine);Molie s‐e ‐Maa(Landes);Bayonne(Nou elle‐Aqui aine);Dax(Landes,Nou elle‐Aqui‐
aine);Lalonque e(Py énées‐A lan iques,Nou elle‐Aqui aine);Pa dies(Pey eho ade,Landes);
So de‐l’Abbaye(Landes,Nou elle‐Aqui aine);Lesca (Pau,Nou elle‐Aqui aine)inAqui anian
p o ince,F ance.
Theselec edsamplesco espond o hemos  ep esen a i eandp o uselycommon
non‐wheel‐ h ownpo e yp oduc ionsa  hes udiedsi es.Themac oscopicanalysis
basedon heabundanceandg ain‐sizeo inclusions, i ingcondi ions,ha dness, ac u e,
compac ion,and inishingallowedus oclassi y hepo e iesin o h eemaing oups,
namedG1,G2andG3p oduc ions[4,28,29,34].G1p oduc ion(86po she ds)iscomposed
o g ey(7.5R6/0,7.5R5/0),wi hsomesupe icialpa cheso  eddish‐yellow(5YR5/8)and
ligh  ed(2.5YR6/8).Thisp oduc ionshowsmediumsandg ainswi hwell‐so edwhi e,
g ey,black, eddish,goldenandsil e  oundedinclusions(0.5–2mm).The ab icisha d
and ough,wi hasmoo h ac u e.TheG2p oduc ion(45she ds)iscomposedo  a ious
g ey(7.5R4/0;7.5R5/0),g ey‐pink(7.5YR6/2)andyellow‐ eddish(5Y6/6)bodieswi h
sca ce oids.Thismedium‐coa sesand‐g ained(0.5–3mm) ab icischa ac e isedby
poo lyso edwhi e,g ey,b ownish,blackish, eddish,andsil e inclusions.The ab icis
ha dand ough,wi hasmoo h ac u e.TheG3g oup(55po she ds)is eddish‐o angish
(5YR5/6;2.5YR5/8)colou eda  heex e nalbo de sandg ey(7.5R6/0;7.5R5/0)colou ed
in eshcu so  hein e nalbody.Medium‐coa sesand‐g ained(0.5–3mm) ab icischa ‐
ac e isedbypoo lyso edwhi e,g ey,sil e ,andgoldeninclusionswi h oids.Thein‐
clusionsa edi e en in ype,abundance,andsize.The ab icisha dand ough,wi h
smoo h ac u es.Thes udiedG1,G2andG3g oupsco espond o heG3,G1andG2
po e yg oupsdesc ibedbyMa ínez‐Salcedo[34].A o alo 186po she dswe eselec ed
o  hea chaeome icanalyses omeigh Ta aconensisa chaeologicalsi esandeigh 
Aqui aniasi es.Themaindis inguishing ea u esa esumma isedinFigu e2andco e‐
spond o a ious ypeso wa es,mainlypo s,pla es,ja sandbowls(TableS1).
Figu e 1.
Geog aphic loca ion o he a chaeological si es whe e samples we e analysed a ound
he Bay o Biscay: si es o Alo ia (Amu io, A aba); I uña-Veleia (I uña de Oca, A aba); Fo ua-
Peña Fo ua (Fo ua, Bizkaia); Ge a ia-Za au z Jau egia (Ge a ia, Gipuzkoa); San a Ma ia La Real
(Za au z, Gipuzkoa); A bium (Za au z, Gipuzkoa); San a Elena (I un, Gipuzkoa); San iagomendi
(As iga aga, Gipuzkoa) in Ta aconensian p o ince, Spain. Si es o Sain -Paul-en-Bo n (Lan-
des, Nou elle-Aqui aine); Molie s-e -Maa (Landes); Bayonne (Nou elle-Aqui aine); Dax (Landes,
Nou elle-Aqui aine); Lalonque e (Py énées-A lan iques, Nou elle-Aqui aine); Pa dies (Pey eho-
ade, Landes); So de-l’Abbaye (Landes, Nou elle-Aqui aine); Lesca (Pau, Nou elle-Aqui aine) in
Aqui anian p o ince, F ance.
Mine als2023,13,8875o 22
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Figu e2.Synop icske cho mac oscopicandmic oscopic ea u eso  he h eemainpo e yp o‐
duc ions.F eshsamplepho og aphs:diame e co esponds o1cm.Pho omic og aphs:wid ho 
ieldco esponds o2.4mm.Geome icsymbolsin hesynop icske chco espond oinclusionso 
di e en composi ions.
3.2.Me hods
Thepe og aphics udywaspe o medon hinsec ionsusingaNikonEclipse
LV100polpola isedligh mic oscopeequippedwi haDSF‐11digi alcame aandDSL‐2
con oluni a  heLabo a o yo  heDepa men o Geology,Uni e si yo  heBasque
Coun y(UPV/EHU).Each hinsec ionwasanalysedunde planeandc oss‐pola ised
ansmi edligh  oe alua e hemine alogyandclayma ixcha ac e is icsacco ding o
[35,36],wi hspeciala en ion osomeaspec sdesc ibedin[37–39].
Chemicalcomposi ionanalysiso mine alinclusionswasca iedou onpolishedca ‐
bon‐coa ed hinsec ionsusingaJEOLJSM‐6400ScanningElec onMic oscope(SEM)
(JEOL,Tokyo,Japan)equippedwi hanINCAEDXde ec o X‐sigh Se iesSi(Li)Ox o d
pen aFETmic oanalysissys em.
Po e ymine alogicalcomposi ionwasanalysedbyX‐ aydi ac ion(XRD)usinga
PhilipsX’Pe di ac ome e (Mal e nPANaly ical,Almelo,TheNe he lands)equipped
wi hg aphi emonoch oma o adjus ed oCu‐kα1X‐ adia ionope a inga 40kVand20
mA.Theda acollec ionwaspe o medinacon inuousscan anging om5 o70°2θa 
acquisi ion a eo 0.02°2θpe second.Themine alphaseiden i ica ionandsemi‐quan i‐
a i ede e mina ionswe epe o medusingX’Pe HighSco ePlus3.0so wa e(Mal e n
PANaly ical,Almelo,TheNe he lands).Semiquan i a i eanalyseso  hemine alphase
we eob ainedusing heexpe imen al e e encein ensi y a io(RIR) o eachmine alin
hesample.
Themajo and aceelemen analysis o po e yshe dswasca iedou usinga
The moX‐Se ies2quad upoleICP‐MS(The moFishe Scien i ic,B emen,Ge many),a ‐
e  usiono 250mgo  inelyg oundsamplewi h500mghigh‐pu i yg adeLiBO2(anal‐
ysisg adepu e,Co po a ionScien i iqueClaisse)inP ‐Auc ucibles, ollowedbyni ic
aciddissolu iono  hemel .Thesamplep epa a ionandcondi ionso measu emen s
we epe o med ollowing hep ocedu eo Ga cíadeMadinabei iae al.[40].All he
analyseswe eca iedou a  heAd ancedResea chFacili ies(SGIke )o  heUni e si y
o  heBasqueCoun y(UPV/EHU).
Figu e 2.
Synop ic ske ch o mac oscopic and mic oscopic ea u es o he h ee main po e y p o-
duc ions. F esh sample pho og aphs: diame e co esponds o 1 cm. Pho omic og aphs: wid h o
ield co esponds o 2.4 mm. Geome ic symbols in he synop ic ske ch co espond o inclusions o
di e en composi ions.
Mine als 2023,13, 887 5 o 21
3.2. Me hods
The pe og aphic s udy was pe o med on hin sec ions using a Nikon Eclipse LV100pol
pola ised ligh mic oscope equipped wi h a DSF-11 digi al came a and DSL-2 con ol
uni a he Labo a o y o he Depa men o Geology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
(UPV/EHU). Each hin sec ion was analysed unde plane and c oss-pola ised ansmi ed
ligh o e alua e he mine alogy and clay ma ix cha ac e is ics acco ding o [
35
,
36
], wi h
special a en ion o some aspec s desc ibed in [37–39].
Chemical composi ion analysis o mine al inclusions was ca ied ou on polished
ca bon-coa ed hin sec ions using a JEOL JSM-6400 Scanning Elec on Mic oscope (SEM)
(JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) equipped wi h an INCA EDX de ec o X-sigh Se ies Si (Li) Ox o d
pen aFET mic oanalysis sys em.
Po e y mine alogical composi ion was analysed by X- ay di ac ion (XRD) using a
Philips X’Pe di ac ome e (Mal e n PANaly ical, Almelo, The Ne he lands) equipped
wi h g aphi e monoch oma o adjus ed o Cu-k
α1
X- adia ion ope a ing a 40 kV and
20 mA. The da a collec ion was pe o med in a con inuous scan anging om 5 o 70
◦
2
θ
a acquisi ion a e o 0.02
◦
2
θ
pe second. The mine al phase iden i ica ion and semi-
quan i a i e de e mina ions we e pe o med using X’Pe HighSco e Plus 3.0 so wa e
(Mal e n PANaly ical, Almelo, The Ne he lands). Semiquan i a i e analyses o he mine al
phase we e ob ained using he expe imen al e e ence in ensi y a io (RIR) o each mine al
in he sample.
The majo and ace elemen analysis o po e y she ds was ca ied ou using a
The mo X-Se ies 2 quad upole ICP-MS (The mo Fishe Scien i ic, B emen, Ge many), a e
usion o 250 mg o inely g ound sample wi h 500 mg high-pu i y g ade LiBO2 (analysis
g ade pu e, Co po a ion Scien i ique Claisse) in P -Au c ucibles, ollowed by ni ic acid
dissolu ion o he mel . The sample p epa a ion and condi ions o measu emen s we e
pe o med ollowing he p ocedu e o Ga cía de Madinabei ia e al. [
40
]. All he analyses
we e ca ied ou a he Ad anced Resea ch Facili ies (SGIke ) o he Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU).
4. Resul s
4.1. Pe og aphic Analysis
The mic os uc u e cha ac e is ics, conside ing amoun , g ain-size, so ing, oundness
and sha pness, as well as he na u e o componen s, allowed he iden i ica ion o di e en
pe og aphic ab ics wi hin he h ee main po e y p oduc ions. The abundance and
dis ibu ion o he pe og aphic ypes a he a chaeological si es a e shown in Figu e 3.
Mine als2023,13,8876o 22


4.Resul s
4.1.Pe og aphicAnalysis
Themic os uc u echa ac e is ics,conside ingamoun ,g ain‐size,so ing, ound‐
nessandsha pness,aswellas hena u eo componen s,allowed heiden i ica iono 
di e en pe og aphic ab icswi hin he h eemainpo e yp oduc ions.Theabundance
anddis ibu iono  hepe og aphic ypesa  hea chaeologicalsi esa eshowninFigu e
3.

Figu e3.Dis ibu iono pe og aphic ab icsa  hes udysi es.Eachpoin  ep esen sonesample.
Righ :loca iono  hesi es.Eachsymbol ep esen adi e en pe og aphic ab ic.
TheG1 ab icg oupis o medby wope og aphic ab ics,TP1.1andTP1.2.The
ab icTP1.1ishighlyabundan ,comp ising95%o  heG1g oupo wa es(82sampleso 
n=86in heG1assemblage).The ab icshowsa e yhomogeneousma ix/inclusions
a io.Theg oundismainlyclayey.Po esp esen asingle‐spaced ela eddis ibu ionand
a eo ien edpa allel o hema gins.Thenonplas icinclusions(35%–45%)p esen aclosed
osingle‐spaced ela eddis ibu ionanda ecommonlyo ien edpa allel o hema gins.
Thesubangula ‐sub oundedinclusionsdisplay ypicallyaunimodalg ainsizedis ibu‐
ion,a ewellso ed,andha eg ainsizes angingbe ween0.25and0.50mm.Theinclu‐
sionsco espond oawide a ie yo  ockandmine al agmen s.The ock agmen s
includesedimen a y ocks(g eywackes, e uginoussands ones),me amo phic ocks
(schis sandsla es,some imeswi hc enula ionschis osi y,gneisses,high‐g ademe amo ‐
phic ockswi hepido eandoccasionalmyloni es),plu onicand olcanic ocks(dio i es,
basal sanddiabaseswi hophi ic/subophi ic ex u e).Wi hinmine al agmen s,mono‐
andpolyc ys allinequa z,idiomo phice apo i icqua z,epido e,plagioclase,pe hi ic
po assium eldspa ,amphibole,spa i ecalci enodules,mic i icnodules,spa hiccalci e,
blackishinclusionsand a ebio i ela hs,py oxenes,ga ne s,e c.ha ebeen ecognised
(Figu e4a–c).Someg og agmen sa ealsoobse ed.The ab icTP1.2showssimila 
ea u es oTP1.1,al houghi isdis inguishedby heoccu enceo high‐sphe ici yqua z
inclusionswi hahomogeneousg ainsize(Figu e4d).
Figu e 3.
Dis ibu ion o pe og aphic ab ics a he s udy si es. Each poin ep esen s one sample.
Righ : loca ion o he si es. Each symbol ep esen a di e en pe og aphic ab ic.

Mine als 2023,13, 887 6 o 21
The G1 ab ic g oup is o med by wo pe og aphic ab ics, TP 1.1 and TP 1.2. The
ab ic TP 1.1 is highly abundan , comp ising 95% o he G1 g oup o wa es (82 samples o
n= 86
in he G1 assemblage). The ab ic shows a e y homogeneous ma ix/inclusions
a io. The g ound is mainly clayey. Po es p esen a single-spaced ela ed dis ibu ion and
a e o ien ed pa allel o he ma gins. The nonplas ic inclusions (35%–45%) p esen a closed
o single-spaced ela ed dis ibu ion and a e commonly o ien ed pa allel o he ma gins.
The subangula -sub ounded inclusions display ypically a unimodal g ain size dis ibu ion,
a e well so ed, and ha e g ain sizes anging be ween 0.25 and 0.50 mm. The inclusions
co espond o a wide a ie y o ock and mine al agmen s. The ock agmen s include
sedimen a y ocks (g eywackes, e uginous sands ones), me amo phic ocks (schis s and
sla es, some imes wi h c enula ion schis osi y, gneisses, high-g ade me amo phic ocks
wi h epido e and occasional myloni es), plu onic and olcanic ocks (dio i es, basal s and
diabases wi h ophi ic/subophi ic ex u e). Wi hin mine al agmen s, mono- and poly-
c ys alline qua z, idiomo phic e apo i ic qua z, epido e, plagioclase, pe hi ic po assium
eldspa , amphibole, spa i e calci e nodules, mic i ic nodules, spa hic calci e, blackish in-
clusions and a e bio i e la hs, py oxenes, ga ne s, e c. ha e been ecognised (Figu e 4a–c).
Some g og agmen s a e also obse ed. The ab ic TP 1.2 shows simila ea u es o TP 1.1,
al hough i is dis inguished by he occu ence o high-sphe ici y qua z inclusions wi h a
homogeneous g ain size (Figu e 4d).
Mine als2023,13,8877o 22



Figu e4.Rep esen a i e hinsec ionpho omic og aphso  heG1 ab icce amic omdi e en si es.
(a):Fab icTP1.1 omA biumsi e(sampleARBI‐10,PPL).(b):Inclusionso calci espa ,ca bona e
agmen sandepido eincludedinTP1.1 ab ic omBayonnesi e(sampleBAY‐36,PPL).(c):Cal‐
ci e,epido e,andpy oxeneinclusionso  heTP1.1 ab ic omZa au zsi e,(SNR‐18,PPL).(d):
Tex u eo  heTP1.2pe og aphic ab ic omDax,(DAX‐79‐19,XPL),PPL:pa allel‐pola isedligh ,
XPL:c oss‐pola isedligh .
TheG2 ab icg oupiscomposedo  h eepe og aphic ab ics.Thepe og aphic ab‐
icTP2.1is hemos abundan ,accoun ing o 80%(36/45)o  heG2wa es.Thesece amics
a echa ac e isedbya ine‐g ainedg oundmass a ying omclayey osandyinna u e,
wi hangula  osub oundedcoa seinclusions anging om0.5 o6mminsize.Thepo es
p esen asingle‐ odouble‐spaced ela eddis ibu ionanda eo ien edpa allel o he
esselma gin.Thenumbe o inclusions angesbe ween15%and25%and hei o ien a‐
ionismainlypa allel o hema gins,showingpoo so ingwi habimodalg ainsize
dis ibu ion.Thecoa se ac ionincludes ock agmen smainlyo qua z‐ eldspa icig‐
neous‐ elsicna u e, equen me amo phic ockswi hsillimani eanda ewsands ones.
Inaddi ion,mine al agmen ssuchasmono‐andpolyc ys allinequa zwi hundulose
ex inc ion,po assium eldspa andblackishinclusionsa e equen ,whilemusco i e,bi‐
o i ela hsandamphibolea e e y ew.Twoendsubg oups,o sub ab ics,canbedis in‐
guisheddependingon heclayeyo sandyna u eo  heg oundmass.Thesandyma ix
cons i u esoneo  heendsubg oupscha ac e isedbyabimodalg ainsizedis ibu ion
(modes angingbe ween0.125–0.25mmand0.5–2.0mm)o mainlysubangula qua z‐
eldspa hicinclusions(Figu e5a,b).
The ab icTP2.2wasonlyiden i ieda  wosi es,accoun ing o 13%(6/45)o  heG2
g oupwa es.Dependingon hesi eloca iono  hesamples, heg oundmass a iesbe‐
weenclayey(Molie ssi e)andsandy(Bayonnesi e),wi hpo esp esen ingasingle‐o 
double‐spaced ela eddis ibu ionandap e e edo ien a ionpa allel o he esselma ‐
gins.Asa ule, heinclusions(15%–20%)showabimodalg ainsizedis ibu ionwi h
commonpoo lyso ed,sub ounded osubangula  ine ocoa seinclusionso  equen 
qua zg ainsands onglyal e ed eldspa s(0.125–0.5mm),especiallyidiomo phicpla‐
gioclase, hela e beingdis inc i eo  hispe og aphic ype.Abundan  ounded oan‐
gula qua z‐ eldspa and a emicainclusionsa eobse edwi hin he ine‐g ained
g oundmass.Addi ionally, a emusco i e‐bea ingg ani ic ock agmen s,sca ceg an‐
odio i icaswellassedimen a y ock agmen sa ealsoobse ed(Figu e5c).
Figu e 4.
Rep esen a i e hin sec ion pho omic og aphs o he G1 ab ic ce amic om di e en si es.
(
a
): Fab ic TP 1.1 om A bium si e (sample ARBI-10, PPL). (
b
): Inclusions o calci e spa , ca bona e
agmen s and epido e included in TP 1.1 ab ic om Bayonne si e (sample BAY-36, PPL). (
c
): Calci e,
epido e, and py oxene inclusions o he TP 1.1 ab ic om Za au z si e, (SNR-18, PPL). (
d
): Tex u e
o he TP 1.2 pe og aphic ab ic om Dax, (DAX-79-19, XPL), PPL: pa allel-pola ised ligh , XPL:
c oss-pola ised ligh .
The G2 ab ic g oup is composed o h ee pe og aphic ab ics. The pe og aphic
ab ic TP 2.1 is he mos abundan , accoun ing o 80% (36/45) o he G2 wa es. These
ce amics a e cha ac e ised by a ine-g ained g oundmass a ying om clayey o sandy
in na u e, wi h angula o sub ounded coa se inclusions anging om 0.5 o 6 mm in
size. The po es p esen a single- o double-spaced ela ed dis ibu ion and a e o ien ed
pa allel o he essel ma gin. The numbe o inclusions anges be ween 15% and 25% and
hei o ien a ion is mainly pa allel o he ma gins, showing poo so ing wi h a bimodal
Mine als 2023,13, 887 7 o 21
g ain size dis ibu ion. The coa se ac ion includes ock agmen s mainly o qua z-
eldspa ic igneous- elsic na u e, equen me amo phic ocks wi h sillimani e and a ew
sands ones. In addi ion, mine al agmen s such as mono- and polyc ys alline qua z
wi h undulose ex inc ion, po assium eldspa and blackish inclusions a e equen , while
musco i e, bio i e la hs and amphibole a e e y ew. Two end subg oups, o sub ab ics,
can be dis inguished depending on he clayey o sandy na u e o he g oundmass. The
sandy ma ix cons i u es one o he end subg oups cha ac e ised by a bimodal g ain size
dis ibu ion (modes anging be ween 0.125–0.25 mm and 0.5–2.0 mm) o mainly subangula
qua z- eldspa hic inclusions (Figu e 5a,b).
Mine als2023,13,8878o 22



Figu e5.Pho omic og aphsshowingpe og aphic ea u eso  heG2 ab icg oup.(a):Sandyma ix
endsubg oupshowingbimodaldis ibu ionso angula inclusionsdis inc i eo TP2.1 ab ic(sam‐
pleSNR‐33,XPL).No esillimani e‐bea ing ock agmen a  hecen e.(b):Theclayeyma ixend
subg oupshowscoa seangula inclusionso TP2.1 ab ic(sampleF‐55,XPL).(c):Rep esen a i e
TP2.2 ab icshowingsub‐ ounded osub‐angula qua zwi hidiomo phicplagioclaseinclusions
(sampleBAY‐39,XPL).(d):Polygeniccha ac e o  heTP2.3 ab ic;no e heelonga edsla e agmen 
(sampleGEA‐8,PPL);PPL:pa allel‐pola isedligh ,XPL:c oss‐pola isedligh .
Only h eesamplescons i u e heTP2.3pe og aphic ab ic.This ab icisno ably
polygenic,includinga ine‐g ained(<0.1mm)qua z‐ eldspa hicandmusco i esandy
g oundmass,andamedium‐coa se ac ion(0.25–1.25mm)including,mainlysubangu‐
la ‐sub ounded,poo lyso edinclusionso di e en composi ion.Thecoa seinclusions
(30%–40%)displayaclose‐spaced odouble‐spaced ela eddis ibu ionandap e e ed
o ien a ionpa allel o he esselma gins.Thecoa se ac ionconsis so commonmono‐
andpolyc ys allinequa z,po assium eldspa ,al e edplagioclaseanda ewbio i e,py‐
oxene,andcalci eagg ega es.Addi ionally, a e ock agmen so di e en o iginsa e
included:sla e agmen sin heGe a ia‐Za au zJau egiasample,sub olcanic ocksdis‐
playingophi ic ex u ein heA biunsampleandhigh‐g ademe amo phic ockswi hsil‐
limani e agmen sin heLalonque esample(Figu e5d).
TheG3 ab icg oupis heleas commona  hesi esand hemos he e ogeneous
basedonpe og aphicc i e ia,includingsixpe og aphic ab ics.Theoccu enceo each
pe og aphic ab icismainly es ic ed oasinglea chaeologicalsi e.TheTP3.1 ab ic
includes11samples om heDaxandSan aElenasi es.Theoccu enceo chessboa d
subg ainpa e nsinqua zis hedis inc i e ea u eo  his ab ic(Figu e6a).The ab icis
cha ac e isedbya e y ineclayeyma ixwi ha ewo ien edpo espa allel o essel
ma gins.Themode a elyso edcoa se ac ion(20%–25%)ismainlycomposedo qua z
inclusionso high oundnessandsphe ici yandqua zinclusionso  a iableg ainsize
(0.25–1.25mm),insomecaseswi hbimodaldis ibu ion.Inaddi ion ope hi icpo as‐
sium eldspa , he eisacommonoccu enceo plagioclase eplacedbyepido eand
b ownbio i e.Mo e a ely, wo‐micag ani e agmen soccu .
Pe og aphic ab icTP3.2is hemos nume ousandwidelydis ibu ed ab icin he
G3g oupandincludes25samples omFo ua‐PeñaFo ua,San iagomendi,San aElena,
Sain ‐Paul‐en‐Bo n,Pa diesandDax.Thedis inc i e ea u eo  his ab icis hep esence
o idiomo phicplagioclaseinclusions(Figu e6b)sca e edinaclayey‐sandyma ix,
some imes ichinmicas.Thecoa se ac ioninclusions(15%–20%)a esubangula  o
oundedinshape,wi h a iableg ainsize anging om e y ine og a elsize(0.1–2.5
mm),poo lyso edanda angedinabimodalg ainsizedis ibu ion.F equen inclusions
Figu e 5.
Pho omic og aphs showing pe og aphic ea u es o he G2 ab ic g oup. (
a
): Sandy
ma ix end subg oup showing bimodal dis ibu ions o angula inclusions dis inc i e o TP 2.1 ab ic
(sample SNR-33, XPL). No e sillimani e-bea ing ock agmen a he cen e. (
b
): The clayey ma ix
end subg oup shows coa se angula inclusions o TP 2.1 ab ic (sample F-55, XPL). (
c
): Rep esen a i e
TP 2.2 ab ic showing sub- ounded o sub-angula qua z wi h idiomo phic plagioclase inclusions
(sample BAY-39, XPL). (
d
): Polygenic cha ac e o he TP 2.3 ab ic; no e he elonga ed sla e agmen
(sample GEA-8, PPL); PPL: pa allel-pola ised ligh , XPL: c oss-pola ised ligh .
The ab ic TP 2.2 was only iden i ied a wo si es, accoun ing o 13% (6/45) o he
G2 g oup wa es. Depending on he si e loca ion o he samples, he g oundmass a ies
be ween clayey (Molie s si e) and sandy (Bayonne si e), wi h po es p esen ing a single- o
double-spaced ela ed dis ibu ion and a p e e ed o ien a ion pa allel o he essel ma gins.
As a ule, he inclusions (15%–20%) show a bimodal g ain size dis ibu ion wi h common
poo ly so ed, sub ounded o subangula ine o coa se inclusions o equen qua z g ains
and s ongly al e ed eldspa s (0.125–0.5 mm), especially idiomo phic plagioclase, he la e
being dis inc i e o his pe og aphic ype. Abundan ounded o angula qua z- eldspa
and a e mica inclusions a e obse ed wi hin he ine-g ained g oundmass. Addi ionally,
a e musco i e-bea ing g ani ic ock agmen s, sca ce g anodio i ic as well as sedimen a y
ock agmen s a e also obse ed (Figu e 5c).
Only h ee samples cons i u e he TP 2.3 pe og aphic ab ic. This ab ic is no ably
polygenic, including a ine-g ained (<0.1 mm) qua z- eldspa hic and musco i e sandy
g oundmass, and a medium-coa se ac ion (0.25–1.25 mm) including, mainly subangula -
sub ounded, poo ly so ed inclusions o di e en composi ion. The coa se inclusions
Mine als 2023,13, 887 8 o 21
(30%–40%) display a close-spaced o double-spaced ela ed dis ibu ion and a p e e ed
o ien a ion pa allel o he essel ma gins. The coa se ac ion consis s o common mono-
and polyc ys alline qua z, po assium eldspa , al e ed plagioclase and a ew bio i e, py-
oxene, and calci e agg ega es. Addi ionally, a e ock agmen s o di e en o igins a e
included: sla e agmen s in he Ge a ia-Za au z Jau egia sample, sub olcanic ocks dis-
playing ophi ic ex u e in he A biun sample and high-g ade me amo phic ocks wi h
sillimani e agmen s in he Lalonque e sample (Figu e 5d).
The G3 ab ic g oup is he leas common a he si es and he mos he e ogeneous
based on pe og aphic c i e ia, including six pe og aphic ab ics. The occu ence o each
pe og aphic ab ic is mainly es ic ed o a single a chaeological si e. The TP 3.1 ab ic
includes 11 samples om he Dax and San a Elena si es. The occu ence o chessboa d
subg ain pa e ns in qua z is he dis inc i e ea u e o his ab ic (Figu e 6a). The ab ic
is cha ac e ised by a e y ine clayey ma ix wi h a ew o ien ed po es pa allel o essel
ma gins. The mode a ely so ed coa se ac ion (20%–25%) is mainly composed o qua z
inclusions o high oundness and sphe ici y and qua z inclusions o a iable g ain size
(0.25–1.25 mm), in some cases wi h bimodal dis ibu ion. In addi ion o pe hi ic po assium
eldspa , he e is a common occu ence o plagioclase eplaced by epido e and b own
bio i e. Mo e a ely, wo-mica g ani e agmen s occu .
Mine als2023,13,8879o 22


we equa z(mono‐andpolyc ys alline),zonedandpoo lyal e edplagioclase,common
pe hi icpo assium eldspa ,g ani e agmen sand e y ewbio i ela hsandamphibole.
Pe og aphic ab icTP3.3comp isesonly h eesamplesandoccu sa Ge a ia‐
Za au zJau egiaandSan aElena.Themos dis inc i e ea u eis hep esenceo coa se
(0.25–0.50mm)highlysphe icaland oundedqua zandpo assium eldspa inclusions
(30%–40%),sp eadina e y ineclayeyma ix.Theydisplayamode a elyso ed,bi‐
modalg ainsizedis ibu ion.F equen inclusionsa emono‐andpolyc ys allinequa z
wi hcommonal e edcoa seplagioclase(≤1.3mm),g ani oid agmen so a ewsla es
and e uginoussands ones(Figu e6c).

Figu e6.Pho omic og aphsshowingpe og aphic ea u eso  heG3 ab icg oup.(a):Pe og aphic
ab icTP3.1p esen ing oundedchessboa dpa e nqua z(sampleDAX‐79‐3,XPL).(b):Idiomo ‐
phicplagioclasedis inc i eo  heTP3.2 ab ic(sampleF‐16,XPL).(c):Highlysphe icaland ounded
qua zg ainsembeddedina e y ineclayeyma ixdis inc i eo  heTP3.3 ab ic(sampleGEA‐4,
XPL).(d):TheTP3.4 ab icincludespolygenicinclusionssuchassla esandschis s,bio i ic‐amphi‐
boleg anodio i esandsands ones(sampleLesca ‐10,PPL).(e):Clayeyma ixwi h e y inequa z
g ainswi h andomcoa sequa z agmen so TP3.5 ab ic(sampleSTGR‐17,XPL).( ):TP3.6
ab icshowingmode a elyso edpolygenicinclusions(sampleDAX‐5,XPL).PPL:pa allel‐pola ‐
isedligh ,XPL:c oss‐pola isedligh .
Pe og aphic ab icTP3.4includessixsamples om heLesca si e.Wa eso  his
ab icshowa ineclayeyma ix,wi h ewpo espa allel o he esselma gin.Thepoly‐
genicinclusions(25%–35%)displayabimodalg ainsizedis ibu ionwi hapoo lyso ed
coa se ac ion(0.8–2mm)o angula  osub oundedshapes.Thena u eo  heinclusions
isdi e se,including equen  agmen so me amo phic ocks( equen sla esand
schis s,someo g a elsize>2mm),commonsub oundedigneous ock agmen s(am‐
phiboleg anodio i es,sub olcanic ockswi hophi ic ex u es)and e y ewsedimen a y
li hic agmen s(sands ones)(Figu e6d).
Figu e 6.
Pho omic og aphs showing pe og aphic ea u es o he G3 ab ic g oup. (
a
): Pe og aphic
ab ic TP 3.1 p esen ing ounded chessboa d pa e n qua z (sample DAX-79-3, XPL). (
b
): Idiomo phic
plagioclase dis inc i e o he TP 3.2 ab ic (sample F-16, XPL). (
c
): Highly sphe ical and ounded
qua z g ains embedded in a e y ine clayey ma ix dis inc i e o he TP 3.3 ab ic (sample GEA-4,
XPL). (
d
): The TP 3.4 ab ic includes polygenic inclusions such as sla es and schis s, bio i ic-amphibole
g anodio i es and sands ones (sample Lesca -10, PPL). (
e
): Clayey ma ix wi h e y ine qua z g ains
wi h andom coa se qua z agmen s o TP 3.5 ab ic (sample STGR-17, XPL). (
): TP 3.6 ab ic
showing mode a ely so ed polygenic inclusions (sample DAX-5, XPL). PPL: pa allel-pola ised ligh ,
XPL: c oss-pola ised ligh .
Mine als 2023,13, 887 9 o 21
Pe og aphic ab ic TP 3.2 is he mos nume ous and widely dis ibu ed ab ic in he
G3 g oup and includes 25 samples om Fo ua-Peña Fo ua, San iagomendi, San a Elena,
Sain -Paul-en-Bo n, Pa dies and Dax. The dis inc i e ea u e o his ab ic is he p esence o
idiomo phic plagioclase inclusions (Figu e 6b) sca e ed in a clayey-sandy ma ix, some-
imes ich in micas. The coa se ac ion inclusions (15–20%) a e subangula o ounded in
shape, wi h a iable g ain size anging om e y ine o g a el size (
0.1–2.5 mm
), poo ly
so ed and a anged in a bimodal g ain size dis ibu ion. F equen inclusions we e qua z
(mono- and polyc ys alline), zoned and poo ly al e ed plagioclase, common pe hi ic
po assium eldspa , g ani e agmen s and e y ew bio i e la hs and amphibole.
Pe og aphic ab ic TP 3.3 comp ises only h ee samples and occu s a Ge a ia-Za au z
Jau egia and San a Elena. The mos dis inc i e ea u e is he p esence o coa se (
0.25–0.50 mm
)
highly sphe ical and ounded qua z and po assium eldspa inclusions (30–40%), sp ead in
a e y ine clayey ma ix. They display a mode a ely so ed, bimodal g ain size dis ibu ion.
F equen inclusions a e mono- and polyc ys alline qua z wi h common al e ed coa se
plagioclase (
≤
1.3 mm), g ani oid agmen s o a ew sla es and e uginous sands ones
(Figu e 6c).
Pe og aphic ab ic TP 3.4 includes six samples om he Lesca si e. Wa es o his
ab ic show a ine clayey ma ix, wi h ew po es pa allel o he essel ma gin. The polygenic
inclusions (25–35%) display a bimodal g ain size dis ibu ion wi h a poo ly so ed coa se
ac ion (0.8–2 mm) o angula o sub ounded shapes. The na u e o he inclusions is
di e se, including equen agmen s o me amo phic ocks ( equen sla es and schis s,
some o g a el size > 2 mm), common sub ounded igneous ock agmen s (amphibole
g anodio i es, sub olcanic ocks wi h ophi ic ex u es) and e y ew sedimen a y li hic
agmen s (sands ones) (Figu e 6d).
Only wo samples om he San iagomendi si e de ine he TP 3.5 pe og aphic ab ic.
These samples a e cha ac e ised by a mainly clayey ma ix wi h po es in an open-spaced,
ela ed dis ibu ion. The nonplas ic inclusions (<10%) display an open-spaced ela ed dis i-
bu ion, medium g ain size (0.25–0.80 mm) and a iable sub ounded o subangula shapes,
hus de ining a poo ly so ed ab ic wi h a bimodal g ain size dis ibu ion. F agmen s o
g ani ic ocks and agmen s o po assium eldspa , plagioclase and qua z a e common
(Figu e 6e).
Pe og aphic ab ic TP 3.6 includes i e samples om he Dax si e. This ab ic shows
pe og aphic simila i ies o he TP 1.1 ab ic ega ding he he e ogeneous composi ion
o inclusions. The coa se-g ained (0.25–0.5 mm) inclusions (35–45%) e lec a bimodal
g ain size dis ibu ion wi h poo ly o mode a ely so ed ab ic. The angula o sub ounded
inclusions p esen a closed- o double-spaced ela ed dis ibu ion and co espond o a ious
ypes o sedimen a y, igneous, and me amo phic agmen s (Figu e 6 ).
4.2. X- ay Powde Di ac ion
X- ay powde di ac ion esul s ag ee wi h he da a ob ained by mine alogical and
pe og aphic obse a ions. Figu e 7shows a ep esen a i e di ac og am pe po e y ab ic
g oup. The samples a e composed o qua z, phyllosilica es, eldspa s (bo h plagioclase
and po assium eldspa ) and mino amoun s o calci e and i anium oxides.
Qua z is he mos abundan mine al in he h ee ab ic g oups, wi h an a e age
con en o 50%. The mos homogeneous con en s in qua z a e ound in he G2 g oup
samples, while con en s below 30% a e obse ed in some G1 g oup samples and abo e
60% in some G3 g oup samples. Phyllosilica es a e he second mos abundan mine als,
wi h a e age alues o app oxima ely 40%. Phyllosilica es a y in e sely wi h qua z
con en , al hough in some cases a ia ions a e ela ed o eldspa and ca bona e con en .
The mos signi ican mine alogical di e ence be ween he h ee ab ic g oups is ela ed
o he mino mine als such as eldspa and calci e. Feldspa con en (plagioclase and
po assium eldspa ) is by a he highes in he G3 ab ic samples. The samples om he
Molie s, Pa dies, Bayonne and Dax si es show abo e-a e age eldspa con en s. In ac ,
Molie s samples con ain up o 30% plagioclase and up o 10% po assium eldspa . Wi h
Mine als 2023,13, 887 16 o 21
Roman Empi e (1s –2nd cen u y), al hough some samples ha e been ound in la e Roman
a chaeological con ex s a he geog aphically e y close si es o A biun, Ge a ia-Za au z
Jau egia and San a Ma ia la Real [29].
The G2 ab ic g oup was geog aphically dis ibu ed in bo h p o inces in he ea ly
Roman pe iod. Pe og aphically, i is mo e homogeneous han he G1 g oup. Thus, he
pe og aphic ab ic TP 2.1 occu s a Ta aconensis si es, whe eas he ab ic TP 2.2 occu s a
Aqui ania si es, al hough ecen unpublished s udies ecognise he occu ence o TP 2.1
ab ic a se e al Aqui anian si es. In addi ion, some wa es o TP 2.1 ab ic show g a i i
a ibu ed o he po e [
34
,
71
]. As wi h he p e ious G1 po e y, he pe og aphic ab ic o
he G2 g oup indica es ha he aw ma e ials mus be linked o he a eas whe e plu onic and
high-g ade me amo phic ocks occu ; hus, he sedimen s used as aw ma e ials o igina ed
om he Axial Zone o cen al Py enees. The Palaeozoic U suya Massi in he wes e nmos
Py enees, which includes dio i e plu onic and high-g ade me amo phic ocks [
72
] and is
d ained by he Ni e Ri e and i s ibu a ies, may be he mos likely sou ce a ea o he aw
ma e ial. In addi ion, he g ain size he e ogenei y and high angula i y o he inclusions
indica e a p o enance a ea om he middle-uppe Ni e Ri e basin (Figu e 12; Table S2).
Al hough he p o enance a ea o he aw ma e ial can be a ibu ed o he Ni e Ri e
basin, he egional geog aphical dis ibu ion o he pe og aphic ab ics sugges s se e al
p oduc ion cen es wi h di e en supply a eas. The p oduc ion cen es o hese ce amics
mus he e o e be loca ed in sou he n Aqui ania.
The po e y o he G3 ab ic g oup is he mos he e ogeneous, as shown by he wide
a ie y o pe og aphic ab ics, and has been ound in bo h Aqui ania and Ta aconensis
p o inces. Ch onologically, i co esponds o he ea ly Roman pe iod (1s –2nd cen u y) a
he si es o Lesca , Pa dies (Aqui ania) and San a Elena, San iagomendi si es (Ta aconensis),
and o he La e Roman pe iod (4 h–5 h cen u y) o mos o he po e y a he Dax si e. In
mos cases, each o he pe og aphic ab ics has been ound a a single a chaeological si e,
sugges ing a local p o enance o he aw ma e ial o each si e (Figu e 12; Table S2). Mos
o he TP 3.1 wa es we e ound a he Dax si e and a e cha ac e ised by polyc ys alline
chessboa d-pa e ned qua z inclusions. These mic os uc u es we e desc ibed o Lys
and Néou ielle plu on li hologies wi hin he axial zone o he Py enees a he headwa e s
o he Adou Ri e [
31
,
32
]. The Adou Ri e hen anspo ed he sedimen s o med by
he wea he ing and e osion o hese ma e ials o he middle o lowe eaches o he i e ,
whe e he aw ma e ial supply a ea was loca ed. The TP 3.2 pe og aphic ab ic is he mos
common and is ound a si es on bo h sides o he Py enees. The occu ence o idiomo phic
plagioclase indica es ha he sedimen s we e o med close o he plu onic a eas. The e o e,
he aw ma e ial supply a ea can p obably be loca ed in he wes e n Py enees wi hin he
Adou Ri e basin, al hough he Oia zun o Bidasoa Ri e basins canno be excluded [
31
].
The pe og aphic ab ics TP 3.3 and TP 3.5 occu only a Ta aconensis si es. The high
sphe ici y and high oundness o he qua z g ains occu ing in TP 3.3 indica e ha he
aw ma e ial supply can be he coas al dune deposi s consis en wi h he Landes egion
bo de ing he Bay o Biscay in he Aqui ania Basin. The decan ed ab ic wi hou he empe
o he TP 3.5 makes acing he p o enance di icul . The ab ic TP 3.4 occu s only a he
Lesca si e in Aqui ania. The la ge g ain size, high angula i y and polygenic na u e o he
inclusions o his ab ic sugges a sou ce o aw ma e ial close o he i e headwa e s. The
local sedimen s o med in he uppe basin o he Ga e de Pau ( ibu a y o he Adou ) can
be conside ed a aw ma e ial sou ce o his po e y. The ab ic TP 3.6 was es ic ed o
he Dax si e. As in he p e ious case, he low equency and limi ed dis ibu ion o he
essels and he ab ic cha ac e is ics sugges he use o local clays compa ible wi h he
Adou deposi s ha domina e his a ea.
The s udied po e y appea s a si es associa ed wi h ma i ime, land o lu ial commu-
nica ion ou es, bo h coas al and e es ial. The p oduc ion o G1 po e y was widesp ead
in he s udied egion a ound he Bay o Biscay, wi h he g ea es p oduc ion and di usion
du ing he La e Empi e imes. Al hough G1 po e y p oduc ion s a ed in he Ea ly Empi e,
i was no un il he La e Empi e ha i became egionally widesp ead. The homogenei y

Mine als 2023,13, 887 17 o 21
o his ype o ab ic indica es ca e ul p ocessing o he aw ma e ials, sugges ing a po e y
wo kshop complex loca ed in sou he n Aqui ania. The good quali y o he po e y and he
de elopmen o obus ade ne wo ks a ou ed i s widesp ead dis ibu ion, as e idenced
by he p o use occu ence o hese wa es a ound he Bay o Biscay om Galicia o Bo deaux,
and by he inland ade along he Eb o Ri e as a as Sa agossa [28,67,73–75].
The p oduc ion o he G2 po e y g oup occu ed mainly in he Ea ly Empi e pe iod,
al hough some samples we e ound in La e Empi e con ex s. The sligh ex u al a iabili y
sugges s a common echnological adi ion wi h small a ia ions in he po e y’s manu ac-
u e and sligh di e ences in he p o enance o aw ma e ials om he wes e n Py enees, in
sou he n Aqui ania du ing he ea ly Roman pe iod. Fu he mo e, he es ic ed dis ibu ion
o his p oduc ion on coas al si es sugges s a p e e en ial geog aphical dis ibu ion o e
inland a eas.
The G3 po e y g oup occu s in wo pe iods, du ing he Ea ly Empi e and a he end
o he La e Empi e. This p oduc ion displays a limi ed and he e ogeneous dis ibu ion
ne wo k, occu ing mainly in he Aqui ania si es and in some o he eas e nmos si es o he
Ta aconensis p o ince. Local aw ma e ial p o enance indica es local po e y p oduc ion
using simila echnological pa e ns. Local p oduc ions sugges sys ems o ade ne wo ks
ha we e no ye consolida ed in he Ea ly Empi e, while in he La e Empi e he e was
a weakening o he ade ne wo ks, coinciding wi h he c isis a he end o he empi e,
leading o hei decons uc ion and a e-localisa ion o po e y p oduc ion.
6. Conclusions
The use o chemical composi ion in po e y p o enance and di usion s udies should
be aken wi h cau ion, as he composi ion may ha e unde gone modi ica ions ei he by he
use o he po e y o by bu ial p ocesses. The p esen s udy o po e y om se e al si es
displays di e en pa e ns o chemical modi ica ion, limi ing hei use as a ool o s udying
hei p o enance and di usion. Ne e heless, he mine alogical and mic os uc u al
composi ion o he ab ics does no change du ing bu ial, e lec ing he o iginal ea u es o
he aw ma e ials and allowing he iden i ica ion o p o enance a eas and ade ne wo ks.
The pe og aphy s udy has also been applied o he common non-wheel h own
po e y om he Roman Aqui ania-Ta aconensis p o inces (CNT-AQTA), enabling he
es ablishmen o di usion and ade pa e ns du ing Roman imes a ound he Bay o Biscay.
Technological pe sis ence in po e y p oduc ion adi ions was obse ed h oughou he
Roman Empi e. Va ia ions in bo h he dis ibu ion pa e ns and he p o enance a eas o
po e y du ing Roman imes ha e also been iden i ied.
The ch onology o he manu ac u e and sp ead o CNT-AQTA po e y begins locally
in Aqui ania. Then, du ing he Ea ly Empi e, po e y o he G2 g oup was manu ac u ed
in se e al p oduc ion cen es in sou he n Aqui ania ollowing he same echnological
adi ion. This wa e p oduc ion was he mos widesp ead bu es ic ed o coas al si es,
sugges ing a well-consolida ed dis ibu ion ne wo k bu limi ed o ma i ime a ic a ound
he Bay o Biscay. Du ing he La e Empi e pe iod, G1 po e y p oduc ion was p edominan
and widely dis ibu ed bo h along he coas and in inland e i o ies in he p o inces o
Aqui ania and Ta aconensis. These wa es we e manu ac u ed in he cen es o p oduc ion
in sou he n Aqui ania and/o a b oade egion su ounding he Py enees and widely
dis ibu ed h ough a well-es ablished ade ne wo k. Finally, du ing he inal pe iod o
he la e Roman Empi e, locally manu ac u ed G3 po e y was p oduced, p ese ing he
echnological adi ion bu wi h a educed dis ibu ion and comme cial capaci y, close o
he Aqui ania egion and he eas e nmos Ta aconensis si es, e lec ing he de e io a ion o
he ade ne wo ks.
Supplemen a y Ma e ials:
The ollowing suppo ing in o ma ion can be downloaded a :
h ps://www.mdpi.com/a icle/10.3390/min13070887/s1, Table S1: A chaeological si e, po e y
g oup, pe og aphic ab ic, essel ypology and epoch o he s udied samples, Table S2: Li hologies
ou c opping in he su oundings o he s udied a chaeological si es.
Mine als 2023,13, 887 18 o 21
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, L.Á.O., A.A.-O., M.C.Z. and A.M.-S.; me hodology,
L.Á.O., A.A.-O. and M.C.Z.; in es iga ion, A.A.-O., L.Á.O., M.C.Z. and A.M.-S.; esou ces, A.A.-O.,
L.Á.O., M.C.Z., A.M.-S., M.T.I.-M., M.E.-D. and F.R.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, L.Á.O.,
M.C.Z. and A.A.-O.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, L.Á.O. and M.C.Z.; unding acquisi ion, A.A.-O.,
L.Á.O., M.C.Z., A.M.-S., M.T.I.-M., M.E.-D. and F.R. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by Fundación JoséMiguel de Ba andia an Fundazioa, g an
numbe 2004, and he Basque Coun y go e nmen , g an numbe IT1442-22. The APC was unded
by he Basque Coun y go e nmen , g an numbe IT1442-22.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No applicable.
Acknowledgmen s:
We would like o hank he A chaeological Museum o Bilbao (Bizkaia), he
Gipuzkoa He i age Collec ion Cen e, he A chaeological Museum o Ala a and he Py enees A lan-
iques A chaeological Deposi Cen e (Haspa en, F ance) o he p o ision o ma e ial o his s udy.
We highly app ecia e e iewe s’ insigh ul co ec ions and commen s on imp o ing he pape . We
a e also g a e ul o Pe e Smi h o he language assis ance.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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