A icle
E hnici ies
2026, Vol. 0(0) 1–21
© The Au ho (s) 2026
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DOI: 10.1177/14687968261418291
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E e yday na ionalism in
indi idualised poli ical
p ac ices. Young le -wing
Basque na ionalis s
expe iencing he na ion in
changing imes
Ane La inaga
1
, Eki E xeba ia
1
and Jon Azkune
1
Abs ac
This a icle is based on a quali a i e case s udy ocusing on he ways in which young le -
wing na ionalis s in he Basque Coun y expe ience he na ion in di e en a eas o hei
li es, ou side o poli ical o ganisa ions. The analysis shows, on he one hand, he
eme gence o indi idualisa ion p ocesses o you h p ac ices in he cu en p ojec o
econs uc ion and e o mula ion o le -wing Basque na ionalism and he inco po a ion
o hese p ac ices in o e e yday li e. On he o he hand, i confi ms he di e sifica ion o
meanings a ibu ed o he na ion, which uns pa allel o he inclusion o global poli ical
agendas o he con empo a y social mo emen s in his cu en o na ionalism, and he
plu ali y o in e es s and posi ions which he di e en young na ionalis s use o asse hei
agency.
Keywo ds
e e yday na ionalism, indi idualisa ion, Basque na ionalis le , you h agency, Basque
coun y
1
Facul y o Social and Communica ion Sciences, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y/Euskal He iko Unibe si a ea
(EHU), Leioa, Spain
Co esponding au ho :
Eki E xeba ia, Sa iko Facul y o Economics and Business, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, Lehendaka i Agi e
Hi ibidea, 83, 48015 Bilbao (Bizkaia), Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Da a A ailabili y S a emen included a he end o he a icle.
The con ex . The decline o he con en ious mobilisa ion cycle o
he Basque na ionalis le a e a med iolence
The ollowing ex aims o analyse he a ious di e en ways in which some young people
a filia ed wi h he na ionalis le expe ience he na ion on a daily basis in he new pos -
ETA poli ical cycle. I will conside bo h he influence o he Basque poli ical scene –
ollowing he weakening o con en ious ac i ism –and some poli ical ans o ma ions in
he global con ex , which inc easingly sees a p og essi ely indi idualised you h poli ical
cul u e.
A case s udy always e e s o a “he e and now” ha only makes sense wi hin a his o ical
con ex . Since he 1980s, he pa o he Basque Coun y ha si s wi hin he Spanish
s a e –Hegoalde –has been he scene o a cycle o na ionalis mobilisa ion. This mo-
bilisa ion s a egy has been led by a conglome a e o poli ical o ganisa ions and social
mo emen s om he na ionalis le , linked o he a med o ganisa ion ETA, which ceased
i s ac i i y in 2011 and was o mally dissol ed in 2018. The poli ical o ces o he Basque
na ionalis le had hei o igins in he 1960s, in he an i-F anco s uggle in Spain, he
decolonisa ion p ocesses in coun ies o he global sou h, and he ise o neo-Ma xis
poli ical cu en s and new social mo emen s. Thei eme gence b ough wi h i a ede -
ini ion o he na ion and Basque na ional iden i y: he in eg a ion o alues associa ed wi h
he Basque wo king class in o he na ional s uggle and he adop ion o he Basque
language and cul u e as dis inc i e elemen s o iden i y.
A ne wo k o communi y o ganisa ions, and social mo emen s, including he na-
ionalis unions (E xeba ia e al., 2025) ha e pa icipa ed in he pos -F anco mobilisa ion
s a egy, albei a di e en imes and o di e en deg ees, wi h successi e ac u es caused
p ima ily by he a med ac i i y. This s a egy was ini ially cha ac e ised by a desi e o
b eak wi h he au onomous o de de i ing om he Spanish Cons i u ion, by he usion o
he s uggle o independence wi h he social s uggle in o he same poli ical p ojec , and,
g adually, by he inco po a ion o al e na i e alues and p ac ices om global social
mo emen s such as eminism and en i onmen alism. In he 2010s, he delegi imisa ion
and disappea ance o ETA, he impac o globalisa ion and i s challenges, and he ex-
pe ience o he e e endums in Sco land and Ca alonia opened up a enues o a ansi ion
by he na ionalis le o emb acing democ a ic pa hways owa ds secession and he i ual
cons uc ion o a Basque s a e.
In ecen yea s, a ious local and global e en s ha e igge ed a shi in he poli ical
amewo k in he Basque Coun y. On he one hand he e is he c isis in he poli ical pa h
o he go e ning Ch is ian-Democ a ic na ionalis s o PNV Basque Na ionalis Pa y
in he Basque Au onomous Communi y, eflec ed ini ially by he G ea Economic Re-
cession o 2008 and subsequen ly by he COVID-19 pandemic, which highligh ed he
sho comings o he Basque public sys em (heal hca e, educa ion, housing, e c.) and he
exhaus ion o he au onomous model due o he ailu e o successi e Spanish go e nmen s
o ans e powe s. On he o he hand he e is he disappea ance o ETA and he e-
o mula ion o he na ionalis le , shi ing om a policy o mobilisa ion and con on a ion
owa ds in eg a ion wi h municipal, egional, and s a e ins i u ions and a aci accep ance
o he ules o he game in he cu en poli ical sys em, which has u ned he na ionalis le
in o he di ec elec o al compe i o o conse a i e na ionalism.
2E hnici ies 0(0)
The pa icipa ion o he le -wing coali ion Euskal He ia Bildu, which ac s as a pa en
poli ical o ce in egional and s a e ins i u ions, has gi en ise o ce ain ensions be ween
he p ac ices o he inc easingly cen alised and bu eauc a ised poli ical o ganisa ion and
he g ass oo s mo emen s, as well as he demobilisa ion o you h o ganisa ions, he
eme gence o a poli ical dissiden you h o ganiza ion, and he a enua ion o he sys ems o
conflic i e collec i e poli ics ha we e spea headed by young people in he ecen pas ,
epe oi es ha included s ee figh ing o kale bo oka, demons a ions, clashes wi h he
police and low-in ensi y iolence.
Howe e , he makeup o his coali ion is new, and non-na ionalis le -wing
o ces a e pa icipa ing o he fi s ime in a ou o he igh o sel -de e mina ion.
This ini ia i e is pa o he discu si e e o mula ion o he na ionalis le de-
eloped o e he las decade, and wo elemen s s and ou . On he one hand, he
discou se abou he s a egies o be ollowed is amed in e ms o democ acy and
democ a ic igh s. In his way, he uniqueness o he na ion loses discu si e
cen ali y when aced wi h he demand o he democ a ic igh s needed by all
poli ical communi ies –in he sense o demos –so ha hey can eely decide hei
u u e, beyond hei na ional iden i y (Od iozola e al., 2020).
On he o he hand, he e m na ion has been eplaced by he concep o so -
e eign y, a mul idimensional and p o ean e m associa ed wi h powe ela ions,
which has been adap ed o changing his o ical amewo ks (Con e si, 2020)and
whichhasbeen akenonby hisna ionalis mo emen . The coali ion cu en ly
defines i sel as p o-so e eign y and p o-independence. The ac ha so e eign y
can be in e p e ed a a ious le els (pe sonal, cul u al, poli ical) and wi h di e en
meanings wi hin he same signifie has allowed a mul i ude o ac o s o ein e p e
i s meanings om hei social pe spec i es, uni ing unde he same concep ual
amewo k o so e eign y. Thus, beyond na ional so e eign y and he igh o
decide, e e ences o ac i is agendas specific o con empo a y social mo emen s
ha e been in eg a ed in o bo h he coali ion’s o ganisa ional documen s and he
wo k o in ellec uals close o he mo emen , o example, in e ms o he con-
s uc ion o eminis so e eign y, economic, social, and ans o ma i e so e eign y,
cul u al and linguis ic so e eign y, ood so e eign y, small-scale ag icul u al
so e eign y, and digi al so e eign y. The p ominence o eminism is highligh ed,
due o he s eng h he eminis mo emen has acqui ed in Basque socie y. E nai, he
s onges you h poli ical o ganisa ion on he na ionalis le a e i s e ounding,
decla es i sel a p o-independence, socialis , and eminis o ganisa ion.
This scena io will se e as he s a ing poin o he s udy o e e yday na-
ionalism (EN, he ea e ). As un il now EN and banal na ionalism ha e ocused
especially on se led poli ical con ex s (Bonikowski, 2016), he mos u gen
challenges in his field a e wo old, in he opinion o Goode (2020).Fi s , ode elop
a clea e unde s anding o hei ela ionship wi h con en ious o ms o na ionalism.
The second, wi h which Skey and An onsich (2017) also ag ee, include he inci-
dence o global phenomena in he app oach. This a icle aims o ake in o con-
side a ion bo h aspec s o discussion, s a ing wi h he con ex ual si ua ion
desc ibed, and ocusing on he changes p oduced in he s a egy o le na ionalism
in he Basque Coun y.
La inaga e al. 3
Me hodology
This s udy ocuses on he ways in which a specific social g oup, disagg ega ed wi hin he
conglome a e ha cons i u es “o dina y people”–in his case, young people om he
Basque na ionalis le –can c ea i ely, adap i ely, and consciously ( e)cons uc he
na ion and a ibu e new meanings o i in a changing poli ical landscape. I is based on a
b oade quali a i e s udy ca ied ou among 72 young people in Hegoalde ega ding hei
poli ical lea ning and p ac ices ollowing he end o a med iolence. Pa icipan s we e
in o med abou he esea ch objec i es and he mechanisms ollowed o ensu e da a
p o ec ion du ing he esea ch p ocess.
Fo he pu poses o his a icle, we conside ed an in en ional sample o 25 young
people and young adul s be ween he ages o 18 and 35. The c i e ion o choosing
his sample was he p ac ice o mul iac i ism, ha is, simul aneous pa icipa ion in
he o ganisa ional and in o mal a eas o he na ionalis le as well as in o he
sec o al social mo emen s in he p esen o in he pas . The b oad age ange chosen
was in ended o include na a i es om people whose poli ical lea ning and
p ac ices de eloped bo h be o e and immedia ely a e he end o ETA’sa med
ac i i y. The da a collec ion echnique was in-dep h in e iews, which las ed om
one and a hal o 2 h, and a emp ed o cap u e hese young people’s li e expe ience.
The semi-s uc u ed in e iews ocused on ou hema ic sec ions: (1) ea ly na-
ionalis poli ical socialisa ion and he acquisi ion o he na ionalis habi us in he
amily, communi y, and school se ings; (2) ea ly li e i ine a ies among pee s and
unde s anding o ini ial o ms o ac i is engagemen ; (3) pe cep ions o na ional
iden i y and he meanings a ibu ed o he na ion; (4) he a ious p ac ical man-
i es a ions o na ionalis ac i ism, bo h collec i e and indi idual.
Wha all hese young pa icipan s ha e in common is he ac ha hey we e socialised
om a e y ea ly age in sphe es wi hin he same poli ical uni e se o he na ionalis le
and ha e pa icipa ed in hese sphe es in he pas o cu en ly. This highly di e se poli ical
space is made up, on he one hand, o a la ge cons ella ion o o mal en i ies –you h,
s uden , and union poli ical o ganisa ions. On he o he hand, i encompasses a wide
a ie y o cons an ly changing in o mal spaces, mo emen s, and popula and communi y
ini ia i es o a poli ical, cul u al, social, and economic na u e, as well as gaz e xes (sel -
managed you h cen es), local you h assemblies, spaces occupied by squa e s, e c., which
cons i u e he communi y base o he na ionalis le . The young people in e iewed
possess a high le el o educa ion and significan poli ical capi al de i ed om hei ea ly
ini ia ion in o poli ics and accumula ed expe ience.
The in en ional sampling ook in o accoun ac o s conside ed ele an o ensu e a
di e si y o iewpoin s. Pa icipan s we e selec ed om di e en o ganisa ions and
mo emen s and wi h di e en sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, such as sex/gende , he
demog aphic weigh o he e i o ial a ea whe e hey li e, u ban/ u al kinship, language
o communica ion, and ype o school a ended. In he sample o selec ed pa icipan s,
12 iden i y as women, 12 as men, and 1 as non-bina y. They come om he di e en
e i o ies o Hegoalde: 10 in e iews we e conduc ed in Bizkaia, nine in Gipuzkoa, ou
in Na a e, and wo in Ala a. In e ms o language, 21 in e iews we e conduc ed in
Basque and ou in Spanish.
4E hnici ies 0(0)
Taking in o accoun he objec i e s a ed in he in oduc o y sec ion, he s a ing poin o
he analysis p esen ed below is summa ised in wo hypo heses ha will be s udied based
on he discou se p oduced in he in e iews: (1) he eme gence o indi idualised you h
poli ical p ac ices in he p ojec o na ional ( e)cons uc ion, and hei p og essi e in-
co po a ion in o daily li e as a p ocess o adap a ion o he new pos -ETA Basque scena io;
(2) he di e sifica ion o meanings a ibu ed o he na ion and Basque na ional iden i y,
pa allel o he in eg a ion o he global poli ical agendas o social mo emen s.
E e yday na ionalism and poli ical indi idualisa ion in
young people
Acco ding o Helled and Pala (2025), one o he cha ac e is ics o he na ion and na-
ionalism is hei pe manence o e ime. The adap i e plas ici y o na ionalism has also
been poin ed ou by au ho s such as Con e si (2020), who unde sco es he changing
his o ical ajec o y o he concep o so e eign y in na ionalism.
Resilience is a p ope y based on he na ional habi us, which is o en ansmi ed by he
amily om ea ly childhood onwa d, in a con ex o unno iced na ionalism (Delmo e and
Duchesne, 2024). Bou dieu’s concep is ha habi us is a se o disposi ions inco po a ed
and sha ed by indi iduals in a g oup in hei p ocess o socialisa ion, which co espond o
he objec i e social s uc u es ha gene a ed hem. These cogni i e elemen s associa ed
wi h social egula i ies a e ansla ed in o indi idual and collec i e p ac ices ha unc ion
wi hin a sha ed common sense (Bou dieu, 1990). Howe e , in pe iods o change o c isis
in s uc u al condi ions, he e is a b eakdown in his sha ed sense o he wo ld and,
consequen ly, a misma ch in he inhe i ed habi us, a so o disa icula ion be ween he
p ac ices inco po a ed by indi iduals o social g oups and he social o poli ical con-
di ions. In hese ola ile pe iods o hys e esis, ins ances o misma ch can gene a e g ea e
awa eness, which allows indi iduals o become agen s capable o ques ioning he no -
ma i i y implici in he habi us – ha which has been aken o g an ed un il hen –and
consciously and s a egically adap o new condi ions (Bou dieu, 1990,2000). Specifi-
cally, na ional esilience indica es he se o disposi ions ha social agen s can implemen
o ( e)gene a e a achmen o a na ional communi y bo h in ou ine con ex s and in
con ex s o change (Helled and Pala, 2025).
One mani es a ion o ou ine pe sis ence is he na ional ep oduc ion known as banal
na ionalism (Billig, 1995). Resea ch on e e yday na ionalism in ecen decades canno be
unde s ood wi hou he seminal con ibu ion o Michael Billig (1995), who ans o med
he s udy o he field o na ionalism by ecognising ha na ionalism can be an unno iced
ace o e e yday li e, de oid o ci izen agency.
Al hough influenced by his u n, he app oach ha oday is known as “e e yday
na ionalism” ocuses mainly on he way in which o dina y people ep oduce o ac i ely
challenge he na ion h ough o dina y e e yday p ac ices (Fox and Mille -Id iss, 2008;
Goode, 2020). In ac , his ision is pa o a c i ical eading o Billig’s no ion o na ion. In
fi s place, unlike Billig’s in e nally homogenous and defined-as-singula na ion, he new
e isions ha e pu he emphasis on he e hnic, acial and eligious di e si y o na ions
(Fox, 2017;Hea n and An onsich, 2018;Skey, 2009). Secondly, compa ed wi h he idea o
a s able s a e-based na ion, in which people a e passi e consume s o subliminal messages
La inaga e al. 5
di ec ed om op o bo om, hese new ideas co e plu al unde s andings o he na ion.
This, a om cons i u ing a unified en i onmen , is also conside ed he p oduc o daily
con es a ion and disag eemen , so ha we a e aced wi h dynamic, ambiguous p ocesses
made up o mul iple o dina y oices in conflic (An onsich, 2020;B ubake , 2006;
Edenso , 2020;Fox and Mille -Id iss, 2008;Goode, 2020;Skey, 2009). Finally, along
wi h he ep oduc i e capaci y o he na ion by he leading eli es, ecen app oaches ha e
begun o ocus on he social p ac ices h ough which o dina y people ec ea e he na ion in
he ou ines and habi s o e e yday li e (Goode and S oup, 2015;Vuce ic and Hop ,
2020).
Since Fox and Mille -Id iss (2008) p oposed a esea ch agenda wi hin hese pa am-
e e s, ecen s udies on EN ha e o ien ed he ocus o his academic field owa ds he
analysis o na ionalism, which is no longe seen only as a poli ical p ojec , bu also as a
cogni i e, a ec i e and discu si e ca ego y ha appea s in daily p ac ice (Bonikowski,
2016). In he opinion o some au ho s, he esea ch p og amme should no p opose he
exis ence o an exclusi e binomial banal na ionalism/e e yday na ionalism (Fox, 2017;
Fox, in Uzun and Dede, 2022), bu in e sec ions and ela ions o complemen a i y be ween
bo h app oaches. As Goode (2020) poin s ou , EN and banal na ionalism appea as i hey
we e wo sides o he same coin: he na ionalism ha we see in social p ac ices is
ecognised as e e yday, while he omnip esen and unno iced na ionalism ha pe sis s in
he backg ound is ea ed as banal.
In o de o o e come he ambigui ies gene a ed by he concep o “ he e e yday”,
Goode (2020) iden ifies h ee cen al dimensions ha help o limi and define EN: (a) he
na u e o he agen s who, in e ms o social s a us, a e conside ed non-eli es o “o dina y
people”, (b) he con ex s wi hin which hey exe cise hei agency, ha is o say, ou ine,
in o mal ac ion and (c) he scale o he obse ed social in e ac ion, in e ms o p ac ices
ins ead o social s uc u es.
The ques ion o he dema ca ion o EN e e s us o classic ques ions in he social
sciences such as he di e en mani es a ions o agency, he con ex o he exe cise o his
agency –a mac o- and mic o-social le els –and he ques ion o ep oduc ion and change,
wi h hei consequen po en ial conflic . Acco ding o Fox and Van Ginde ach e (2018),
op-down pe spec i es ha gi e mo e impo ance o g ea s uc u al o ces o explain he
eme gence and main enance o mode n na ions a e complemen ed by a bo om-up
analysis o he daily p ac ices, modes and habi s ha ep oduce he na ion in daily
li e. In his sense, hey asse ha “ he masses”a e no (only) ecep acles o na ionalis
messages, bu (also) ac i e agen s in hei consump ion, p oduc ion, app op ia ion and
manipula ion o hei own pa icula e sions o he na ion. In his way, hey conclude,
o dina y people hink abou he na ion, in e p e he na ion, consume he na ion and
some imes ejec , esis , igno e and a oid he na ion. As a esul , hese p ac ices con ibu e
o he ep oduc ion and legi imisa ion, o o he disman ling and weakening o na ional
o ms o belonging.
Mo eo e , hese p ac ices a e cons uc ed and de eloped wi hin a amewo k o
meanings. Acco ding o Hea n and An onsich (2018), he EN can be defined by he
objec i e o s udying he ac s o c ea ion o meaning by agency. This agency mani es s
i sel in mul iple ways in e e yday li e: in he field o wo k, consump ion, leisu e, ood and
spo . P ecisely by ocusing on hese spaces, he EN app oach seeks o unde s and he
6E hnici ies 0(0)
meaning ha na ions acqui e o o dina y people and he meanings ha people a ibu e o
hem in hei daily li es (Hea n and An onsich, 2018).
The ac o o eg ounding common-sense p ac ices and componen s o he popula ion
shows a clea inclina ion o EN analyses owa ds social cons uc i ism (Vuce ic and Hop ,
2020). Ne e heless, some au ho s wa n agains he dange o keeping mac os uc u al
app oaches sepa a e om he mic o-in es iga ion o e e yday li e, and o opposing
agency and ins i u ion. Acco dingly, Hea n and An onsich (2018) conside ha indi idual
agency mus be s udied in ela ion o o ganisa ional and ins i u ional con ex s, and he
s uc u al p ocesses i is pa o .
The e o e, he s udy o na ional p ac ices based on ou ine and common sense canno
igno e he need o na ionalis s o adap o he sys emic changes ha cha ac e ise con-
empo a y socie ies. Along hese lines, oday’s expe iences o EN canno be sepa a ed
om he s uc u al p ocesses o indi idualisa ion ha d i e indi iduals o cons uc hei
li es wi hin he ealm o e e yday li e. Indeed, social and poli ical p ac ices –especially
hose o young people –a e influenced by he cul u al p ocesses o indi idualisa ion o la e
mode ni y. The impac o global neolibe al economic policies, whose influence has in-
c easingly imposed i sel on he poli ical sphe e, he g owing inabili y o poli ical pa ies
o pe o m hei unc ions o media ion be ween ci izens and poli ical sys ems (Mai ,
2013), as well as he esul ing lack o legi imacy o hese sys ems (Cas ells, 2019), ha e
been decisi e ac o s in he de elopmen o his p ocess. The confluence o hese cu en s
con ibu es o a pe manen esizing o he p e ious bounda ies be ween he poli ical and
he social, which is eflec ed in he daily li es o he popula ion. (Bauman, 2001;Beck,
1996;Beck and Beck-Ge sheim, 2002;Fu long and Ca mel, 2007).
These p ocesses o indi idualisa ion cause changes in wha Beck and Beck-Ge sheim
call sel -poli ics and wha Giddens calls li e-poli ics (1991). Bo h a e models o ac ion ha
appea as a esponse o he inc easingly es ic ed op ions o democ a ic agency in he
ace o neolibe al capi alism and in he ace o he pa icipa o y closu e o libe al
democ a ic sys ems. In hese ci cums ances, young people a e a emp ing o open up
spaces –physical, i ual, social, and poli ical – o ac i a e a b oade ype o ci izenship
(Cuzzoc ea and Collins, 2015;La inaga e al., 2023;S olle e al., 2008) and an icipa e
new social models h ough c ea i e indi idualised p ac ices (La inaga e al., 2025;Reedy
e al., 2016). Consequen ly, o ms o poli icisa ion o leisu e, consump ion, employmen ,
digi al ac i i y, and o he aspec s o e e yday li e ha e inc eased, allowing hem o a fi m
young people’s agency and sel - ealisa ion (Ky oglou and Henn, 2017). Consequen ly,
he e has been an eme gence in Wes e n poli ical sys ems o indi idualised commi men s
ela ed o ways o li e ha we e p e iously conside ed “non-poli ical”. These in-
di idualised p ac ices eflec a p og essi e mig a ion owa ds new niches o ac i i y and
iden i y si ua ed in a liminal space be ween he pe sonal, he social, and he poli ical. As a
esul , hese spaces a e also connec ed o he mos o dina y ways o expe iencing na-
ionali y in e e yday li e.
Howe e , al hough young con empo a ies sha e he influence exe ed by he a o e-
men ioned s uc u al p ocesses, hese p ocesses do no a ec all o hem in he same way.
The in e sec ional pe spec i e e eals he complex ways in which inequali ies o gende ,
class, o na ionali y in e ac o shape indi iduals’social oppo uni ies and cons ain s
ega ding social posi ions in e ms o poli ical powe and esou ces (A ewologun, 2018;
La inaga e al. 7
Banks, 2021). Fu he mo e, a ious you h g oups a e also cons ained by he poli ical
adi ions and ins i u ional o ma ions o hei pa icula ime and place. These ac o s
de e mine he disposi ions o habi us necessa y o ac as poli ical agen s.
In he case o you h ac i ism, he con ex s o sub-s a e na ional conflic in which
na ionalis symbolic s uggles a e esol ed cons i u e use ul case s udies o analysing he
influence o changing s uc u al cu en s on inhe i ed habi us and he consequen change
o you h agency o sui new en i onmen s (La inaga and Amu io, 2023). Ou objec i e is
o apply his app oach o na ionalis you h agency, and analyse he way in which young
people habi ually and adap i ely expe ience, cons uc , and ein en he na ion in esponse
o changes occu ing bo h in he Basque social and poli ical scene – he ansi ion o he
Basque na ionalis le a e he end o ETA’s poli ical iolence –and in he global scena io
o indi idualised poli ics, ocusing on he eme gence o some indi idualised p ac ices ha
his adap a ion acqui es.
Analysis
In he analysis, he ollowing p ocesses we e iden ified.
The adap a ion o he inhe i ed na ional habi us: Hys e esis and
c ea i e eflexi i y
The habi us inhe i ed h ough amily, communi y, and school socialisa ion by he young
na ionalis s pa icipa ing in his esea ch was shaped by cogni i e cons uc s, wo ld iews,
emo ions, and in e nalised p ac ices ha defined hei iden i y wi hin a specific na ional
communi y and a a gi en his o ical momen . The gene a i e capaci y o he habi us and
i s conco dance wi h he demands o a specific socio-poli ical model allowed hese young
people o de elop ele an poli ical p ac ices wi hin ha model and o a ibu e meaning
and cohe ence o hem h oughou hei childhood, adolescence, and young adul hood.
This habi us was ein o ced om adolescence onwa d, ansla ing in o con en ious po-
li ical p ac ices consis en wi h he exis ing ideas in he poli ical uni e se o e e ence.
A e li ing ab oad, I ealized ha X [ he Basque popula ion] was a e y dynamic g oup o
people. The e was always some hing o do. My pa en s we e also ac i is s. So i was some hing
we expe ienced. I emembe some e en s om my childhood (…), iolen clashes [wi h he
police] in he s ee , like when hey killed wo [ETA] mili an s. All o ha has been pa o he
landscape (…). In X, he e ha e always been people om he eminis mo emen , om social
mo emen s, a ound me; ul ima ely, i is indus ial. And i has gi en me ha pe spec i e (…)
When hey a es ed my a he [one o he ounde s o a Basque-language newspape closed down
by he Spanish go e nmen ], ha was a u ning poin (…) F om hen on, I began o be a poli ical
ac i is (…). I was 13 yea s old (Female, 25, economis , membe o he o social and ans-
o ma i e economy coope a i e).
Howe e , he habi us p e iously in e nalised by young ac i is s has become dys-
unc ional in imes o change. The ans o ma ions ha ha e occu ed in he socio-poli ical
space ha e been he esul o bo h in e nal ac o s – he disappea ance o ETA’s iolence,
8E hnici ies 0(0)
he s a egic shi o he na ionalis le –and ex e nal ac o s –socio-poli ical cu en s and
global challenges. This con ex has gi en young ac i is s socialised in con en ious
mobilisa ions he challenge o adap ing hei inhe i ed habi us and li ed expe iences o a
new eali y. They find hemsel es in a momen o hys e esis, which occu s when he
disposi ions o hei habi us a e a odds wi h collec i e expec a ions. Wi h he poli ical
shi o le -wing na ionalism, he egula unc ions es ablished o i s basis ha e been
p o oundly dis up ed. In sho , he e is no longe any conco dance be ween he dispo-
si ions acqui ed by young ac i is s du ing hei socialisa ion and he cu en demands o
he new poli ical landscape. Thus, he need o esilience eme ges as a p ocess o
gene a ing posi i e adap a ion in a hi he o unexplo ed con ex . Un il his adap a ion is
achie ed, an in e al simila o anomie occu s, in which people become awa e o he
dys unc ionali y o hei habi us. A p ocess o collec i e eflexi i y opens up wi hin
o ganisa ions and mo emen s, pa alleling indi idual eflexi i y. Some young people
pa icipa e in he e o mula ion o you h mo emen s and o ganisa ions. O he young
people wi hd aw om collec i e and o ganised ac i ism, and, o he ex en ha he
acqui ed habi us is ansposable o a ious sphe es o li e, hey ans e hei ac i is
capi al o indi idualised poli ical p ac ices in e e yday li e.
In my opinion, ha change o poli ical cycle has had an influence. I ’s no jus ha ETA has gi en
up i s weapons. I hink i coincides wi h he p ocesses o ans o ma ion o he 21s cen u y (...).
The you h mo emen was in a momen o “we a e going o eflec on ou sel es, we a e going o
pu he ocus on ou ela ionships, we a e going o es ablish new ne wo ks...”and we we e
coming ou o a phase o esponse o ep ession. Like, he mo emen was di e en , eady o pass
o a mo e cons uc i e phase (Female, 27, na ionalis le -wing eminis o ganisa ion).
In e ms o agency, he poli ical capi al accumula ed in he o m o eflec i e dis-
posi ions and cogni i e esou ces has allowed hem –especially he olde ones – o
e alua e e en s and seek cohe ence be ween he alues o he ecen pas and hose o
oday. Thus, in he ansi ion om con en ious o mo e ou ine p ac ices, hei e-
posi ioning p ocess is accompanied by na a i es in which hey eason and a gue he
ounda ions and po en ial epe cussions o change. On he one hand, hey ea he
weakening o he mobilising capaci y o you h o ganisa ions, a p og essi e demobilisa ion
and, consequen ly, a p i a isa ion, indi idualisa ion and dissolu ion o collec i e na-
ionalis you h p ac ice in e e yday li e; on he o he hand, hey ecognise he oppo -
uni ies o e ed by o he o ms o doing poli ics ha acili a e alliances wi h a ious
di e en poli ical ac o s, who a e po en ial allies in he na ional cons uc ion p ojec . As a
backd op, i is possible o see a weakening o adhe ence o poli ical o ganiza ions in he
decla a ions o some young people.
My gene a ion will be one o he las o be ac i e in he si ua ion o conflic (...). P e iously, he
con adic ions we e e y e iden , hey we e he e, and i was easie o ake a posi ion and become
ac i e. As a he momen he e is no such explici conflic (...) This has he consequence o no
ge ing in ol ed in poli ics. So, I see i as a challenge o main ain e e ences and make con-
adic ions flou ish, as o he wise i will be mo e di ficul o mobilise people. Be o e, he e-
p ession was e y isible (Male, 26, eache , sel -managed squa e communi y).
La inaga e al. 9
Conclusions
This a icle sugges s he analy ical ele ance o disagg ega ing dis inc g oups among
wha has been e med “o dina y people”(Goode, 2020) wi hin he EN pa adigm. The
analysis has ocused on highly poli icised you h g oups who a e no pa o he poli ical
eli es and who pa icipa e o ha e pa icipa ed in a cons ella ion o na ionalis le -wing
o ganiza ions and mo emen s in he Basque Coun y a a ime o poli ical change. This
change s ems om he disbanding o he a med o ganisa ion ETA and he s a egic shi o
he Basque na ionalis le ollowing i s in eg a ion in o exis ing poli ical ins i u ions. One
o he consequences has been he a enua ion o he con en ious, mobilising poli ics o
you h o ganisa ions and hei adap a ion o he new poli ical cycle, lea ing behind wha
Billig (1995) called he “ho ”na ionalis passion ypical o imes o social un es .
The s uc u e o he analysis p esen ed in his a icle co esponds o he implemen a ion
o he hypo heses pu o wa d in he Me hodology sec ion. Mo e specifically, his s uc u e
has enabled an e alua ion o he hypo heses by es ablishing a sequence o h ee analy ical
momen s. Fi s , i has allowed us o iden i y, in he you h na a i es eco ded in he
in e iews, p ocesses o eflec ion and eposi ioning in ela ion o con en ious collec i e
ac i ism. This p ocess has been accompanied by a ce ain weakening o o mal associa ion
wi h na ionalis you h o ganisa ions. Second, i has enabled us o de ec he expansion o
he na ionalis discu si e amewo k o young ac i is s, which conside s a ious di e en
o ms o opp ession wi hin he same poli ical p ojec and, consequen ly, he adop ion o
agendas om o he con empo a y mo emen s. Thus, we ha e been able o a gue ha bo h
p ocesses ha e c ea ed a con ex a ou able o he eme gence o you h poli ical p ac ices
ha can de elop no only wi hin adi ional poli ical o ganisa ions bu also ou side hem,
e en on an indi idual basis.
Based on a Bou dieusian amewo k, i has been emphasised ha a change in he
poli ical landscape a ou s he adap a ion a a collec i e and indi idual le el o he
na ional habi us and he ac i is poli ical habi us inhe i ed du ing p ima y socialisa ion o
new con ex s and o bo h local and global dimensions. As a as he ini ially acqui ed
habi us can be ansposable, some young na ionalis s ha e ans e ed he accumula ed
poli ical capi al o p ac ices ca ied ou in e e yday li e, gi ing hem poli ical meaning. In
hese spaces, hey ac as ou ine upda e s o he na ion, a ibu ing new meanings o i .
In e ms o adap a ion in he global dimension, young na ionalis s a e no excep ion o
he influence exe ed on younge gene a ions by he cul u al cu en s o neolibe alism and
indi idualisa ion, and by he dynamics o he capi alis labou ma ke . In his espec , le -
wing na ionalis mo emen s, whose alues a e linked o social jus ice, sus ainabili y, and
gende equali y, end o sha e he same p inciples and agendas p omo ed by nume ous
social mo emen s on he global s age, which appeal o all con empo a y young people. In
ac , he connec ion be ween na ionalis mo emen s and eminism, clima e ac ion, and
an i-capi alis s uggles is no en i ely new in Basque na ionalism, bu he de elopmen o
mo e concilia o y discou ses and he p ac ical cons uc ion o new, mo e consis en spaces
o con e gence a e he disappea ance o ETA a e (I aola e al., 2023).
Ou analysis goes in o u he dep h he e, highligh ing fi s ha he changing poli ical
landscape has gene a ed a poli ical oppo uni y s uc u e conduci e o he in eg a ion o
new ac o s and poli ical demands in o he le -wing na ionalis mo emen , while igno ing
16 E hnici ies 0(0)
he con adic ions p e iously caused by he p ac ice o a med iolence. The in eg a ion o
his di e si y o demands has been acili a ed by he adap i e e ec ha Gomba and
o he s call cogni i e esonance (Gomba , 2025), ha is he p ocess ha allows o he
alignmen o p inciples ha ein o ce and mode nise p eexis ing alues in he na ionalis
ideology, enabling he main enance o cogni i e cohe ence. As Che allie and I çaina
(2024) emind us, he poli ics o le -wing Basque na ionalism has shaped a “cul u e o
ci izen opposi ion”, pene a ing di e en a eas o social and economic li e ha b ing i
close o o he s uggles. Secondly, he analysis highligh s he inc easingly indi idualised
ma e ialisa ion and in eg a ion o he p og ammes o p og essi e mo emen s by cu en
na ionalis ac i is s in o hei daily li es. Thus, collec i e p ac ices media ed by you h
o ganisa ions and indi idualised p ac ices coexis oday wi hin he na ionalis le . And,
hi dly, i confi ms ha his inse ion o new ac o s and causes in o he na ionalis dis-
cu si e and p og amma ic amewo k is gi ing ise o e o mula ions o he Basque
na ional iden i y by young people who, om a a ie y o posi ions and social opp essions,
a e expe iencing and ( e)defining he na ion in an in e sec ional and fluid way, qui e
dis inc om he e hno-linguis ic o mula ion ha has p edomina ed since he 1960s. This
p ocess has been possible hanks o he exis ence o young indi iduals who inco po a e
in e sec ional iden i ies (Banks, 2021), applying a c i ical p axis g ounded in in e sec-
ional analysis in hei li es o guide hei p ac ices.
The s udy confi ms he esilien , changing, and dynamic na u e o he na ion and he
his o ical na u e o i s pe manen ( e)cons uc ion a bo h collec i e and indi idual le els.
I also highligh s he impo ance, in addi ion o o ganisa ional and ins i u ional bodies, o
he e e yday and indi idualised sphe es o you h li e as a a ou able space o his p ocess
o mode nisa ion. Despi e he limi a ions ha any quali a i e sample has in e ms o i s
ep esen a i eness, his s udy ep esen s, on he one hand, a con ibu ion o he po en ial
de elopmen o a quali a i e da abase o e e yday na ionalis p ac ices o he pu poses o
compa a i e analysis. Mo eo e , i opens a pa h o u u e esea ch in o he p ocess o
e o mula ion ha Basque na ionalism is cu en ly unde going wi hin his cycle o change.
ORCID iDs
Eki E xeba ia h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5866-4254
Jon Azkune h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-8085-8175
Funding
The au ho s ecei ed no financial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his
a icle.
Decla a ion o conflic ing in e es s
The au ho s decla ed no po en ial conflic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o
publica ion o his a icle.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen
Da a sha ing no applicable o his a icle as no da ase s we e gene a ed o analyzed du ing he
cu en s udy.
La inaga e al. 17
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Appendix
. In e iew ou line
Sociodemog aphic da a o he pe son in e iewed
P ocess o socialisa ion
La inaga e al. 19
·Family ansmission. Poli ical and cul u al capi al
- P esence o na ionalis adi ions and/o p esence o le -wing alues in he
amily en i onmen
- His o ical memo y
- Expe ience o poli ical ep ession
- Backg ound o communi y ac i ism, pa icipa ion in associa ions, unions and/o
social mo emen s by pa en s o ela i es
- Language o amily communica ion
·Influence o he school model
- Linguis ic model chosen
- Public/p i a e/ eligious school. Associa ed alues
·The poli ical oppo uni y s uc u e o he local en i onmen
- P esence o communi y and na ionalis ne wo ks (cul u al, social, leisu e, e c.),
pa icipa o y dynamics, o ganised ci il socie y, indus ial o social conflic
·Poli ical lea ning among equals
- You h cul u es, social and leisu e models, music and cul u al consump ion
- Ini ia ion in in o mal communi y ne wo ks (local you h assemblies, sel -
managed you h cen es, conce s and p o es pa ies) and/o in o mal o gani-
sa ions (s uden , poli ical). Poli ical pa hways o you h.
- Ini ial o ms o acquisi ion and in e nalisa ion o ac i is disposi ions (habi us)
and expe ience o he na ion in you h con ex s
Feelings a ibu ed o he basque na ion
·Rep esen a ions o he na ion
- P edominance o some o he dimensions o he na ion: e hnic-cul u al di-
mension, ci ic- e i o ial dimension, class dimension, gende -na ion, e c., in
e ms o you h
·Pe cep ion o gene a ional di e ences in he defini ion o he na ion
·Possibili ies o expe iencing he na ion
- in poli ical and/o e e yday con ex s
- h ough collec i e and/o indi idualised ac ion
- h ough o mal and/o in o mal pa icipa ion
·Pe cep ion o he global poli ical, cul u al and economic cu en s ha condi ion he
li es o he younge gene a ions and hei ela ionship wi h he na ional conflic .
Expe iences o mul iac i ism
·Diagnosis o he main p oblems a ec ing Basque you h oday and hei ans e o
ac i is expe iences
·Accoun o ac i is expe iences in he o ganisa ional and communi y cons ella ion
o he na ionalis mo emen
- in he s ic ly poli ical o pa isan a ea
- in o he a eas: cul u e, language, educa ion, ans o ming economy, coope a-
i ism, sel -managemen , eminism, ecology, ood so e eign y.
·Ways o unde s anding he in e sec ion be ween na ionalis ac i ism and o he ypes
o sec o al ac i ism in he you h expe ience
20 E hnici ies 0(0)
- Pe cep ion o sha ed alues be ween di e en mo emen s
- Expe iences in mo emen s. Local and global ision
- Seen om he poin o iew o gende and class.
Pe cep ions abou he change o s a egy by he Basque na ionalis le
·In e p e a ions abou he si ua ion be o e and a e he end o he a med conflic
- The in e nal causes o change
- The influence o global ac o s
·Pe cei ed and expe ienced changes in na ionalis poli ical p ac ices
- Accoun o he p ac ices o con en ious and non-con en ious you h na ionalis
ac i ism in he pe iod o a med iolence
- Compa ison wi h cu en ac i is expe iences
- Pe cep ion o he in e nal deba e p ocesses o you h o ganisa ions in he pe iod o
change. E alua ion o conflic s and dissidences.
·Pe cep ion o he challenges o he Basque you h na ionalis mo emen s oday
- E alua ion o he p ocesses o depoli icisa ion. Expe iences o poli ical
wi hd awal.
- Possibili ies o expe iencing he na ion in he cu en con ex .
- E alua ion o poli ical commi men and i s in ol emen in daily li e oday.
Collec i e commi men and indi idualised commi men .
La inaga e al. 21
