Ci a ion: Vázquez-Calle, K.;
Guillén-Mena, V.; Quesada-Molina, F.
Analysis o he Embodied Ene gy
and CO2Emissions o Ready-Mixed
Conc e e: A Case S udy in Cuenca,
Ecuado . Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ma15144896
Academic Edi o : F ancesca
Ti a elli
Recei ed: 14 May 2022
Accep ed: 17 June 2022
Published: 14 July 2022
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ma e ials
A icle
Analysis o he Embodied Ene gy and CO2Emissions o
Ready-Mixed Conc e e: A Case S udy in Cuenca, Ecuado
Ka la Vázquez-Calle 1, Vanessa Guillén-Mena 2,* and Felipe Quesada-Molina 3
1
GAD Municipal de Azogues, Solano y Ma o elle, Azogues 030102, Ecuado ; [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Ene gy Enginee ing, Facul y o Enginee ing o Bilbao, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
UPV/EHU, Ingenie o To es Que edo Plaza 1, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
3Enginee ing, Indus y and Cons uc ion Uni , Ca holic Uni e si y o Cuenca, A . De las Amé icas S-N y
Humbold , Cuenca 010105, Ecuado ; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Conc e e is he mos commonly cons uc ion ma e ial used wo ldwide. In con as o
o he coun ies, Ecuado lacks s udies ha de e mine he en i onmen al impac o he p oduc ion
o cons uc ion ma e ials. This esea ch p esen s a quan i ica ion o embodied ene gy and CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h he conc e e p oduc ion, using as a case s udy a eady-mixed conc e e
plan in he ci y o Cuenca, Ecuado . The s udy was based on he Li e Cycle Assessmen me hodology
es ablished by ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, and he 2006 In e go e nmen al Panel o Expe s on Clima e
Change (IPCC) Guidelines o Na ional G eenhouse Gas In en o ies. The p oduc ion o eady-mixed
conc e e was conside ed o one yea , wi h a “ga e o ga e” app oach including he “ anspo o aw
ma e ial” o he conc e e plan and he subsequen “ anspo o inal p oduc ” o he cons uc ion si e.
The esul s e ealed ha o p oduce 1 m
3
o eady-mixed conc e e, i s p oduc ion equi ed
568.69 MJ
o ene gy, accompanied by 42.83 kg CO
2
. Indi ec anspo gene a es he g ea es en i onmen al
impac , especially he “ anspo o aw ma e ials”, which ep esen s app oxima ely 80% o he
embodied ene gy and 79% o CO2emission.
Keywo ds:
ca bon oo p in ; embodied ene gy; en i onmen al impac ; in en o y; li e-cycle
assessmen
1. In oduc ion
A he global le el, he cons uc ion indus y engages in ac i i y ha consumes he
mos na u al esou ces [
1
–
3
]. I is a ibu ed 60% o he ex ac ed aw ma e ial and i
is associa ed wi h 40% o p ima y ene gy consump ion and 33% o CO
2
emissions [
4
,
5
].
This si ua ion esul s in a dec ease in esou ces o u u e gene a ions [
6
]. Hence, he
need o ans o m he guidelines o p oduc ion and consump ion om open p ocesses
o was e gene a ion o closed cycle p ocesses ha op imize esou ces and p o ec he
en i onmen [7,8].
Conc e e is he mos used cons uc ion ma e ial in he wo ld [
9
,
10
], wi h a global use
o app oxima ely 25 giga ons pe yea [
11
] and a e wa e , i is he mos consumed p oduc
on he plane [
12
]. E en hough pe kilog am i may ep esen a educed en i onmen al
impac compa ed o o he ma e ials such as s eel, glass, imbe and b ick, he olume
o conc e e used a ound he wo ld (es ima ed a o e 10 billion cubic me e s pe yea )
makes he indus y con ibu e signi ican ly o global CO
2
emissions and consumes la ge
amoun s o na u al esou ces [
13
]. Conc e e plan s consume 1000 million ons o wa e ,
be ween 1500 o 2000 million ons o cemen and 10,000 million ons o agg ega es [
14
,
15
].
Al hough abou 4000 million ons o Po land cemen a e manu ac u ed each yea , only
abou hal o he cemen is used o conc e e, he es is ese ed o mo a , plas e and
blocks [
15
]. Addi ionally, o each on o cemen used, 1.65 ons o limes one and 0.6 ons
o clay a e equi ed [
16
]. Also a la ge amoun o ossil uels a e equi ed [
14
]. Tha is,
wi hin he p oduc ion o conc e e, cemen consumes he mos ene gy and eleases he mos
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma15144896 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ma e ials
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 2 o 18
ca bon dioxide [
11
]. Consequen ially, conc e e is esponsible o app oxima ely 8% o CO
2
emissions wo ldwide [
10
]. Mos o hese emissions a e a ibu ed o he p oduc ion o
cemen [
11
], due o i s clinke iza ion p ocess based on u naces wi h high empe a u es
(1350–1400 ◦C) [17].
Acco ding o he s udy by [
18
], i was es ima ed ha in 2015, 2400 million cubic me e s
o eady-mixed conc e e we e p oduced in he wo ld. China is esponsible o mo e han
hal o ha olume, ollowed by he Uni ed S a es and he Eu opean Union (11% and
9%, espec i ely). In his scena io, Ibe oame ican coun ies ep esen 5.8%; howe e , in
o de o mee i s cons uc ion needs, La in Ame ica can signi ican ly inc ease pe capi a
conc e e consump ion.
In Ecuado , acco ding o he 2015 Annual Su ey o Buildings (Cons uc ion Pe mi s)
o he Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics and Censuses [
19
], i is e iden ha in he cons uc ion
indus y, he endency is o use conc e e as he main ma e ial. The cons uc ion o new
buildings was p ojec ed wi h he use o his ma e ial in 79.6% in i s ounda ions, 92.7% in
i s s uc u e and 54.2% as a co e ing.
In his con ex , wi h he objec i e o p o iding local in o ma ion ha con ibu es
o he gene a ion o a na ional da abase o cons uc ion ma e ials, which cu en ly does
no exis [
20
], he p esen esea ch p oposes o quan i y he embodied ene gy and CO
2
emissions o he en i onmen o each s age o eady-mixed conc e e p oduc ion. I will
allow decision make s o seek be e ways o minimize hei associa ed impac s. I is also
expec ed ha his documen will s eng hen cu en sus ainable ini ia i es and encou age
he de elopmen o new ones. I is impo an o poin ou ha he no el y o he s udy
consis s in he ield applica ion Li e Cycle Assessmen in a speci ic locali y, co esponding o
a egion ha lacks da abases o he Li e Cycle In en o y, such as Sou h Ame ica. The e o e,
in addi ion o he abo e, his esea ch will se e as a e e ence o o he s udies in
he egion
.
1.1. S udies on he Conc e e
Conc e e is used due o i s excellen cha ac e is ics, which include he ollowing:
good comp ession esis ance, good a igue beha io , excellen wa e esis ance, good i e
beha io and low main enance cos [
21
]. Ready-mixed conc e e is dosed in o he same plan
o in a mixing uck and anspo ed o he cons uc ion si e [
14
]. I consis s o a mix u e
o cemen wi h wa e (pas e), ine and coa se agg ega e, which can also con ain addi i es
ha imp o e i s p ope ies in bo h esh and ha dened s a es [
21
,
22
]. The pas e cons i u es
app oxima ely 25% o 40% o he o al olume o he conc e e, while he agg ega es make
up be ween 60% o 75% [23].
Conc e e is a ma e ial ha has g own in popula i y due o i s wide applica ion and
i s la ge impac on he en i onmen [
24
]. The po en ial impac s gene a ed du ing he
p oduc ion o conc e e ha e been iden i ied and quan i ied especially h ough he Li e Cycle
Assessmen (LCA) me hod ha is based on in e na ional s anda ds [
25
,
26
]. The main impac
ca ego ies iden i ied in conc e e s udies wi h LCA include global wa ming (especially CO
2
emissions) and consump ion o ene gy esou ces. Addi ionally, i is common o ind s udies
abou he use o aw ma e ials [27].
In e ms o global wa ming, CO
2
in addi ion o being emi ed du ing he conc e e man-
u ac u e, also comes la gely om he p oduc ion o cemen (as one o i s main componen s)
and om he acquisi ion o agg ega es and aw ma e ials [21,28,29].
In ela ion o he consump ion o ene gy esou ces, acco ding o [
30
] 2600 MJ and
4000 MJ
a e equi ed o p oduce 1 m
3
o simple conc e e and ein o ced conc e e, espec-
i ely. While o he p oduc ion o 1 m
3
o conc e e wi h na u al agg ega es, 1570.42 MJ a e
equi ed in Se bia [
31
]. A s udy in I eland de e mined ha o he p oduc ion o 1 kg o a
ypical conc e e equi es 1.08 MJ [32].
Rega ding he consump ion o aw ma e ials, i has been iden i ied in he li e a u e
ha he aim is o educe he amoun o clinke used in he manu ac u ing o cemen and he
eplacemen o pa o he aw ma e ial by adding ecycled ma e ials [
33
,
34
] o was es [
35
]
in he conc e e. A s udy ca ied ou in Ecuado de e mined ha he p oduc ion o one on
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 3 o 18
o cemen equi ed 3191.95 MJ o ene gy, o which 91.4% co esponds o he p oduc ion
o clinke [
36
]. Fo clinke educ ion, al e na i e non-Po land clinke s we e de eloped.
They a e man-made mine al ma e ials, which can be used as binde simila ly o O dina y
Po land cemen (OPC)-based clinke . Al hough he bene i s in e ms o educ ion in ene gy
equi emen and CO
2
emissions a e conside able, i s main limi a ion is ha he aw ma e ial
cos is signi ican ly highe han ha o OPC [
13
]. O he op ions unde explo a ion as pa ial
o o al eplacemen o OPC a e alkali-ac i a ed binde s and supplemen a y cemen i ious
ma e ials [
37
]. E en s udy [
38
] add esses he educ ion o he amoun o binde wi hou
a ec ing he echnical cha ac e is ics o he conc e e. To eplace pa o he aw ma e ial,
some esea che s [
39
,
40
] ha e s udied he use o ecycled conc e e agg ega e. Also some
ma e ials such as was e om cons uc ion and demoli ion eplace he bo h he ine ac ion
and he la ge ac ion o he agg ega e in he p oduc ion o conc e e, while ma ble sludge
and cemen kiln dus (CKD) could eplace he ine ac ion o he agg ega e [35,40]. O he
agg ega e op ions o conc e e can be iden i ied in [37].
Since he agg ega es come om he soil, no el me hods such as he one p oposed
by [
41
] could be used o adequa ely e alua e he physical and mechanical cha ac e is ics o
he ma e ials belongings o a ce ain zone. In his way, i is achie ed ha he knowledge
abou he cha ac e is ics o he ma e ials is ep esen a i e o he egion and ha he da a
is eliable [
41
]. This could ha e a posi i e impac on he ma e ials used in he p oduc ion
o conc e e, as i is hoped solu ions will be inc easingly sus ainable wi hou a ec ing he
ma e ial’s du abili y.
O he measu es ha a e conside ed o imp o e he en i onmen al pe o mance o
conc e e a e ela ed o inc easing he e iciency o he p ocess and signi ican ly educing he
use o non- enewable ene gy [
42
]. I is also impo an ha he de elopmen o me hodolog-
ical ools ha allow o he quan i ica ion and assessmen o en i onmen al impac s a each
s age o a p oduc ’s li e cycle [
14
]. The esea ch o [
13
] p oposes some ac ions o be aken
in o accoun in cemen plan s o inc ease e iciency by adop ing echnological ad ances
such as he use o a d y p ocess, mode n p e-calcine s, a new ype o clinke cooling sys em
and e ical olle mills. Addi ionally, we conside he use o al e na i e uels such as
biogas, used oils, wood was e, among o he s, and he use o indus ial by-p oduc s and
was e-de i ed ma e ials such as ag icul u al was es, ashes, i on, and s eel slags o pa ially
eplace limes one and clay. Howe e , in any o he op ions i is impo an o e i y ha he
quali y o he p oduc is no a ec ed. In he same s udy, he au ho s explo e o he cu en
ca bon dioxide educ ion al e na i es, such as he adop ion o ca bon cap u e, u iliza ion,
and s o age echnologies.
1.2. Li e Cycle Assessmen F amewo k
The Li e Cycle Assessmen consis s o ou phases: De ini ion o goal and scope, Li e
Cycle In en o y Analysis (LCI), Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen (LCIA) and Li e Cycle
In e p e a ion [
43
]. In he i s phase, he sys em bounda y mus be de ined, which can be:
(1)
F om “c adle o g a e” when i includes all he inpu s/ou pu s o he p ocesses
ha pa icipa e h oughou i s li ecycle, ex ac ion o aw ma e ial, p ocessing o
ma e ials o he manu ac u e o componen s, use o he p oduc , and ecycling o
inal managemen ;
(2)
F om “c adle o ga e” when he scope o he sys em bounda y is limi ed o in-
pu s/ou pu s om he ex ac ion o aw ma e ials un il he p oduc is placed on
he ma ke (lea ing he conc e e plan );
(3)
F om “ga e o ga e” when conside ing only he inpu s/ou pu s o he manu ac u ing
p ocess o he p oduc [
44
]. In he second phase, da a co esponding o he inpu s
and ou pu s a e collec ed o all he p ocesses o he p oduc sys em. Inpu s such
as aw ma e ials and ene gy a e quan i ied, and he ou pu s as emissions ( o ai ,
wa e and soil), and he p oduc ob ained, a e also conside ed. In he hi d phase,
he da a collec ed in he in en o y o inpu s and ou pu s a e ansla ed o indica o s
o po en ial en i onmen al impac s. Finally, in he ou h phase, he esul s o he
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 4 o 18
LCI and LCIA a e in e p e ed acco ding o he objec i es and scope ini ially de ined,
concluding wi h an analysis o esul s, and he o mula ion o conclusions [25].
O he LCA phases, wi h he excep ion o Eu opean coun ies and he Uni ed S a es,
he g ea es di icul ies a e ound in he LCI phase due o leng hy da a collec ion p ocesses,
since comple e in en o ies a e gene ally no a ailable o a e no eliable. Fu he mo e,
using o eign da abases can lead o e o s due o he echnology and powe sou ce used, i
no used p ope ly.
This me hodology is widely used o de e mine he en i onmen al impac s o cons uc-
ion ma e ials and se e al cu en s udies on conc e e use i [45–48]. Howe e , i has been
iden i ied ha some coun ies ha e de eloped some addi ional ools o s anda ds ha
con ibu e o he di e en s ages o he li e cycle; o example, in The Uni ed S a es, he Tool
o Reduc ion and Assessmen o Chemical and O he En i onmen al Impac s (TRACI)
was de eloped, while in Eu ope he S anda d UNE-EN 15804:2012 is used [
46
,
49
]. In bo h
cases hey p o ide cha ac e iza ion ac o s o li e cycle impac assessmen . Likewise, o he
en i onmen al assessmen me hods such as MFA (Ma e ial low accoun ) o SFA (Subs ance
Flow Analysis) ha e been iden i ied. MFA can be conside ed as a me hod o c ea e an in en-
o y o an LCA. I se es as a ool o he measu emen o and p edic ion o en i onmen al
p essu es om he use o ma e ials in an economy. Addi ionally, SFA may be conside ed as
a sub-se o MFA ha allows o iden i ying speci ic en i onmen al p oblems [50].
1.3. The Conc e e Indus y in Ecuado
The ene gy demand in Ecuado has inc eased conside ably in a decade (2009–2019),
going om 69 million BOE (Ba el o Oil Equi alen ) o 94 million BOE [
51
]. Acco ding o
he his o ical end, he anspo sec o is he la ges demande o na ional ene gy wi h
an a e age alue o 37.9 million BOE, while he cons uc ion and o he , esiden ial and
indus ial sec o s a e c edi ed wi h 9.5, 12.7 and 13.3 million BOE, espec i ely. [
51
]. Wi h
he inc ease in ene gy consump ion, g eenhouse gas emissions also show he same end;
in 10 yea s, hey ha e inc eased by 19.3%.
The conc e e indus y has an impac on he indica ed sec o s since, o example,
cemen (conc e e componen ha gene a es he g ea es en i onmen al impac s) p esen ed
a pe capi a consump ion o 347 kg/hab (yea 2019) [
52
], wi h Ecuado included in he
g oup o coun ies wi h he highes consump ion o cemen pe inhabi an [
36
]. The la ges
p oduc ion o cemen occu s in he coas al a ea o he coun y, con ibu ing wi h 62.8%
o he o al olume. O he a eas such as he no h and he cen e -sou h con ibu e wi h
18.6% each one [
47
]. In he cons uc ion sec o , conc e e is he mos used ma e ial in new
buildings (89.6%), in ex ensions (8.5%) and econs uc ions (1.9%) [
53
]. The ci y o Cuenca
is among he h ee ci ies wi h he highes numbe o buildings o be buil and he e o e
is also pa o he g oup o ci ies ha consumes he mos eady-mixed conc e e (10.2%),
a e Guayaquil (38.1%) and Qui o (30.8%). The s anda d ha es ablishes he speci ica ions
o he manu ac u e and deli e y o he use o eady mixed conc e e in a esh and non-
ha dened s a e is he Ecuado ian Technical S anda d NTE INEN 1855-1 [
54
]. In gene al
e ms, a s udy ca ied ou in Ecuado [
47
] de e mined ha con en ional conc e es wi h a
esis ance be ween 18–40 MPa, a e he mos used, ep esen ing 88%, while high comp essi e
s eng h conc e e (
≥
40 MPa) and low comp essi e s eng h (
≤
18 MPa) ep esen 6.5% and
5.5%, espec i ely. O he i s g oup, he mos used conc e es ha e a comp essi e s eng h
o 28 MPa and 21 MPa, ep esen ing 22.5% and 20.1%, espec i ely, o na ional p oduc ion.
The i s is used in he cons uc ion o s uc u al elemen s such as columns, beams and
building ounda ions, and he second is commonly used in slabs. O he s uc u es buil
in 2019, 86% we e made o ein o ced conc e e, 11% me al and 3% o he ma e ials. This
in o ma ion shows ha he e is an impo an use o bo h cemen and conc e e in he coun y,
so i is necessa y o look o mo e sus ainable al e na i es in hei applica ion. E en he
use o agg ega es is wo ying because i is conside ed a non- enewable esou ce and in
he coun y i s ex ac ion is inc easing e e y yea [
55
]. The esea ch by [
45
] iden i ied ha
he e a e ew s udies o sus ainable conc e e in Sou h Ame ica. Fo example, hey did no
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 5 o 18
iden i y s udies ha use ecycled agg ega e o dec ease i gin agg ega es. In one o he
main local conc e e plan s, i was ound ha he use o ecycled agg ega e in he p oduc ion
o conc e e ba ely eaches 1% [
56
]. The e o e, in he coun y and in he egion, he e is a
high po en ial o educing embodied ene gy, CO2emissions and i gin agg ega es.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
This s udy p esen s a quan i a i e, non-expe imen al, longi udinal app oach ca ied
ou du ing a calenda yea (2015). The main objec i e is o p o ide local da a on en-
i onmen al pe o mance in he p oduc ion o he eady-mixed conc e e in wo impac
ca ego ies, co esponding o he consump ion o ene gy esou ces and global wa ming
(CO2emissions)
. The esea ch conside s as a case s udy a plan loca ed in he ci y o
Cuenca, Ecuado unde a “con iden iali y ag eemen ”.
The quan i ica ion o he da a ollowed he Li e Cycle Assessmen me hodology
acco ding o he p inciples es ablished in he s anda ds ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 [
25
,
26
].
Addi ionally, o quan i y CO
2
emissions, Tie I o he “2006 IPCC Guidelines o Na ional
G eenhouse Gas In en o ies” es ablished by he In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e
Change (IPCC) was applied [57].
Following he LCA amewo k, h ee phases we e de eloped: De ini ion o he goal
and scope, LCI and LCIA. The ou h phase (In e p e a ion) was conside ed in he Sec ion 4.
2.1. De ini ion o he Goal and Scope
The objec i e was o quan i y he impac s on he mos ele an ca ego ies o he
eady-mixed conc e e p oduc ion: consump ion o ene gy esou ces, and global wa ming
(speci ically CO
2
emissions). The sys em bounda y conside ed was “ga e- o-ga e”, includ-
ing he p e ious s age co esponding o he “ anspo o aw ma e ial”, as well as he
subsequen s age “ anspo o inal p oduc ”. A he sys em bounda y, only he elemen a y
lows o he p oduc ion chain o manu ac u ing we e conside ed, lea ing aside he ene gy
consump ions om he adminis a ion.
Figu e 1p esen s he low cha o he eady-mixed conc e e p oduc ion o he case
s udy. I speci ies inpu and ou pu da a o he sys em o each uni p ocess: ecei ing
and dosing o aw ma e ials, mixing and conc e e load o eady-mix ucks (wi hin he
bounda ies o he plan ). Addi ionally, he uni p ocesses o he “ anspo o aw ma e ial”
and “ anspo o inal p oduc ” s ages we e conside ed (bo h ou side plan bounda ies). As
inpu da a, he aw ma e ial and he di e en ypes o ene gy consumed we e conside ed,
and as ou pu s, he p oduc gene a ed and he emissions emi ed o he en i onmen we e
aken in o accoun .
The ou p ocesses in ol ed in he p oduc ion o eady mixed conc e e wi hin he
plan a e b ie ly desc ibed below:
(1)
Recei ing o aw ma e ials: Mainly agg ega es, cemen and addi i es. Agg ega es:
C ushed s one wi h diame e s o 38 and 19 mm and i e sand. The p oduc is
weighed and s o ed in ein o ced conc e e compa men s. Cemen : I is anspo ed
in bulk om he main plan loca ed in he ci y o Guayaquil. The ucks a e weighed
upon a i al and unload hei p oduc in o cemen s o age silos. Addi i es: They a e
supplied wholesale by hei supplie and a i e a he plan by means o ca go ucks.
The mos used addi i es a e plas icize s, e a dan s, and accele a o s.
(2)
Dosing o aw ma e ials: By means o a on -wheel loade , he di e en ypes o
agg ega es a e aken o he ecep ion hoppe , he agg ega es a e supplied by means o
a con eyo bel and placed in he compa men s p ope o each ype. In he dosing
hoppe , he e is a scale o dose by weigh he mix u e o agg ega es o each ba ch
o conc e e o be manu ac u ed. Once he cemen is weighed, i is anspo ed o he
p e-mixe d um. The agg ega e mix, s ill d y, is anspo ed o he p e-mixe d um,
whe e i will be mixed wi h he cemen , wa e , and addi i es. The wa e ha will
be used is s o ed in a ank; i is pumped, and i s dosage depends di ec ly on he
au oma ic dosage sys em. The addi i es a e dosed and hen, hey a e pumped o he
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 6 o 18
p emix ank. When all he dosing has been comple ed, mixing is ca ied ou un il he
cha ac e is ics o he desi ed conc e e a e ob ained.
(3)
Conc e e mixing: I is pe o med in he p e-mixing d um.
(4)
Conc e e load in eady-mix uck: Once mixed and homogenized, i is passed o he
mixe h ough an au oma ic sys em om he dispa ch a ea.
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 18
supplied wholesale by hei supplie and a i e a he plan by means o ca go ucks.
The mos used addi i es a e plas icize s, e a dan s, and accele a o s.
(2) Dosing o aw ma e ials: By means o a on -wheel loade , he di e en ypes o ag-
g ega es a e aken o he ecep ion hoppe , he agg ega es a e supplied by means o
a con eyo bel and placed in he compa men s p ope o each ype. In he dosing
hoppe , he e is a scale o dose by weigh he mix u e o agg ega es o each ba ch o
conc e e o be manu ac u ed. Once he cemen is weighed, i is anspo ed o he p e-
mixe d um. The agg ega e mix, s ill d y, is anspo ed o he p e-mixe d um,
whe e i will be mixed wi h he cemen , wa e , and addi i es. The wa e ha will be
used is s o ed in a ank; i is pumped, and i s dosage depends di ec ly on he au o-
ma ic dosage sys em. The addi i es a e dosed and hen, hey a e pumped o he p e-
mix ank. When all he dosing has been comple ed, mixing is ca ied ou un il he
cha ac e is ics o he desi ed conc e e a e ob ained.
(3) Conc e e mixing: I is pe o med in he p e-mixing d um.
(4) Conc e e load in eady-mix uck: Once mixed and homogenized, i is passed o he
mixe h ough an au oma ic sys em om he dispa ch a ea.
Once he inal p oduc has been deli e ed, he mixe uck e u ns o he plan o
washing. This consis s o sedimen sepa a ion and wa e ecycling. The agg ega es e u n
o he agg ega e s ock and he wa e o he aw-ma e ial-dosing sys em by means o a
pump.
Figu e 1. Flow cha o he eady-mixed conc e e p oduc ion.
The unc ional uni chosen consis ed in 1 m3 o eady-mixed conc e e. In he impac
ca ego y “consump ion o ene gy esou ces”, he annual embodied ene gy was quan i ied
Figu e 1. Flow cha o he eady-mixed conc e e p oduc ion.
Once he inal p oduc has been deli e ed, he mixe uck e u ns o he plan o
washing. This consis s o sedimen sepa a ion and wa e ecycling. The agg ega es e u n o
he agg ega e s ock and he wa e o he aw-ma e ial-dosing sys em by means o
a pump
.
The unc ional uni chosen consis ed in 1 m
3
o eady-mixed conc e e. In he impac
ca ego y “consump ion o ene gy esou ces”, he annual embodied ene gy was quan i ied
in MJ/m
3
, and in he gases emi ed o he a mosphe e we e exp essed in kg CO
2
/m
3
o he
ma e ial manu ac u ed [14,58,59].
2.2. Li e Cycle In en o y (LCI)
The inpu s and ou pu s o each uni p ocesses speci ied in he low cha o he eady
mixed conc e e p oduc ion o he case s udied we e conside ed. The in o ma ion was
ob ained om an analysis o he mon hly and annual p oduc ion da abases o he plan .
Fo he quan i ica ion o uel o anspo o aw ma e ial, da a p o ided by he
supplie s h ough a su ey o in o ma ion ga he ing in he ield was used.
2.2.1. Inpu s and Calcula ion
Raw ma e ials: Each aw ma e ial supplied o he plan du ing a yea was quan i ied.
Coa se agg ega e (3/4 g a el, 3/4 c ushed, 3/8 c ushed), ine agg ega e (sand), cemen
and chemical addi i es.
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 7 o 18
Fuels: To quan i y he uel consumed in he i s s age “ anspo o aw ma e ial”,
in o ma ion abou he dis ance om he supplie s o he ga e o he conc e e plan , uck
pe o mance and e u n condi ions (emp y o loaded), was equi ed. This s udy conside ed
emp y e u n ips. In he second s age “Manu ac u ing”, he uel equi ed in he ope a ion
o he on loade o ans e he agg ega es o he ecei ing hoppe , om which he dosing
p ocess s a , was quan i ied. In addi ion, uel was necessa y in he eady mix- uck du ing
he conc e e loading. In he inal s age “ anspo o inal p oduc ”, he uel consumed in
he ope a ion o he eady-mix uck o anspo he conc e e o he cons uc ion si e was
quan i ied. The ip back o he plan was also conside ed because he uck e u ns emp y.
To de e mine he embodied ene gy by anspo , he con e sion ac o es ablished by he
SEAP Guidelines Pa II was applied. The case s udy consumed, “diesel uel”; he e o e,
he co esponding ac o is 10 kWh/l [60].
Elec ici y: I was only equi ed in he second s age (manu ac u ing), du ing he
dosing, mixing and conc e e load p ocesses.
2.2.2. Ou pu s and Calcula ion
Final p oduc : The o al olume p oduced (m
3
) by he p emix plan o e one yea was
conside ed as a single ype o conc e e.
CO
2
emissions ( uel and EE): To de e mine CO
2
emissions de i ed om he use o uel
(diesel), Tie I es ablished by 2006 IPCC Guidelines-Ene gy (S a iona y Combus ion) was
applied, using Equa ion (1) [
57
]. The uni s o measu emen es ablished by SEAP Guidelines
we e used [60].
Emissions GHG, Fuel (gGEI) = Fuel Consump ion Fuel (kWh) ×Emission Fac o GHG, Fuel (gGEI/kWh) (1)
whe e:
•Emissions GHG, Fuel: Emissions o a gi en GHG by ype o uel;
•Fuel Consump ion Fuel: Amoun o uel combus ed;
•Emission Fac o GHG, Fuel: De aul emission ac o o a gi en GHG by ype o uel.
Fo CO
2
, i includes he ca bon oxida ion ac o , assumed o be 1. The CO
2
emission
ac o applied is 267 g CO2/kWh o diesel uel [60].
To calcula e he CO
2
emissions om annual elec ici y consump ion, he basic equa-
ion es ablished in he 2006 IPCC Guidelines—Gene al Guidance and Repo ing [
61
]
was applied:
Emissions = AD ×EF (2)
whe e:
•AD: Ac i i y da a
•EF: Emission Fac o
AD, i was conside ed he o al elec ici y consumed du ing one yea in he eady
mixed conc e e p oduc ion. Addi ionally, o EF, he alue o 0.6760 CO
2
/MWh eq
ob ained om he Na ional In e connec ed Sys em o Ecuado was applied [62].
2.3. Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen (LCIA)
This phase consis s o ans o ming he da a collec ed in he LCI in o po en ial indica-
o s o en i onmen al impac . Two ca ego ies we e conside ed: “Consump ion o ene gy
esou ces” and “Global wa ming” (CO
2
emissions o being a ep esen a i e GHG wi hin
he conc e e p oduc ion). The LCIA is de eloped in he Sec ion 3.
3. Resul s
3.1. Inpu Da a
3.1.1. Raw Ma e ial Consump ion
The e a e six aw ma e ials ha en e ed he plan du ing he yea o s udy (wi hou
conside ing he wa e ). The mos consumed aw ma e ial was he sand ( ine agg ega e)
ep esen ed by 40.82% and he leas consumed was he chemical addi i e wi h 0.22%.
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 8 o 18
Figu e 2 e eals ha agg ega es, in gene al, we e he mos consumed, eaching 83.83% and
he di e ence was mainly ep esen ed by cemen wi h 15.94%. Fo quan i ica ion, he o al
mass in ons o each o he aw ma e ials ha en e ed he plan du ing he yea o s udy
was conside ed. These pe cen ages p esen ed in he case o Ecuado a e simila o esea ch
ca ied ou in Sweden and I eland (wi hou conside ing wa e ). In hese coun ies, he use
o agg ega es ep esen s app oxima ely 75% and 83.45%, while cemen ep esen s 15% and
16.6%, espec i ely, [
50
,
63
]. Compa ed o a na ional s udy, he da a ob ained a e wi hin he
ange de ined by [47].
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18
AD, i was conside ed he o al elec ici y consumed du ing one yea in he eady
mixed conc e e p oduc ion. Addi ionally, o EF, he alue o 0.6760 CO2/MWh eq ob-
ained om he Na ional In e connec ed Sys em o Ecuado was applied [62].
2.3. Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen (LCIA)
This phase consis s o ans o ming he da a collec ed in he LCI in o po en ial indi-
ca o s o en i onmen al impac . Two ca ego ies we e conside ed: “Consump ion o en-
e gy esou ces” and “Global wa ming” (CO2 emissions o being a ep esen a i e GHG
wi hin he conc e e p oduc ion). The LCIA is de eloped in he Sec ion 3.
3. Resul s
3.1. Inpu Da a
3.1.1. Raw Ma e ial Consump ion
The e a e six aw ma e ials ha en e ed he plan du ing he yea o s udy (wi hou
conside ing he wa e ). The mos consumed aw ma e ial was he sand ( ine agg ega e)
ep esen ed by 40.82% and he leas consumed was he chemical addi i e wi h 0.22%. Fig-
u e 2 e eals ha agg ega es, in gene al, we e he mos consumed, eaching 83.83% and
he di e ence was mainly ep esen ed by cemen wi h 15.94%. Fo quan i ica ion, he o al
mass in ons o each o he aw ma e ials ha en e ed he plan du ing he yea o s udy
was conside ed. These pe cen ages p esen ed in he case o Ecuado a e simila o esea ch
ca ied ou in Sweden and I eland (wi hou conside ing wa e ). In hese coun ies, he use
o agg ega es ep esen s app oxima ely 75% and 83.45%, while cemen ep esen s 15%
and 16.6%, espec i ely, [50,63]. Compa ed o a na ional s udy, he da a ob ained a e
wi hin he ange de ined by [47].
Figu e 2. Quan i y o each aw ma e ial en e ed du ing a yea in ela ion o he o al.
3.1.2. Fuel and Elec ici y
Du ing he s udy yea , a o al o 1,354,236.24 L o diesel was consumed in he
“ anspo o aw ma e ial” s age, 60,453.32 L o diesel in he di ec anspo a ion s age,
and 264,539.19 L o diesel in he “ anspo o inal p oduc ” s age o he cons uc ion si e.
The amoun o uel used wi hin each s age in ela ion o he o al is shown in Figu e 3 and
desc ibed below.
40.82%
27.02%
14.82%
1.17%
15.94%
0.22%
Sand
G a el (3/4)
C ushed (3/4)
C ushed (3/8)
Cemen
Chemical addi i e
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Figu e 2. Quan i y o each aw ma e ial en e ed du ing a yea in ela ion o he o al.
3.1.2. Fuel and Elec ici y
Du ing he s udy yea , a o al o 1,354,236.24 L o diesel was consumed in he “ ans-
po o aw ma e ial” s age, 60,453.32 L o diesel in he di ec anspo a ion s age, and
264,539.19 L
o diesel in he “ anspo o inal p oduc ” s age o he cons uc ion si e. The
amoun o uel used wi hin each s age in ela ion o he o al is shown in Figu e 3and
desc ibed below.
In he i s s age, he highes uel consump ion was consumed in he sand and cemen
anspo wi h 34.59% and 33.07%, espec i ely. E en hough cemen ep esen s a ound
1800 dispa ches in he yea compa ed o 7300 dispa ches o agg ega es in gene al, cemen
consumes a ep esen a i e amoun o uel. This is because he cemen plan is in a di e en
ci y (259 km) han he loca ion o he eady-mixed conc e e plan , which inc eases uel
consump ion. I has been iden i ied ha in o he coun ies he dis ances be ween he
conc e e plan and he cemen plan a e much sho e . Fo example, in he Uni ed S a es
and Po ugal, he dis ances a e 112 km [
46
] and 60 km [
39
], espec i ely. Rega ding he
dis ance be ween he conc e e plan and he agg ega es qua ies, he case s udy in Ecuado
(a ound 50 km) and he s udy in Po ugal (65 km) a e below 100 km.
In he second s age, he on loade ha anspo s he agg ega es du ing he dosing
p ocess consumed 33.12% o uel (diesel). The di e ence, 66.88% was used in he eady-mix
ucks du ing conc e e loading.
In he hi d s age, uel consumed in he “ anspo o inal p oduc ” ep esen ed a o al
ou e ( ound ip) o 308,826 km, (17,480 dispa ches app oxima ely).
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 9 o 18
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 18
In he i s s age, he highes uel consump ion was consumed in he sand and cemen
anspo wi h 34.59% and 33.07%, espec i ely. E en hough cemen ep esen s a ound
1800 dispa ches in he yea compa ed o 7300 dispa ches o agg ega es in gene al, cemen
consumes a ep esen a i e amoun o uel. This is because he cemen plan is in a di e en
ci y (259 km) han he loca ion o he eady-mixed conc e e plan , which inc eases uel
consump ion. I has been iden i ied ha in o he coun ies he dis ances be ween he con-
c e e plan and he cemen plan a e much sho e . Fo example, in he Uni ed S a es and
Po ugal, he dis ances a e 112 km [46] and 60 km [39], espec i ely. Rega ding he dis-
ance be ween he conc e e plan and he agg ega es qua ies, he case s udy in Ecuado
(a ound 50 km) and he s udy in Po ugal (65 km) a e below 100 km.
In he second s age, he on loade ha anspo s he agg ega es du ing he dosing
p ocess consumed 33.12% o uel (diesel). The di e ence, 66.88% was used in he eady-
mix ucks du ing conc e e loading.
In he hi d s age, uel consumed in he “ anspo o inal p oduc ” ep esen ed a
o al ou e ( ound ip) o 308,826 km, (17,480 dispa ches app oxima ely).
Figu e 3. Annual uel consump ion by s ages in ela ion o o al consump ion.
Finally, he elec ici y consump ion co esponding o he manu ac u e o eady
mixed conc e e eached 617,577 MJ. I ep esen ed 67.15% o he o al elec ici y consump-
ion o he plan ( he di e ence co esponds o adminis a i e ac i i ies).
100%
66.88%
33.12%
0.26%
33.07%
1.35%
5.19%
25.55%
34.59%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Ready-mixed conc e e
Ready-mix uck
F on Loade s
Addi i e
Cemen
C ushed 3/8
C ushed 3/4
G a el 3/4
Sand
T anspo o
inal p oduc Manu ac u ing T anspo o aw ma e ial
Figu e 3. Annual uel consump ion by s ages in ela ion o o al consump ion.
Finally, he elec ici y consump ion co esponding o he manu ac u e o eady mixed
conc e e eached 617,577 MJ. I ep esen ed 67.15% o he o al elec ici y consump ion o
he plan ( he di e ence co esponds o adminis a i e ac i i ies).
3.2. Ou pu Da a
3.2.1. Final P oduc
The annual p oduc ion olume o eady-mixed conc e e was quan i ied a 107,387 m
3
.
I s p oduc ion main ained a mon hly luc ua ion be ween 5.06% and 12.12% o he o al
olume p oduced in he yea .
3.2.2. Embodied Ene gy and CO2Emissions
The o al quan i ica ion o embodied ene gy and CO
2
emissions in he eady-mixed
conc e e p oduc ion wi hin he es ablished bounda ies was conside ed. The alues ob ained
we e 61,069,813 MJ and 4,599,508 kg CO
2
, espec i ely. This alue in he unc ional uni
co esponds o 568.69 MJ/m3and 42.83 kg CO2/m3(Table 1).
Ma e ials 2022,15, 4896 16 o 18
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