Low emission zones and their adaptability to small and medium-sized cities

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BILBOKO
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Cu so: 2024-2025
Di ec o /Di ec o a: Llano Cas esana, U zi
Es udian e: Zabalegui Calde on, Ne ea
LOW EMISSION ZONES AND THEIR
ADAPTABILITY TO SMALL AND MEDIUM-
SIZED CITIES
MÁSTER UNIVERSITARIO EN DIRECCIÓN DE PROYECTOS
TRABAJO FIN DE MÁSTER
Fecha: Donos ia, 02, julio, 2025
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Abs ac (English)
Th ough his hesis he adap abili y o Low Emission Zones in small and medium-sized
Eu opean ci ies will be explo ed, wi h an especial ocus on he Spanish case. Despi e he
popula i y o such measu es as a key s a egy o comba u ban pollu ion, cu en
legisla ion and guidelines ollow a one-size- i s-all app oach, which c ea es adap a ion
challenges o smalle ci ies. Following a bibliome ic e iew, a compa a i e analysis
be ween he wo ypes o ci ies and h ee case s udies, his p ojec iden i ies clea
a ia ions in he design and planning p ocesses, s akeholde pa icipa ion and
complemen a y measu es associa ed wi h Low Emission Zones. The esul s show ha
smalle ci ies bene i om mo e holis ic and pa icipa o y s a egies, bu ha na ional
guidelines, such as he Spanish, p omo e a s ic app oach ha is no easily adap ed o
local eali ies.
Key wo ds: Low Emission Zones / Small and Medium-sized Ci ies / Sus ainable U ban
Mobili y
Abs ac (Euske a)
Tesi honen bidez, Eu opako hi i xiki e a e aine ako Isu i Gu xiko E emuen
moldaga i asuna az e uko da, Espainiako kasuan a e a be ezia ja iz. Ho elako
neu iek hi i ku sadu a i au e egi eko un sezko es a egia gisa du en ospea en a en,
egungo legediak e a gidale oek ikuspegi baka a i ja ai zen dio e, e a ho ek hi i
xikie a a egoki zeko e onkak so zen di u. Be ikuspen bibliome ikoa, bi hi i mo en
a eko az e ke a konpa a iboa e a hi u kasu-az e ke a egin ondo en, p oiek u honek
aldake a naba menak iden i ika zen di u diseinu e a plangin za p ozesue an, alde di
in e esdunen pa e-ha zean e a Isu i Gu xiko E emuei lo u ako neu i osaga ie an.
Hi i xikiek es a egia holis ikoagoak e a pa e-ha zaileagoak di uz e, baina gidale o
nazionalek, Espainiakoak kasu, okiko e eali a ee a a e az egoki zen ez den ikuspegi
zo o za sus a zen du e.
Gako hi zak: Isu i Gu xiko E emuak / Hi i Txiki e a E ainak / Hi i Mugiko asun
I aunko a
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Abs ac (Cas ellano)
A a és de es a esis se explo a á la adap abilidad de las Zonas de Bajas Emisiones en
ciudades eu opeas pequeñas y medianas, con especial a ención al caso español. A pesa
de la popula idad de es e ipo de medidas como es a egia cla e pa a comba i la
con aminación u bana, la legislación y las di ec ices ac uales siguen un en oque único,
lo que c ea e os de adap ación pa a las ciudades más pequeñas. T as una e isión
bibliomé ica, un análisis compa a i o en e los dos ipos de ciudades y es es udios de
caso, es e p oyec o iden i ica cla as a iaciones en los p ocesos de diseño y plani icación,
la pa icipación de las pa es in e esadas y las medidas complemen a ias asociadas a las
Zonas de Bajas Emisiones. Los esul ados mien as que las ciudades más pequeñas se
bene ician de es a egias más holís icas y pa icipa i as, pe o que las di ec ices
nacionales, como la española, p omue en un en oque es ic o que no se adap a
ácilmen e a las ealidades locales.
Palab as cla e: Zonas de Bajas Emisiones / Ciudades Pequeñas y Medianas / Mo ilidad
U bana Sos enible
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Table o Con en s
1.
INTRODUCTION
............................................................................................................................ 6
2.
CONTEXT AND MOTIVATION
................................................................................................ 10
3.
GOALS AND SCOPE
................................................................................................................... 12
4.
BENEFITS OF THE MASTER THESIS
................................................................................... 14
5.
STATE OF THE ART
.................................................................................................................. 16
a.
BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
...................................................................................................... 16
b.
LITERATURE REVIEW
............................................................................................................. 19
6.
RESEARCH DESIGN
................................................................................................................... 22
7.
LEZ IMPLEMENTATION IN SMSC
......................................................................................... 28
8.
LEZ IMPLEMENTATION IN LARGE CITIES
........................................................................ 36
9. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 41
10. SPANISH GUIDELINES ...................................................................................................... 46
11. CASE STUDY: BASQUE CITIES ....................................................................................... 50
a. CASE STUDY I: BILBAO ......................................................................................................... 51
b. CASE STUDY II: DONOSTIA .................................................................................................. 52
c. CASE STUDY III: VITORIA-GASTEIZ ................................................................................. 53
d. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................... 54
12. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS ............................................................................................ 56
a. QUANTITATIVE COMPARISON OF POPULATION AND AREA ............................... 56
b. GOOD PRACTICES GUIDE ..................................................................................................... 59
c. ASPECTS TO BE IMPROVED ................................................................................................ 62
d. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 66
13. CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................................... 68
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 70
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Table o Figu es
Figu e 1. Sign ha announces he En i onmen Zone in Sweden. Sou ce: Buss
magasine ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Figu e 2. Resea ch design s eps .................................................................................................. 27
Figu e 3. Map o he LEZ in Aachen. Sou ce: CLARS ............................................................ 29
Figu e 4. Map o he LEZ in Ghen . Sou ce: Pe s uim e S ad Gen ................................. 31
Figu e 5. Map o he LEZ in F eibu g. Sou ce: CLARS ......................................................... 33
Figu e 6. Map o he LEZ in Mad id. Sou ce: A is ................................................................. 36
Figu e 7. Map o he LEZs in S ockholm. Sou ce: CLARS ................................................... 38
Figu e 8. Map o he LEZ in Ams e dam. Sou ce: Ci yLogis ics ...................................... 40
Figu e 9. Delimi a ion o he LEZ in Bilbao. Sou ce: Ayun amien o de Bilbao .......... 57
Figu e 10. Delimi a ion o he LEZ in Vi o ia-Gas eiz. Sou ce: Ayun amien o de
Vi o ia .................................................................................................................................................... 57
Figu e 11. Delimi a ion o he LEZ in Donos ia-San Sebas ián. Sou ce:
Ayun amien o de San Sebas ián .................................................................................................. 57
Table o G aphs
G aph 1. Resul s by ca ego y o he sea ch "Low Emission Zone". Sou ce: Web o
Science ................................................................................................................................................... 17
G aph 2: Resul s by yea o publica ion o he "LEZ" e m. Sou ce: SCOPUS .......... 18
G aph 3: Resul s by coun y o he sea ch "small and medium-sized ci ies AND
emission educ ion". Sou ce: Web o Science ........................................................................ 19
Table o Tables
Table 1. Final lis o SMSCs ha appea in published a icles. Sou ce:
CLARS/Eu os a ................................................................................................................................ 24
Table 2. Compa ison be ween la ge-sized ci ies and small and medium-sized ci es
.................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Table 3. Examples o Low Emission Zones. Sou ce: Spanish Guidelines ..................... 47
Table 4. Popula ion and a ea a ec ed by he LEZ in Bilbao, Donos ia-San Sebas ián
and Vi o ia-Gas eiz. Sou ce: ING ................................................................................................. 57

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1.
INTRODUCTION
The sudden popula i y o Low Emission Zones (LEZ) esponds o an inc ease in
awa eness o e he high le els o ai pollu ion ound in mos u ban a eas a ound he
wo ld, bo h big and small. Acco ding o he Eu opean En i onmen Agency (2025),
ehicles and o he modes o anspo a ion a e esponsible o a qua e o he Eu opean
Union´s g eenhouse emissions. As a esul , measu es o educe a ic ela ed emissions,
such as Low Emission Zones, ha e become a p edominan s a egy o na ional
go e nmen s. Howe e , LEZs ha e no always enjoyed such an open ecep ion and
accep ance.
While emission educing measu es may seem a ecen conce n, he i s Eu opean
Di ec i e on
ai quali y assessmen and managemen
was passed on he 27
h o
Sep embe
1996 (1996/62/EC), ocusing on s udying he le els o ai
pollu ion and on implemen ing measu es o educe
emissions (Council o he Eu opean Union, 1996).
Ne e heless, ha ini ial egula ion had li le adhe ence in
he Membe S a es. Sweden was he ou lie . Tha same
yea , h ee Swedish ci ies; S ockholm, Go henbu g and
Malmö, implemen ed “
Miljözon”
o En i onmen al Zones.
These zones limi ed he abili y o ce ain ehicles, hose
wi h high emission le els, o en e a eas o he ci ies ha
we e especially sensi i e o ai pollu ion (Rapapo , 2002).
Those En i onmen al Zones would ake he name o Low
Emission Zones in o he Eu opean s a es.
Howe e , i would no be un il he second decade o he new cen u y when o he na ional
and egional go e nmen s would ealize he bene i s o emission educing measu es (Ku
e al., 2020). In 2008, he second and mos in luen ial Eu opean Di ec i e was passed,
Di ec i e 2008/50/EC o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 21 May 2008 on
ambien ai quali y and cleane ai o Eu ope,
which es ablished h esholds o mul iple
gas concen a ions, such as sulphu dioxide o ca bon monoxide. I is especially
Figu e 1. Sign ha announces he
En i onmen Zone in Sweden.
Sou ce: Buss magasine
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signi ican as su passing he es ablished limi s impels ci ies o enac emission educ ion
measu es (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2008).
Despi e he mul iple Eu opean di ec i es and egula ions enac ed a he beginning o he
cen u y, Membe S a es displayed di e se le els o willingness o implemen pollu ion
educ ion o mobili y es ic ion measu es. A e Sweden, I aly and Ge many became
p ecu so s on he applica ion o Low Emission Zones: Rome´s was es ablished in 2001
whils Be lin and Milan implemen ed hei s in 2008 (Ku e al., 2020)
(Aydin & Rauck,
2022). O he s, such as he F ench and Spanish go e nmen s, we e mo e eluc an o
es ablish hem. I would no be un il he la e yea s o he 2010s and he i s yea s o
he ollowing decade ha he obliga ion o es ablishing LEZs was app o ed by mo e
na ional pa liamen s, as was he case o Pa is and Mad id in 2021 (Holman e al., 2015)
(Leb usán & Tou ouh, 2020).
Al hough he Eu opean egula o y amewo k s anda dized signi ican aspec s o he
emission educ ion measu es, mos impo an ly, he allowed concen a ion h esholds,
and he na ional laws ule o e he basic cha ac e is ics o Low Emission Zones, such as
he ypes o ehicles allowed o he implemen a ion calenda , he ini ial and planning
phases all unde he au ho i y o municipali ies o egions (Holman e al., 2015). Thus,
local go e nmen s a e con on ed wi h a p ojec ha challenges he unc ioning o he
ci y, o boo , one wi h li le lexibili y and au onomy, especially o smalle ci ies.
Cu en ly, he e a e mo e han wo hund ed Eu opean ci ies ha ha e al eady
implemen ed o a e in he p ocess o designing a Low Emission Zone. This means ha
wo hund ed local go e nmen s a e ying o adap a policy c ea ed in B ussels o he
needs and cha ac e is ics o hei ci ies (CLARS, 2025).
The Eu opean and na ional legisla ion and guidelines adop a one-size- i s-all app oach,
which does no o e lec he pa icula i ies o ci ies, especially o hose o smalle size
and ele ance. Such app oach a ou s ci ies wi h big popula ions, as hey concen a e a
la ge sha e o he popula ion, and in his case, a e usually he mos u gen cases. Thus,
excluding small and medium-sized ci ies (SMSC) which ha e di e en needs and
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conce ns. The goal o his hesis is o analyse he adap abili y o Low Emission Zones o
he di e se needs o smalle ci ies, all while esponding o a simple ques ion:
A e Low Emission Zones and he egula ions ha suppo hem sui ed o mee he needs
and cha ac e is ics o small and medium-sized ci ies?
Se e al s eps will be aken in o de o answe his appa en ly simple ques ions. Fi s o
all, a b ie con ex will be p o ided, cen ed on he mo i a ion and he goals behind his
hesis. La e , he bene i s and ela ion o he hesis wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals will be discussed, wi h he objec i e o p o iding a iew on how he esul s ound
can be help ul o build a mo e sus ainable and g een u u e. A e wa ds, he s a e o he
li e a u e will be examined, as o p o ide an unde s anding o p e ious indings by o he
esea che s and o poin ou he gaps ha his hesis is in ending o co e . The e iew o
he li e a u e will show he unde - ep esen a ion o published a icles ela ed o
analysing he ini ial and planning phases o Low Emission Zones, especially conce ning
small and medium-sized ci ies.
Ha ing iden i ied he gaps in he li e a u e, a speci ic esea ch design will be es ablished,
which will de e mine how he main ques ion will be answe ed. The ini ial analysis will
consis o a quali a i e, compa a i e analysis be ween p e iously es ablished LEZ, bo h
in SMSCs and in big ci ies. I will ocus on he ini ial and design phases, on how he
es ablishmen o he Low Emission Zone was decided and on wha s eps we e aken o
adap he ci y o he new measu e. A e ex ac ing he main di e ences be ween bo h
ypes o municipali ies, a compa a i e s udy will be conduc ed, wi h he aims o indings
side by side compa isons o ce ain cha ac e is ics, such as s akeholde in ol emen and
he use o complemen a y measu es. Nex , he Spanish na ional guidelines o he
c ea ion and managemen o LEZs will be examined, conside ing he conclusions
ex ac ed om he p e ious analysis. The las pa o he analysis will consis o he
examina ion o h ee case s udies: Bilbao, Donos ia-San Sebas ían and Vi o ia-Gas eiz.
These ci ies ha e ecen ly o a e sho ly going o implemen a LEZ ollowing he
guidelines p o ided by he Spanish go e nmen . The goal will be o check i he eal
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applica ion o he guidelines esul s in a pe sonalized implemen a ion he Low Emission
Zone.
To ga he all he in o ma ion collec ed h ough he esea ch sec ion o he hesis, a
esul s and discussion pa will be p oduced. In h ee subsec ions, his pa will explo e
he quan i a i e e ec s o LEZs in small and medium-sized ci ies; ga he a good p ac ices
guide and iden i y he majo weaknesses o p e ious ini ial and planning p ocesses. The
conclusion will be used no only o p o ide a inal answe o he esea ch ques ions, bu
also o examine he limi a ions and u u e implica ions o his esea ch.
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5.
STATE OF THE ART
Be o e conduc ing he esea ch o ind whe he he cu en app oach o designing a Low
Emission Zone adap s o he needs o small and medium-sized ci ies, he cu en s a e o
he academic li e a u e mus be analysed. This nex sec ion is di ided in o wo pa s. In
he i s one, a bibliome ic analysis will be conduc ed. The goal is o unde s and in
quan i a i e e ms he cha ac e is ics o he published a icles. On he o he hand, he
second sec ion will explo e he opics and indings o he p e iously iden i ied li e a u e.
The aim o his sec ion is o iden i y bo h he basis and he gaps ha his hesis will y
o co e .
a.
BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
In o de o unde s and how signi ican he gap in he esea ch o Low Emission Zones is,
mos speci ically in e ms o small and medium-sized ci ies, a bibliome ic analysis has
been conduc ed. Fo his s udy, me ics ha e been ob ained om wo websi es: Web o
Science and Scopus. They ha e been chosen because hey p o ide an analysis o he
di e en cha ac e is ics o he li e a u e, such as o igin o he pape , da e and subjec
a ea. O he sea ch engines ha e been omi ed because o a lack o il e ing c i e ia. As i
will be explained below, he esul s o he analysis show a clea unde - ep esen a ion o
small and medium-sized ci ies compa ed o bigge me opolis.
The examina ions conduc ed on Web o Science and Scopus show almos iden ical
esul s. Fi s o all, he e m “Low Emission Zone” is oo b oad o a e m o unc ion as a
base, wi h o e 24.000 a icles ound in he i s engine and 11.500 in he second one.
Mo eo e , no only we e he numbe o a icles unsus ainable bu he opics ha hey
deal wi h we e ine ec i e o he goals o his pape , as he sea ch includes a icles no
ela ed o LEZ. This can be seen in G aph 1, whe e pape s ela ed o na u al sciences a e
he dominan opics. A e adding he e m “Eu ope” o he sea ch o concen a e he
esul s o he a ge e i o y, he esul s showed a signi ican educ ion in he numbe
o a icles, al hough he opics con inue o be oo di e se.

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G aph 1. Resul s by ca ego y o he sea ch "Low Emission Zone". Sou ce: Web o Science
As i was es ablished ha using he ull name does no yield he desi ed esul s, a
di e en app oach was chosen. The ini ials “LEZ” we e, hus, in oduced. The eason
behind he elec ion o he ini ials was based on he ac ha any a icles examining Low
Emission Zones would, in he i s pa ag aph, es ablish “LEZ” as an al e na i e name o
he concep , one ha would be used h oughou ha same pape in an in e changeable
manne . This way, he sea ch elimina ed any a icles ha deal wi h emissions bu no
wi h Low Emission Zones.
Wi h his new app oach, he esul s we e mo e adequa e o an in-dep h analysis, as he
scope was educed o less han a 100 a icles pe sea ch. Any a ia ion o he e m “LEZ”,
such as “Low Emission Zone(s) LEZ” o “LEZs” showed simila esul s as he o iginal.
Fi s o all, all h ee e ealed an upwa d end in ele ance s a ing in he ea ly 2010s,
wi h a peak in he 2022-2024 pe iod, which indica ed ha i is a highly pe inen opic
nowadays, as i can be seen in G aph 2. Secondly, he a icles we e no longe mos ly
abou na u al sciences, bu o he opics gained impo ance, such as public heal h and
public anspo a ion. Las ly, an analysis o he coun ies o o igin o he a icles showed
ha he esea ch in o Low Emission Zones is a mainly Eu opean opic, wi h Spain,
Ge many and he Uni ed Kingdom as he main con ibu o s. Ou o he op en coun ies,
only h ee we e non-Eu opean: The Uni ed S a es (5), Aus alia (9) and Japan (10).
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G aph 2: Resul s by yea o publica ion o he "LEZ" e m. Sou ce: SCOPUS
Finally, o u he p ecision, he sea ch included a a ia ion o he e m “small and
medium-sized ci ies”. Added o he p e iously used e ms, i diminished he esul s o an
imp ac ical numbe , wi h less han 5 a icles in bo h sea ch engines. In o de o inc ease
he ele ance o he sea ch and examine o he kind o emission educ ion measu es and
he impac on SMSC, he e m “LEZ” was subs i u ed by “emission educ ion”. In his case,
he conclusions ound in p e ious analyses eappea ed, along wi h a e y high
p e alence o China-based a icles (G aph 3). Howe e , a e u he examina ion, hose
Chinese a icles we e ela ed o na u al sciences app oach, no ocused on u ban
planning measu es. To coun e balance his in luence, he ph ase “NOT China” was
added, which showed esul s ha we e oughly iden ical o hose ound unde he sea ch
o “LEZ”.
O e all, h ee main conclusion can be aken om his bibliome ic analysis on he
li e a u e o LEZ/emission educ ion measu es on small and medium-sized ci ies.
Fi s ly, i is no a widely esea ched opic, all he ad anced sea ches ha we e conduc ed
only esul ed in a maximum o 200 use ul a icles, wi h e y speci ic sea ches e en
showing a single o ze o esul s. Secondly, he ele ance o he opic is e y ecen ,
s a ing in he ea ly 2010s, wi h a s able g ow h in he ollowing yea s and a signi ican
inc ease in he 2022-2024 pe iod (G aph 2). Las ly, he connec ion be ween LEZ and any
o he kind o emission measu es and SMSC has no been ex ensi ely esea ched,
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especially in he non-na u al sciences depa men , as no a icle was ound ha
speci ically deal wi h his issue.
G aph 3: Resul s by coun y o he sea ch "small and medium-sized ci ies AND emission educ ion". Sou ce: Web
o Science
The easons behind he lack o li e a u e on he opic a e long and a ied, al hough some
heo ies could be iden i ied. On he one hand, he exis ence o Low Emission Zones was
negligible un il he las decade, educed o a ew Eu opean ci ies. As can be seen in G aph
2, he numbe o a icles is on he ise, which shows he inc easing ele ance o he opic.
On he o he hand, many o he a icles ha ha e been w i en un il now ha e ocused
on capi al ci ies o o he majo ci ies. Al hough his app oach lea es ou signi ican pa s
o he Eu opean popula ion, capi als end o be he mos pollu ed and popula ed ci ies in
hei espec i e coun ies. Mo eo e , hey also p o ide a mo e ex ensi e access o da a
o esea che s. All in all, i can be es ablished ha , albei no in en ionally no
unjus i iably, small and medium-sized ci ies a e being unde ep esen ed in he ques o
inding he op imal emission educ ion measu e.
b.
LITERATURE REVIEW
P e ious esea ch on Low Emission Zones is mos ly ocused on hei e ec i eness in
educing emissions. The e is a wide ange o esul s o be ound, each one cen ed on a
speci ic pollu an , bu li le is men ioned abou he p ocess o es ablishing LEZ, leas o
all in a small o medium-sized ci y. I is wi hin his g oup o a icles ha he o ali y o
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compa a i e s udies be ween di e en ci ies can be ound. These s udies a e conduc ed
wi hin Eu ope, ei he wi hin he same coun y o be ween big me opolises.
One example o his phenomenon is Ge many. Because o he coun y´s ea ly suppo o
Low Emission Zone and he high numbe o highly popula ed ci ies, many compa a i e
s udies ha e been conduc ed. Mo eld e al. (2014), Cy ys e al. (2013) and Jiang e al.
(2016) all analyse he impac s o LEZ in he educ ion o ai pollu ion in a numbe o
Ge man ci ies, and, in he h ee cases, he esea ch ocuses exclusi ely on measu ing
emissions. Al hough di e en gases and emission a e e alua ed and he app oaches a e
also di e se, he e is no examina ion on how and why hose Low Emission Zones we e
es ablished.
Ano he way ha compa isons be ween Low Emission Zones ha e been conduc ed has
been in a con inen al way. These a icles usually o e a bi mo e o an explana ion abou
when he LEZs we e es ablished and which coun ies we e he i s one o do so.
Howe e , he e is eally no dep h in o he s eps aken o any o he explo a ion apa
om he le els o emissions. In Tögel & Spicka (2014), hey analyse how he di e en
es ic ion ca ego ies be ween No he n s a es, Sweden, Denma k and he Uni ed
Kingdom, and Ge many, impac he success o a LEZ. Ku e al. (2020) ocus hei analysis
on compa ing he Low Emission Zones o Milan, Rome, Pa is and London, wi h especial
a en ion o he basic cha ac e is ic (a ea, ype, ules and banned ehicles), as well as
he achie ed educ ion pe cen age o a ic, No
x
, PM
10
and CO
2 .
Ne e heless, he e a e some pape s ha do in es iga e he e ec s o Low Emission
Zones in opics no ela ed o emissions. Howe e , hese analyses a e only ocused on
he esul s and impac s o LEZs, hey do no dwell on he ini ial and planning phases.
Examples o hese app oaches a e Se ey e al. (2019) and Dablanc & Mon enon (2015)
ha explo e he p epa edness o long-dis ance oad ca ie s o he new measu es, such
as LEZ, in oduced by ci ies. In o he cases, such as Chambe lain e al. (2023) and B os e
& Te zano (2025), hey s udy he e ec s o Low Emission Zones in ela ion o human
heal h.
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To sum up, a e iew o he li e a u e on compa a i e s udies o Low Emission Zones
highligh s he lack o esea ch done on bo h he ini ial and planning phases o he p ojec
and he unde - ep esen a ion o small and medium-sized ci ies. Mo eo e , i is also
appa en ha mos o he esea ch is ocused on he impac o LEZ, ei he h ough he
e alua ion o di e ences in emissions o h ough o he ela ed e ec s such as heal h o
long-dis ance anspo a ion. The nex sec ions o his hesis will y o ill he gaps in all
o hese a eas, by explo ing he li e a u e on he es ablishmen o LEZ in bo h small and
medium-sized ci ies as well as in bigge ci ies. This analysis will be ollowed by he i s
compa a i e examina ion o he di e si y be ween he ini ial and planning phases o LEZ
o he di e en sized ci y g oups.

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6.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Based on he lack o li e a u e on Low Emission Zones and hei in e ac ions wi h small
and medium-sized ci ies, in o de o s udy and answe he esea ch ques ion o his
hesis a new me hod had o be concei ed. As p e iously seen, he p e ious esea ch is
no ocused on he managing aspec s o LEZs, meaning ha he e is li le heo e ical
backg ound om which an example can be d awn om. Howe e , he exis ing li e a u e
does p o ide clues o e how and why LEZs we e es ablished, p incipally ocused on
speci ic ci ies.
This hesis will ollow a quali a i e esea ch design. Fi s , a compa a i e analysis
be ween he wo di e en g oups o ci ies will be conduc ed. Li e a u e will be s udied
o unde s anding he ini ial and planning phases o es ablishing a Low Emission Zones
and o e all conclusions will be ex ac ed om bo h ca ego ies. Nex , bo h se s o
in e ences will be jux aposed o expose he main di e ences be ween he wo. This
analysis will p oduce a baseline ha will be used as a e e ence o assessing na ional
guidelines and case s udies, which will be he nex and las pa o he hesis.
Fo he compa a i e analysis, he i s s eps will be di ec ed a iden i ying he ci ies ha
can be used as examples. Because o he lack o li e a u e on he opic, he e is no a g ea
a ie y o ci ies o analyse. To collec he names o all he Eu opean ci ies ha ha e
es ablished a Low Emission Zone, he websi e CLARS (
Cha ging, Low Emission Zones,
o he Access Regula ion Schemes)
will be used. This websi e aims o p o ide in o ma ion
abou Eu opean ci ies ha ha e implemen ed any ype o measu e ha es ic s access,
including LEZs. Al hough he page p o ides in o ma ion such as he ype o ehicle, he
equi emen s o egis a ion o he ype o s icke needed, his hesis will only ake in o
accoun he name o he ci y. As he websi e p o ides he in o ma ion by coun ies, he
names o all he ci ies will be ga he ed s a e by s a e and ansposed o a sp eadshee .
The ull lis o ci ies p esen s some ou lie s ha ha e o be ex ac ed in o de o op imize
he sea ch. Fi s o all, some o he ci ies appea as a pa o a me opoli an o p o incial
a ea, which ha e o be dele ed. Na ional laws base he obliga ion o es ablishing a Low
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Emission Zones on he popula ion o municipali ies, no on he su ounding a eas, hus,
his hesis will ollow he same app oach. Ano he case is he case o non-ci y e i o ies,
such as he Aus ian highways ha appea on he lis . These will also be excluded as hey
do no i he equi emen s needed o he analysis. Las ly, seasonal Low Emission Zones
ha e o be cu ou , as hey a e only an I alian occu ence, whe e Win e LEZs a e
commonplace (CLARS, 2025).
The ini ial lis is made up o 431 e i o ial en i ies and al hough hose i s exclusions
educe he lis o 270, a u he selec ion is needed, bo h o la ge and o small and
medium-sized ci ies. Small and medium-sized ci ies ep esen he majo i y o
municipali ies on he lis . Howe e , some coun ies ha e ex ended he possibili y o
es ablishing Low Emission Zones o smalle owns, meaning ha he lis needs o be
so ed. Fo a municipali y o be conside ed in he esea ch o small and medium-sized
ci ies i has o mee he desc ip ion o he OECD, ha is, i has o ha e be ween 50.000
and 500.000 inhabi an s (OECD, 2015). This g ouping esul s in a lis o 230 ci ies
(CLARS, 2025).
To make he lis mo e unc ional a u he equi emen has o be added. A empo al
speci ica ion was chosen. As p e iously s a ed, he esea ch is based on exis ing
li e a u e, hus, he hesis wo ks unde he assump ion ha disc imina ing agains ci ies
ha ha e ecen ly es ablished a LEZ will esul in a bigge selec ion o a icles. Ci ies ha
had implemen ed a Low Emission Zone a e he 1
s o
Janua y 2024 we e no aken in o
accoun . These c i e ia signi ican ly educes he lis o quali ying municipali ies om 230
o 78, which a e dis ibu ed by s a e in he ollowing way: Belgium (1), Denma k (3),
F ance (2), Ge many (35), I aly (13), Spain (6), Sweden (7) and he Ne he lands (11)
(CLARS, 2025).
The quan i a i e elimina ion p ocess p o ides a lis o 78 ci ies ha may i he
equi emen s needed o his hesis. Howe e , mee ing he c i e ia is no use ul i
p e ious esea ch has no been conduc ed. As a esul , he nex s ep will in ol e
esea ching academic sea ch engines o a icles abou he es ablishmen o Low
Emission Zones in hese ci ies. Only hose wi h iden i iable a icles will be kep o
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u he examina ion. In his case, Google Schola was used as he main sea ch engine, as
i s abili y o sea ch wi hin he ex p o ides b oade and deepe esul s. The e ms used
o he sea ch we e he ci y name and LEZ, o any a ia ion o he e m, as hey ha e
been shown o be he mos use ul. A e his analysis, he lis is educed o 19, om which
only 7 show a icles ha explo e he es ablishmen and managemen o LEZ. The es
a e ei he cen ed on he e ec s o di e en pollu an s o a e jus me e men ions in he
li e a u e o la ge ci ies (CLARS, 2025).
Ci ies
Coun y
Popula ion
Implemen a ion
da e
Gö ebo g
Sweden
114.592
01/01/1996
Malmö
Sweden
362.133
01/01/1996
F eibu g
Ge many
236.140
01/01/2013
Uppsala
Sweden
245.328
01/01/2013
Cas op-Rauxel
Ge many
74.370
01/01/2014
Gladbeck
Ge many
75.799
01/01/2014
He ne
Ge many
157.368
01/01/2014
Mölndal
Sweden
69.364
01/01/2015
Aachen
Ge many
252.136
01/02/2016
Ma bu g
Ge many
77.845
01/04/2016
Umea
Sweden
133.093
01/01/2019
Gen (Ghen )
Belgium
268.335
01/01/2020
Aalbo g
Denma k
224.619
01/01/2022
Eindho en
The Ne he lands
290.147
01/01/2022
Haa lem
The Ne he lands
285.886
01/01/2022
Maas ich
The Ne he lands
122.734
01/01/2022
s'-He ogenbosch
(Den Bosch)
The Ne he lands
160.740
01/01/2022
Tilbu g
The Ne he lands
227.707
01/01/2022
U ech
The Ne he lands
466.865
01/01/2022
Table 1. Final lis o SMSCs ha appea in published a icles. Sou ce: CLARS/Eu os a
Fo he bigge ci ies, in o de o ensu e ha he maximum amoun o esea ch is aken
in o accoun , en na ional capi als ha e been selec ed. This selec ion ollows a simple
h eshold: only he en i s na ional capi als o es ablish a Low Emission Zone will be
aken in o conside a ion. The p emise is ha na ional capi als a e, mos imes, he i s
con ac o a s a e wi h LEZs and, hus, he mos esea ched. The ci ies ha i hese
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cha ac e is ics a e: S ockholm, Be lin, Helsinki, Vienna, Pa is, Ams e dam, Mad id,
Copenhagen, Rome and B ussels.
Despi e he ex ensi e esea ch conduc ed on hese ci ies in ega d o Low Emission
Zones, he e is a lack o li e a u e on he mo e echnical aspec s o es ablishing and
managing a LEZ. Resea ch on big ci ies is mainly ocused on he e ec i eness o he
p ojec s, on whe he he goals o emission educ ion we e ac ually me . As a esul , an
analysis on he main academic sea ch engines esul s in i een a icles ha will be
included on he esea ch pa o he hesis. Some ci ies, such as Helsinki and Vienna, ha e
no been esea ched in a way ha is ele an o his s udy, hus, he e will no be any
u he men ion o hem (CLARS, 2025).
Whils he numbe o a icles may no be big, enough in o ma ion is p o ided as o d aw
signi ican conclusions, which can be used o imp o e he implemen a ion o Low
Emission Zones in SMSCs. Co espondingly, he nex s eps will be o indi idually analyse
he a icles ound o bo h g oups o ci ies. The goal is o ind commonali ies wi hin he
clus e s, iden i ying hem as he main cha ac e is ics o bo h la ge and small and
medium-sized ci ies.
The ollowing s ep will be o compa e he esul s o bo h g oups and iden i y he main
di e ences, con as ing he ini ial and planning phases o he p ojec s. All o his
in o ma ion will be condensed in a able o easy iden i ica ion and communica ion. This
able will be di ided in o h ee columns: one o he dis inc i e cha ac e is ics and he
o he wo o he desc ip ion o he di e en app oaches aken by he ypes o ci ies.
Then, aking in o accoun he p e iously eached conclusions, he Spanish Guidelines o
implemen ing a Low Emission Zone will be examined. C ea ed in 2021, he objec i e o
his guidelines is “
(...) o se e as a guide o hose local en i ies ha mus design and
implemen an EPZ.”
(Mi eco, 2021). The e o e, he goal o his s ep is o sc u inize his
documen unde he lenses o he compa a i e analysis conduc ed in he p e ious
sec ions. Because he guidelines we e w i en a e he implemen a ion o he Low
Emission Zone in Mad id, i is assumed ha a signi ican po ion is in luenced by he
expe ience o he capi al. Meaning ha he e is a high likelihood o inding a bias owa ds
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The impo ance o s akeholde suppo was also esea ched by Am en and Hed o s in
2023, when hey analysed he anspo sys em o he Swedish ci y o Umea. The local
go e nmen ealized ha in o de o mee hei emission a ge , bo h di ec and indi ec
measu es we e needed. On he one hand, hey ocused on he pollu ion emi ed by he
publicly owned ehicles, he ones hey had di ec con ol o e . One o he measu es
in oduced was he subs i u ion o he ossil uel- un local bus lee o an elec ic unning
one. On he o he hand, in ma e s whe e he go e nmen did no ha e absolu e powe , in
his case, ci izens´ decisions, he ocus was ixa ed on g een in as uc u e in es men s
and on an open communica ion plan. The ci y ins alled cha ging po s o elec ic ehicles
and encou aged i s ci izens o choose g een mobili y al e na i es. Wha Am en and
Hed o s a gue is ha implemen ing measu es own hei own is no enough, and ha i is
on he local go e nmen s o de ine a holis ic s a egy ha ac i ely encou ages and os e s
ci izen pa icipa ion.
Complemen a y measu es
The ci y o F eibu g in Ge many has long been ega ded as an example o sus ainable
u ban mobili y, e en be o e he egional go e nmen o Baden-Wu embe g adop ed
Low Emission Zones as a p io i y. The expe ience o he ci y o e s signi ican e idence o
a gue ha LEZs, while aluable o emission educ ion, a e no e ec i e by hemsel es.
Long be o e 2010, he local go e nmen had been ollowing a long- e m and
comp ehensi e u ban planning s a egy, in eg a ing changes in public anspo wi h
o he s in land-use and g een spaces (Buehle & Puche , 2010).
Beginning in he 70s, new neighbou hoods had been designed o dec ease he p esence
o ehicles. The s a egies ollowed we e a ied, such as limi ing he a ailabili y o pa king
spaces o he p omo ion o ca - ee a eas. By he u n o he cen u y, almos 70% o
in e nal ips we e made by public anspo , cycling o walking (Buehle & Puche , 2010).
E en wi h highe g owing popula ion and employmen a es han he na ional a e age,
he ci y managed o main ain a g een policy (Olaniyi & Ajayi, 2024).

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Acco ding o expe s, he success o his s a egy was la gely due o a go e nance model
ha conside ed no only a holis ic planning s a egy bu also encou aged s ong ci izen
pa icipa ion. Thanks o widesp ead social and poli ical suppo , ci izens became one wi h
he ci y´s en i onmen al awa eness s a egy. This allowed he local go e nmen o
implemen measu es ha elsewhe e would be conside ed oo con o e sial, such as
educing he numbe o pa king spaces. Mo eo e , F eibu g was a pionee in es ablishing
a low-cos mon hly public anspo a ion icke , which a ac ed 86% o all he p e ious
icke holde s. This p omo ed a cul u e o sha e mobili y, which would la e educe majo
opposi ion o he es ablishmen o a Low Emission Zone (Olaniyi & Ajayi, 2024).
Figu e 5. Map o he LEZ in F eibu g. Sou ce: CLARS
The es ablishmen o he LEZ in F eibu g was p eda ed by well-es ablished sus ainable
mobili y p ac ices, as is he case o high-quali y public anspo a ion, an ex ensi e and
well-main ained cycling in as uc u e and g een u ban planning. This illus a es how
Low Emission Zones can unc ion as a pa o a whole and no as a unique solu ion o an
ex ensi e p oblem. Wi hou complemen a y measu es, he LEZ in F eibu g would ha e
had a mo e limi ed impac , as he popula ion would ha e lacked a sus ainable mobili y
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cul u e. The Ge man ci y showcases he app op ia eness o a la ge and in e depended
amewo k, whe e Low Emission Zones a e included in a b oade s a egy (Olaniyi &
Ajayi, 2024) (Buehle & Puche , 2010).
Ano he signi ican example comes om he mobili y plan launched by he Belgian ci y o
Ghen in 2016. Tha yea he ci y implemen ed a Low Emission Zone ha co e ed he a ea
wi hin he inne ing oad. Howe e , in his case, he municipali y did no ha e a long-
es ablished sus ainable cul u e. Be o e es ablishing he LEZ, he local go e nmen
decided ha building such cul u e was essen ial. As a esul , he LEZ was no implemen ed
as a unique solu ion o educe pollu ion le els, bu as a complemen a y ool o a b oade
s a egy. The local go e nmen implemen ed wo addi ional ac ions, unde he idea ha
he h ee measu es would wo k oge he o enhance each o he ´s posi i e e ec s
(Bencek i e al., 2019).
The i s ocused on a anspo and mobili y policy ha bo h es ic ed a ailable pa king
spaces and inc eased he supply and quali y o public anspo a ion. Mo eo e , he p ice
o pa king spaces jus ou side he Low Emission Zone we e inc eased, so as o discou age
sho - e m pa king. The second one was cen ed on p omo ing ac i e mobili y. The own
hall iden i ied s ee s sui able o pedes ianiza ion and allowed i s ci izens o design
hose spaces, con e ing hem in o collec i e ga dens o playg ounds (Bencek i e al.,
2019).
Bo h o hese cases show ha Low Emission Zones can and should play a ole in achie ing
emission educ ion objec i es. None heless, hey also demons a e ha e ec i eness
inc eases signi ican ly when implemen ed in a complemen a y manne wi h o he
measu es, as seen in he cases o Aachen, Ghen o F eibu g. These las wo examples
illus a e ha he success o such plans depends on building a cohe en s a egy, one ha
is aimed owa ds long- e m sus ainable mobili y. Wi hou his complemen a iness,
go e nmen s un he isk o imposing measu es ha a e bo h unpopula wi h hei
ci izens and ine icien in achie ing hei goals (Bencek i e al., 2019) (Buehle & Puche ,
2010).
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The concluding ema ks p esen ed by Buehle and Puche in hei 2010 pape summa ize
his sec ions pe ec ly. Fo hem, he design and planning o neighbou hoods had o ollow
a s a egy ha ensu ed bo h high-densi y and mixed-use de elopmen , so ha long ca
jou neys could be discou aged. Mo eo e , hey highligh ed a mo e incen i e based
app oach, whe e a ic es ic ion would be ollowed by a o dable and e icien
al e na i es, which would no be limi ed o public anspo a ion. Ne e heless, hey
acknowledged he u ili y o such a s a egy i i is implemen ed wi hou he app o al o
he ci y´s s akeholde s. By encou aging sus ainabili y in o he ci y´s iden i y, such as in
F eibu g, ci ies ensu e con inui y. Las ly, hey also wa n abou he dange o o e elying
on a single policy and encou age go e nmen o ocus on holis ic objec i es ha co e all
sus ainable aspec s.
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8.
LEZ IMPLEMENTATION IN LARGE
CITIES
Pionee s in hei coun ies
Low Emission Zones a e usually implemen ed i s in he s a e´s capi al ci y and hen
expanded o he es o he coun y. Because big ci ies end o p oduce he highes na ional
emission a es, go e nmen s a e mo e willing o implemen as and e ec i e educ ion
measu es. This was he case o Mad id, whe e, in 2018, he local go e nmen es ablished
Spain´s i s LEZ. While he main goal was o educe he concen a ion o oxic pollu an s,
he p ocess was also condi ioned by need o apid compliance wi h he Eu opean
di ec i e (Leb usán & Tou ouh, 2020).
Figu e 6. Map o he LEZ in Mad id. Sou ce: A is
The speed a which he p ojec was implemen ed and he na u e o he no m i sel led o
a icky poli ical si ua ion a e he nex local elec ions, when a new go e nmen was
elec ed. The new majo downplayed he consequences o clima e change and decided no
o comply wi h he Low Emission Zone policy (Leb usán & Tou ouh, 2020). While he
measu e was subsequen ly e-in oduced, he case o Mad id slowed he implemen a ion
o such s a egies in he es o he coun y. Such was he e ec un il he cen al
go e nmen passed a law ha equi ed LEZs in all ci ies wi h mo e han 50.000
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inhabi an s, only he Me opoli an A ea o Ba celona had ollowed Mad id´s example
(CLARS, 2025).
In he case o Ge many, Be lin was bo h he i s ci y o implemen a Low Emission Zone
and he i s o each he las s age es ablished by he Ge man Guidelines. This mean ha
he ci y became he baseline no only o he planning phase bu also o he execu ion
pe iod (Aydin & Rauck, 2022). In 2010, Be lin simul aneously implemen ed s ages 2 and
3, wo yea s a e es ablishing he LEZ, based on he need o a as e emission educ ion.
Fo o he Ge man ci ies, like Munich and S u ga he p ocess was mo e g adual
app oach. Wi h he expe ience o Be lin, he local go e nmen s implemen ed S age 3 in
he span o ou and i e yea s, espec i ely (Fens e e e al., 2014).
This pa e n is ound all o e he Eu opean con inen . Following he es ablishmen o he
i s and only Ze o Emission Zone in S ockholm in 2024, Sweden is examining u he
implemen a ions in o he pa s o he coun y (Be geling & Wa kins, 2024). In I aly, Rome
was he i s I aly ci y o implemen a conges ion cha ge sys em, in 2001, which is a o m
o Low Emission Zone aimed a discou aging ehicle mobili y inside ce ain a eas o he
his o ical cen e o he ci y by in oducing a ee. In 2008, a simila policy was implemen ed
in Milan and has since been expanded (Ku a al., 2020).
Di e si y in he design o Low Emission Zones
Capi al ci ies a e bo h la ge in popula ion and ex ension, which inc eases he su ace a ea
whe e Low Emission Zones a e mo e e ec i e. In such cases, mul iple LEZ a e
implemen ed, ei he h ough a g adual inc ease o he zone o by implemen ing sepa a e
zones ha co e dis inc a eas. Fo example, he ci y o Pa is i s es ablished a Low
Emission Zone in 2015, banning ehicles ha did no mee he es ablished emission
c i e ia om he ci y´s inne limi s a ce ain hou s. Fou yea s la e , he Me opoli an
go e nmen inc eased he each o he measu e wi h ano he LEZ. This new p ojec
co e ed he A86 highway, which su ounds he municipali y and pa s o i s me opoli an
a ea (Poulhès & P oulhac, 2021) (Be na d e al., 2020).

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In S ockholm, he i s Low Emission Zone es ablished in 1996 has been ollowed by
ano he wo, he LEZ2 in oduced in 2020 and he Ze o Emission Zone (ZEZ) ha was
implemen ed a he end o 2024. The second LEZ was es ablished in a speci ic s ee
wi hin he limi s o he o iginal LEZ, wi h he goal o s eng hening he es ic ions o he
i s one. On he o he hand, he ZEZ p ohibi s any emission emi ing ehicles om
en e ing a speci ic a ea o he ci y, wi h no excep ions g an ed. Al hough hese a eas we e
al eady co e ed by he ini ial Low Emission Zone, igh ening he ules was conside ed
necessi y because he emissions le els a ied g ea ly based on he s ee (Be geling,
2024).
Figu e 7. Map o he LEZs in S ockholm. Sou ce: CLARS
Ano he examples is he ci y o Rome also es ablished a wo- ie Low Emission Zone.
Simila o he case o Pa is, one co e ed he his o ical a ea in he cen e o he ci y, which
has a high business densi y, and ano he one ha co e s he ailway ing, which has he
highes popula ion densi y. The easoning was simila o he p e ious examples, he local
go e nmen conside ed ha s ic e en o cemen was needed (Cesa oni e al., 2011). In
Ams e dam, he ype o ehicle condi ions he Low Emission Zone ha can be accessed.
Scoo e and moped bikes a e allowed in o a bigge zone han o he la ge ehicles, such
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as passenge ca s, buses and ans (ACL, 2024). Only ehicles ha a e emission- ee a e
exemp om ollowing hese ules (EU U ban Mobili y Obse a o y, 2025).
Focus on in as uc u e changes and incen i es.
When implemen ing a Low Emission Zone in la ge ci ies, he second cho e o local
go e nmen s is usually how o p o ide al e na i e anspo a ion o he commu ing
wo ke s and o he esiden s ha will no longe be pe mi ed in o he a ea. Because o he
dimensions o hese ci ies, ans o ming hem in o a walkable ci y is nei he a big p io i y
no a easible possibili y. Pedes ianiza ion would bene i a small pe cen age o he
popula ion, compa ed o mo e ex ensi e e o ms (Be geling, 2024). Howe e , as i will be
obse ed, ci ies end o o e es ima e he in luence o hei policies, ha ing o amend he
new mobili y s a egies is a usual ea u e o LEZ implemen a ion in big ci ies.
This can be clea ly obse ed in Be lin. The ules o he LEZ we e igh ened wi hou
consul ing he egion ha su ounds he ci y, B andenbu g, whe e a lo o commu e s li e
(Aydin & Rauck, 2022). The local go e nmen designed he Low Emission Zone unde he
assump ion ha commu e s and ci izens o he ci y would unila e ally decide ha
upg ading hei ehicles was mo e bene icial han acing a ic es ic ions, bu ha was
la e p o en ine ec i e (Lu z, 2014). I was no un il 2018, wi h he la e implemen a ion
phases o he LEZ, ha he own hall designed a holis ic mobili y plan. The plan included
majo imp o emen s in public anspo and he cons uc ion o pedes ian and cycling
iendly public spaces, esponding o he mobili y beha iou s and needs o ci izens and
commu e s alike (Beh , 2024).
A simila case happened in Ams e dam. Al hough he ci y implemen ed a Low Emission
Zone in 2008, a edesign o he mobili y plan was no conduc ed un il 2017 (Kok, 2023).
The o iginal plan was o p omo e he eplacemen o diesel and pe ol ehicles, bo h
hea y and ligh . The local go e nmen conside ed ha by inc easingly igh ening he
cha ac e is ics o he ehicles allowed inside he zone, ci izens and businesses would be
encou aged o change hei ehicles (T ip & Konings, 2024). Ne e heless, he ci y did no
conside he implemen a ion o cha ging s a ions h oughou he ci y, which would ha e
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been a mo e e ec i e way o bols e ing he subs i u ion o pollu ion ca s. E en a e
ealizing ha a change o s a egy was needed, he new policy was s ill dependen on a
changed a i ude om ci izens. The ins alla ion a public cha ge in any esiden ial s ee
was dependen on he o icial eques s o he neighbou s, o he wise he ci y would no
conside hem in hei plans. (Kok, 2023).
Figu e 8. Map o he LEZ in Ams e dam. Sou ce: Ci yLogis ics
Because Low Emission Zones limi he pa king abili y o pollu ing ehicles, some ci ies
ha e op ed o measu es ha subsidize he ansi ion o g een ehicles (EU U ban
Mobili y Obse a o y, 2025). Bo h Ams e dam and B ussels ha e in oduced simila
p ojec s in his ega d. In he i s , bo h he pu chase o elec ic ca s and he sc apping o
pollu ing ehicles is co e ed. In he la e case, a e in oducing a LEZ in 2018, and a
mobili y plan in 2020. In his case, he go e nmen p omo es he use o public
anspo a ion, bu , mos impo an ly, o e s a bonus o he disposal o a pollu ing ca
(Kok, 2023).
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9. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Concluding he indi idual analysis o he cha ac e is ics o Low Emission Zone in small
and medium-sized ci ies and la ge ci ies, i can be a i med ha clea di e ences a e
obse ed. Al hough he e a e many ac o s ha in luence he es ablishmen o such
p ojec s, ou e iden cha ac e is ics ha e been iden i ied. Two o hese e e o mo e
echnical aspec s, such as he numbe and ype o zones es ablished, as well as he
dimension o decision- aking au ho i y. The la e wo ocus on aspec s o he planning
p ocess o a p ojec , which in his case ocuses on s akeholde managemen and he
complemen a y measu es ha accompany he LEZs. A able will be p esen ed o
summa ize he indings.
When es ablishing a Low Emission Zone, he willingness and deg ee o au onomy a
municipali y ecei es gains g ea impo ance, o a numbe o easons. Ne e heless, none
is mo e impo an han he au ho i y o decide whe he o no he ci y needs a LEZ. Fo
la ge ci ies, ha decision usually comes om he local go e nmen as a esponse o he
emission le els o he ci y. A e he passing o he Eu opean Di ec i e on ambien ai
quali y and cleane ai o Eu ope (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2008), i became
appa en ha new measu es we e needed o comba ai pollu ion. Na ional capi als
became pionee s in such measu es. Because Low Emission Zones a e ela i ely easy o
implemen and he scena io was so di e, local go e nmen s, in ci ies like Mad id, Be lin
o Ams e dam, indi idually decided ha one was needed (Kok, 2023) (Aydin & Rauck,
2022) (Leb usán & Tou ouh, 2020).
Because o hei ea ly in e en ions, la ge ci ies a e allowed signi ican disc e iona y
powe o e he s a egy o be ollowed. Howe e , by he ime he ocus is se on small and
medium-sized ci ies na ional go e nmen s ha e al eady aken o e . The lessons lea ned
om he na ional capi al and o he la ge ci ies a e ga he ed and u ned in o laws and
guidelines o he es o he coun y. SMSC do no ha e he au ho i y o decide whe he
Low Emission Zones a e he op imal o e en p e e en ial choice o comba high emission
le els in hei own ci ies. I is usually he egional o he na ional go e nmen ha makes
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Fu he mo e, he documen is insis en on local go e nmen s‘ independence o
implemen he Low Emission Zone in he mos cohe ence manne . The sec ions a e
ull o ecommenda ions, such as wha ypes o pa king c i e ia can be es ablished
o he possible sanc ion c i e ia. Howe e , while echnical aspec s can be g an ed
lexibili y, as hey a e he base o any LEZ, o he aspec s should be mo e ac i ely
encou aged. Fo example, he impac assessmen o he cohe ence analysis wi h
p e ious s a egies equi e bigge de e mina ion (MITECO, 2021).
As i has been p o ed in p e ious sec ions, he implemen a ion o a Low Emission
Zone in small and medium-sized ci ies wo ks bes when he e is bo h s akeholde
suppo and i is included in a h oughou u ban mobili y plan. The Spanish
Guidelines p esen hese wo measu es as ecommenda ions; wi hou men ion o
how impo an hey may be o a success ul and e ec i e LEZ (MITECO, 2021).
In he case o s akeholde s, he e a e h ee sec ions in he implemen a ion p ocess
plan whe e hese a e men ioned. The i s sec ion e e ences communica ing wi h
ci izens in o de o unde s and hei “p e ious en i onmen al sensi iza ion”, ha is
o know how ecep i e hey may be o he LEZ. The ollowing men ion comes in he
o m o he socio-economic impac assessmen , whe e he municipali ies a e
encou aged o e alua e he disp opo iona e e ec s ha he Low Emission Zone
may ha e in di e en social g oups and companies. And he hi d is ound in he las
sec ion, which ocuses on he sensi iza ion, communica ion and pa icipa ion plan,
whe e he Guidelines ecommend “(…) he es ablishmen o a consensus mechanism,
such as mobili y ound ables whe e all he a ec ed s akeholde s can ha e a oice (…)”
(MITECO, 2021).
F om he o ma in which he ecommenda ions ega ding s akeholde s a e w i en,
wi h an abundance o e bs such as “encou age”, “ ecommend” o “p omo e”, i is
appa en ha hese a e no he p io i y messages ha he cen al go e nmen is
pushing o he municipali ies. Al hough i is c ucial ha lexibili y is p o ided o
local go e nmen s on hei p e e ed s a egy o ollow, he ac i e pa icipa ion o

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s akeholde s should be embedded in he co e o guidelines, om he e y beginning
and no as he las s ep o an al eady long plan (MITECO, 2021).
On he o he hand, complemen a y measu es do ake a la ge space in he Guidelines,
bu only in he o m o a ca alogue. I con ains a long lis o s a egies, om A o J,
ha local go e nmen s can choose om o complemen he Low Emission Zone.
Despi e he signi ican amoun o measu e, he e is no a single one ha p oposes
sha ing he design p ocess wi h s akeholde s. The e is no conside a ion o wha he
wish o he ci izens o o he g oups may be. Annex I is w i en wi h only local
go e nmen s in mind, bo h as ecep o and as decision- ake s, he e is no
conside a ion o a co-decision p ocess, whe e s akeholde s can be ac i e
pa icipan s. Fo example, Measu e A ocuses on inc easing a el on oo and one
o he me hods p oposed is o “ edesign o oads and public spaces” wi h no men ion
o including he neighbou hood in he decision (MITECO, 2021).
All in all, a i s glance, he Spanish Guidelines appea o ha e included lessons
lea ned om o he Eu opean coun ies, such as he lexibili y on he o m Low
Emission Zones can ake. Ne e heless, he p omo ion o he one-size- i s-all
app oach is s ill e y p esen h oughou he documen and he e is minimal no ice
o how LEZ could be di e en ly implemen ed in ce ain ypes o ci ies. Nei he
s akeholde s’ pa icipa ion no inclusi e complemen a y measu es a e gua an eed
o p omo ed. As i has been shown h oughou his hesis, small and medium-sized
ci ies need a mo e holis ic s a egy han la ge ci ies, he Spanish go e nmen
should ha e analysed his phenomenon and ensu e ha he o icial Guidelines ook
in o accoun all he eali ies o he coun y (MITECO, 2021).
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11. CASE STUDY: BASQUE CITIES
In his sec ion an analysis o planning phase o he h ee Low Emission Zones in he
Basque Coun y will be conduc ed. This egion has been chosen because i s h ee
p o incial capi als a e examples o he di e en ypes o ci ies ha can be ound
wi hin he small and medium-sized ci y coho . Bilbao is he bigges ci y in he
Basque Coun y, al hough i is s ill conside ed a medium-sized ci y, wi h 348.089
inhabi an s. Nex is Vi o ia-Gas eiz wi h 255.423 inhabi an s, alling in o he same
ca ego y, and las , Donos ia-San Sebas ián, he only small ci y in his lis wi h
188.136 inhabi an s (INE, 2024). Examining he di e ences be ween he
conclusions ex ac ed om p e ious sec ions and he s a egies ollowed by hese
h ee di e se ci ies will showcase a eal-li e example o how LEZ a e implemen ed
and how he Spanish Guidelines a e adop ed.
Be o e p oceeding, b ie no es ha e o be made. Fi s , i mus be no ed ha no all
h ee ci ies ha e ollowed he same imeline. Bilbao was he i s ci y o implemen
a Low Emission Zone in he Basque Coun y, which was enac ed on he 15 h o June
2024. Mo eo e , i is he bigges ci y in he egion, wi h a me opoli an a ea o
a ound 1 million inhabi an s. These dynamics may ha e a ec ed he
implemen a ion p ocess o he LEZ, as i was he i s one and also he one ha had
o adjus o he highe numbe o people. The LEZ in Donos ia was in oduced in
Janua y 2025, whils he one in Vi o ia-Gas eiz is planned o he 15 h o Sep embe
2025. In hese wo cases he size and app oaches should be simila (CLARS, 2025).
On he o he hand, i mus also be aken in o ha hese municipali ies a e he capi al
ci ies o hei p o inces, wi h he consequences his may ha e had in e ms o
esou ces and p io i iza ion. Las ly, i mus also be men ioned ha despi e he h ee
ci ies being pa o he same au onomous communi y, he Basque Coun y, he
egional go e nmen lacks he compe ences o in luence in he implemen a ion o
Low Emission Zones, his means ha all h ee ollowed he Spanish law and
guidelines.
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a. CASE STUDY I: BILBAO
As wi h he es o he ci ies, he local go e nmen o Bilbao p oduced a memo y
documen whe e i desc ibed all he ac ions aken o he implemen a ion o he Low
Emission Zones, as well as he echnical de ails. One o hese sec ions, ocuses on he
cohe ence o he new p ojec wi h he p e ious s a egies ha he ci y had al eady
implemen ed, such as, he Sus ainable U ban Mobili y Plan 2015-2030 o he
egion´s S a egic Plan o Public T anspo a ion 2018-2028. The analysis
conduc ed is supe icial, ocused only on acknowledging he plans ha he LEZ
should i in o (Ayun amien o de Bilbao, 2024).
Fu he mo e, Bilbao´s plan also includes a sec ion o analysing he social, gen e and
disabili y impac he Low Emission Zone will ha e. The goal was o he new p ojec
o ake in o accoun how di e en ly i would impac he di e en eali ies ound in
he ci y. I was cen ed in six pa ame e s: oad sa e y, sus ainabili y,
socioeconomics, gende and social inclusion, accessibili y, and heal h. The esul
was he inclusion o mo e measu es ocused on pedes ianiza ion, which he s udy
ound disp opo iona ely a ec women mo e, and on ensu ing bo h physical and
echnological accessibili y o ulne able g oups (Ayun amien o de Bilbao, 2024).
The local go e nmen ´s documen also co e s a communica ion and sensi iza ion
plan, whose goal is o p omo e and make he public awa e o he Low Emission Zone
and i s consequences. Al hough he mos in e es ing pa o his sec ion is he
second subsec ion, ocused on ci izen pa icipa ion. The own hall o ganized a
numbe o wo kshops wi h he main a ec ed s akeholde s. This p ocess had h ee
objec i es: ga he da a and a gumen s o analyse and jus i y he LEZ, s eng hen he
sensibili y and communica ion plan, and ensu e anspa ency in he p ocess. The
ci y wan ed o ensu e ha he s akeholde s el lis en o and ensu e ha hey could
es ablish he Low Emission Zone wi h minimal dis up ion o e e yday li e.
Ne e heless, he e is no men ion on how hese discussions in luenced he design o
he p ojec (Ayun amien o de Bilbao, 2024).
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b. CASE STUDY II: DONOSTIA
In he case o Donos ia-San Sebas ián, he documen is mo e ex ensi e bu ollows
he same s uc u e as he one c ea ed by he own hall o Bilbao. The di e ence
appea s in he ex ension o he echnical aspec s o he Low Emission Zone, bu he
es o he con en is ex emely simila . On he one hand, i con ains a sec ion whe e
he cohe ence o he plan o he Low Emission Zone wi h he es o p e iously
es ablished s a egies is examined. In he case o he Donos ia, he analysis in ol ed
a bigge numbe o plans han in he case o Bilbao, as s a egies such as he Ac ion
Plan on Noise Pollu ion o he Municipal S udy o Mobili y o he Cen e a e also
included. The analysis explo es in g ea e de ail he ela ionship be ween he LEZ
plan and he es o hem, bu wi h no men ion o he adap a ions needed
(Ayun amien o de Donos ia-San Sebas ián, 2025).
On he o he hand, a sec ion o he social, gen e and disabili y impac was also
conduc ed. In he i s case, he own hall es ablished ha no added measu e was
needed as he e was no special in e ence o he inhabi an s o he ci y. The gen e
impac analysis did ind di e ences in he beha iou pa e n o bo h gen es, bu he
documen does no include any addi ional measu e ha will sol e hose di e ences.
The e is only a men ion o how he implemen a ion o a Low Emission Zone will
imp o e women´s heal h. Las ly, he analysis o he impac o he mo e ulne able
collec i es showed ha he e was no need o any auxilia y measu es
(Ayun amien o de Donos ia-San Sebas ián, 2025).
Las ly, al hough he documen is, in gene al, a mo e ex ensi e han Bilbao´s, he
sec ion which cen es on ci izen pa icipa ion is signi ican ly smalle han i s
coun e pa s, co e ing ba ely a page and a hal . The own hall iden i ied h ee
mechanism o ci izen pa icipa ion: ep esen a i e, h ough he elec ed o icials;
con e sa ional, be ween poli icians, municipal echnicians, and ci izens; and, di ec
democ acy, h ough popula consul a ions. I men ions ha s akeholde
pa icipa ion is o be conduc ed h ough spaces o o ma ion, in o ma ion, and
cons uc i e dialogue, bu no u he in o ma ion is p o ided. Fu he mo e, i
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highligh s, ha he consul a ions will be non-binding bu wi h he possibili y o
ha ing an impac on he p ojec (Ayun amien o de Donos ia-San Sebas ián, 2025).
c. CASE STUDY III: VITORIA-
GASTEIZ
Al hough he Low Emission Zone in he ci y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz is no ye ope a i e,
he own hall published i s memo y documen in July 2024. As in he es o he
ci ies, he documen ollows he s uc u e ecommended by he Spanish Guidelines,
e en hough he leng h is mo e simila o San Sebas ian´s han o Bilbao´s. The
cohe ence sec ion con ains an e en b oade analysis han he o he wo ci ies. No
only does i include he local and p o incial s a egies, bu i also akes in o accoun
plans c ea ed by he Au onomous Communi y, such as he U ban Agenda o he
Basque Coun y “Bul za u 2050” o he Basque Ene gy Policy o 2030. Al hough,
simila o Bilbao, he analysis is no ex ensi e and is summa ized in a able o ma
(Ayun amien o de Vi o ia-Gas eiz, 2025).
The local go e nmen also included he sec ion abou he social, gen e and disabili y
impac . This pa o he documen is sho and is mos ly cen ed on he ad an ages
o he Low Emission Zone on he li e o hese communi ies. I does acknowledge ha
anspo a ion pa e ns o emales a e mo e complex, and, hus, ha imp o emen s
in he public anspo a ion sys ems and u ban planning will be bene icial o he
g oup, wi hou explaining wha hey will look like. The same a gumen is used o
he mo e ulne able collec i es. Al hough, in ela ion wi h limi ed mobili y ci izens,
he e is men ion o au ho izing special mobili y measu es wi hin he LEZ
(Ayun amien o de Vi o ia-Gas eiz, 2025).
The las sec ion, he one ocused on he sensi iza ion and communica ion campaign
ollows he same s uc u e as he p e ious wo ci ies. A communica ion campaign
was es ablished wi h he goal o sp eading in o ma ion abou he Low Emission
Zone and a pa icipa i e p ocess was ini ia ed. The p ocess was ini ia ed wi h a
p esen a ion o he p ojec ollowed by a ques ion ound o hose ha signed up.

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Then, wo mee ings we e o ganized, whe e ci izens could sha e hei ideas and
con ibu ions. The las pa ag aph men ions he possibili y o es ablishing a
“con as g oup” ha would be o med om he pa icipan s o he mee ings. The
objec i e would be o he g oup o become a e e ence o ci izens du ing he whole
p ocess o es ablishing he LEZ. Howe e , i is men ioned ha he g oup will only be
o med i enough in e es is de ec ed, and as in he p e ious cases, no explana ion is
gi en as o he in luence hese mee ings may ha e in he design (Ayun amien o de
Vi o ia-Gas eiz, 2025).
d. CONCLUSIONS
An analysis on he planning documen a ion o he es ablishmen o he Low
Emission Zone in all h ee Basque capi als shows a clea in luence o he Spanish
Guidelines. The o ma is he one ecommended by he cen al documen and he
con en also e lec s ce ain echnical di ec ions. One clea example is ha all h ee
ha e a speci ic sec ion ha examines he cohe ence o he LEZ plan wi h p e iously
implemen ed plans, such as ai quali y o noise educ ion plans. Howe e , he e is a
clea di e ence be ween he le el o de ail analysed by he h ee ci ies, whe eas San
Sebas ián is he mos speci ic, Vi o ia akes in o accoun a wide ange o plans,
implemen ed a di e en adminis a i e le els. This ac showcases he lexibili y
gi en o ci ies o adap he ecommenda ions o he needs o he ci y, as well as he
unwillingness o hese local go e nmen s o ex ensi ely explo e he cohe ence o
he new plan. While mul iple plans a e men ioned, no local go e nmen explo es
wha changes a e needed o adap he LEZ o hei indings.
The second sec ion ha has been iden i ied was cen ed on he impac o he Low
Emission Zone on he e e yday li es o he ci izens, and especially he mos
ulne able communi ies, such as women and disabled people. All h ee ci ies
conduc ed a s udy on how he new plan would a ec hei popula ion, bu only
Bilbao seemed o e lec on he iden i ied issues and p oposed solu ions. Al hough
i did no p esen b oad changes, i is a signi ican imp o emen om he app oach
aken by he o he wo ci ies. Fo he local go e nmen s o Donos ia and Vi o ia only
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used a gumen s o how he LEZ would imp o e he li es o hese communi ies,
wi hou iden i ying po en ial adap ions ha may be included in he plan.
Rela ed o his lack o open pe spec i e is he las sec ion ha has been analysis: he
communica ion and sensi iza ion plans. All h ee documen s e lec he same le el
o ci izens pa icipa ion: passi e. The majo i y o he sec ions a e ocused on he
communica ion plan, whose sole pu pose is o make su e all he ci izens a e awa e
ha a Low Emission Zone is going o be es ablished in he ci y. The pa o ci izens
pa icipa ion is signi ican ly smalle and non-binding. All h ee ci ies ha e included
pa icipa o y p ocesses, i s wi h s akeholde s o unde s and he impac on he
di e en collec i es, and hen, wi h he public o lis en o hei ques ions and
sugges ions. Al hough he documen s we e w i en a e hese p ocesses we e
o ganized, he e is no men ion o a single ci izen p oposal ha was accep ed and
in oduced in o he planning p ocess. I seems ha his las sec ion was jus used o
comple e he lis p o ided by he Spanish Guidelines, wi hou any willingness om
he local go e nmen o include i s ci izens and associa ions as ac i e pa icipan s
o a p ojec ha would a ec he e e yday li e o a lo o people.
All in all, a e an in-dep h lec u e o he h ee documen s, i can be said ha all h ee
ci ies ha e implemen ed he one-size- i s-all app oach encou aged by he Spanish
Guidelines. Meaning ha he ecommenda ions p o ide by he Spanish go e nmen
o ci ies o adap he Low Emission Zones o hei pa icula needs ha e no been
ollowed. The planning has elied solely on he local go e nmen s, wi h minimal
inpu om s akeholde s, as he e is no men ion o inclusion o any ci izen-led
sugges ion. No ci y ul ils he success ul cha ac e is ics iden i ied in he nin h
sec ion o his documen o small and medium-sized ci ies. Because o hese, i mus
be a i med ha he a o e-iden i ied cha ac e is ics o small and medium-sized
ci ies a e no ul illed by he h ee Basque ci ies, indis inc ly o he size.
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12. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
The goal o his sec ion is o pu oge he all he indings o he esea ch,
encompassing he case s udies, he legal amewo k, and he compa a i e analysis
o he di e en Low Emission Zones in small and medium-sized ci ies. To achie e
his objec i e, he sec ion will begin wi h a compa a i e able ha ga he s he
ele an popula ion and a ea da a o he h ee Basque capi als. This app oach allows
o an easie unde s anding o he e i o ial and demog aphic dimension o he LEZ.
The able will be use ul as a base o he o he wo subsec ions o he sec ion. In he
i s , a good p ac ice guide will be p esen ed, c ea ed based on he Low Emission
Zones analysed h oughou his whole hesis. On he second subsec ion, he opposi e
will be conduc ed, cen ed on he a eas ha ha e been iden i ied as weaknesses. The
combina ion o bo h app oaches will lead no only o an e alua ion o he policies,
bu also o p oposing po en ial imp o emen s.
a. QUANTITATIVE COMPARISON
OF POPULATION AND AREA
One o he mos ele an aspec s o unde s and he ac ual impac o a Low Emission
Zone is i s e i o ial and demog aphic dimension. Tha is, o pe cei e how much o
he public space and how many people a e di ec ly a ec ed by he in oduc ion o
such measu e. Mo eo e , his compa ison gains signi ican ele ance when alking
abou small and medium-sized ci ies, whe e he choice made when de ining he
pe ime e o he LEZ can subs an ially a ec i s suppo , e ec i eness, and
adap abili y.
The ollowing able shows he da a o Bilbao, Donos ia-San Sebas ián, Vi o ia-
Gas eiz. The in o ma ion included co esponds o he popula ion and e i o ial a ea
in absolu e and ela i e e ms in e ms o he Low Emission Zone. Fu he mo e, he
pe cen age o ci izens and a ea a ec ed will also be calcula ed. I mus be no ed ha
o he ci ies we e esea ched, bu hey we e no included because o a lack o da a
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To al popula ion
A ec ed
popula ion
% a ec ed
popula ion
To al a ea
(km2)
A ec ed a ea
(km2)
% a ec ed
a ea
Vi o ia-Gas eiz
238.247
19.438
8,16 %
277
0,82
0,29%
Bilbao
353.187
51.086
14,46 %
41
2,14
5,22%
Donos ia-San
Sebas ián
185.506
22.468
12,11 %
61
1,2
1,97%
Table 4. Popula ion and a ea a ec ed by he LEZ in Bilbao, Donos ia-San Sebas ián and Vi o ia-Gas eiz. Sou ce: ING
Figu e 11. Delimi a ion o he LEZ in Donos ia-San Sebas ián.
Sou ce: Ayun amien o de San Sebas ián
Figu e 9. Delimi a ion o he LEZ in Bilbao. Sou ce:
Ayun amien o de Bilbao
Figu e 10. Delimi a ion o he LEZ in Vi o ia-Gas eiz. Sou ce:
Ayun amien o de Vi o ia
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designed no implemen ed. In Bilbao, on he o he hand, he e is a g ea e
connec ion be ween he diagnosis and he design, as he ci y u ns o g ea e
pedes ianiza ion and echnological accessibili y. Ne e heless, he e is s ill a
signi ican gap o gua an ee ha equi y is mo e han a check on a lis (Ayun amien o
de Vi o ia-Gas eiz, 2025).
3. Cohe ence wi h o he s a egies
As in he p e ious case, ano he aspec ha is included in he documen a ion bu is
no su icien ly de eloped is he in eg a ion o he Low Emission Zone wi h he
al eady exis ing s a egic plans, bo h local and egional. E en hough he plans o
he h ee ci y analyse p e iously implemen ed mobili y, sus ainabili y, ai quali y
and u ban egene a ion plan, he cohe ence p ocess is jus a o mal decla a ion,
wi hou analysing how o in eg a e all o hem in a holis ic app oach, no iden i ying
he con lic s and complemen a i ies be ween hem.
Such is he case o Bilbao, whe e he e a men ion o he 2015-2030 Sus ainable
Mobili y Plan, bu he e is no in-dep h analysis o how he Low Emission Zone will
ans o m, imp o e, o upda e ha plan. I is no enough wi h ensu ing ha he LEZ
will be in une wi h p e ious s a egies, i is also c ucial o show how hey all will be
in eg a ed in a sha ed and in e sec ional way (Ayun amien o de Bilbao, 2024).
4. Mo e accessible communica ion
The communica ion om he local go e nmen s o he h ee capi als has been
mos ly ocused on no icing ci izens o he echnical aspec s o he Low Emission
Zones, such as da es and no ms. The e has no been any e o o de elop a
ma ke ing s a egy ha connec s wi h ci izens and allows hem o o m an
a achmen wi h he p ojec . Mo eo e , a imes, he communica ion has been seen
as di icul o excessi ely echnical, which has hinde ed he unde s anding and
social suppo o ci izens.
The local go e nmen o Vi o ia-Gas eiz, o example, in oduced some in o ma i e
ac ions, bu wi h limi ed o ma s. The h ee capi als ha e a lo o ma gin o de elop

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mo e pedagogical sensibiliza ion campaigns, which include clea language and
isual examples, wi h p esen bo h in adi ional and social media o ma s. The
messaging should be cen ed on mo e amilia opics, such as, clea e ai , heal h, and
mo e sus ainable and sa e mobili y (Ayun amien o de Vi o ia-Gas eiz, 2025).
5. Mo e isible and p og essi e complemen a y measu es
As i has been es ablished h oughou his whole hesis, Low Emission Zones a e less
e ec i e when hey a e implemen ed in isola ion. They mus be joined by
complemen a y measu es ha s eng hen he impac and ease he ansi ion
owa ds a mo e sus ainable mobili y. In none o he h ee capi als´ documen a ion
is i clea ha such ac ions a e o be aken. No e en low cos bu highly impac ing
measu es, such as pedes ianiza ion, mo e cycling lanes o al e na i e pa king
op ions.
In Donos ia-San Sebas ián, o example, he echnical design is sound, bu he local
go e nmen does no conside an u ban ans o ma ion ha wo ks hand in hand
wi h he LEZ. In small and medium-sized ci ies, hese imp o emen s, which in some
cases a e mino ones, can make a huge di e ence bo h in public pe cep ion and in
he ac ual e ec i eness o he p ojec (Ayun amien o de Donos ia-San Sebas ián,
2025).
6. Lack o moni o ing and accoun abili y
The e is a clea lack o moni o ing mechanisms, which would ollow he
implemen a ion p ocess and he achie emen o he objec i es o he p ojec , as well
as enac ing co ec i e ac ions. E en hough some ci ies men ion he need o ollow
up on he implemen a ion p ocess, no speci ic indica o s a e es ablished, no is
he e a plan o pe iodic check-ins.
The e is no men ion o such measu e in he eigh y pages o documen a ions
p oduced by he local go e nmen o Bilbao, no in he es o he ci ies. No men ion
o how he e ec s o he Low Emission Zone will be e alua ed, no how he ci izens
will be in o med o he p og ess o necessa y upda es. Small and medium-sized
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ci ies can easily co ec his sho age by c ea ing a simple and in e ac i e
dashboa d, ha ci izens can easily access o check on he e olu ion o he p ojec .
This kind o ini ia i e would ensu e an easie adap a ion o he measu es and an
inc ease in ci izens us .
d. DISCUSSION
A compa a i e analysis is always a challenge and in he case o Low Emission Zones
ha challenges is exponen ially bigge . The popula i y o he measu e is new and
al eady diminishing, as i can be seen in F ance and Ge many whe e some ha e
al eady been elimina ed (Taus, 2025) (Baden-Wü embe g, 2025). As a esul ,
s udying he e ec s o LEZ become inc easingly i al, ei he o a gue o i s
elimina ion o o i s s eng hening. This hesis has ied o ill a majo gap in he
al eady small li e a u e by showing ha compa a i e analyses abou he planning
o LEZ in small and medium-sized ci ies can be conduc ed.
The esul s show ha he p ocess is no as easy as i may look in Eu opean di ec i es
o na ional guidelines, especially o smalle ci ies. A holis ic app oach is needed,
whe e he ocus is sha ed be ween di e en measu es and s akeholde s a e in i ed
o ac i ely pa icipa e. Bo h s eng hs and weaknesses ha e been iden i ied, wi h a
special emphasis in he h ee Basque capi als. Compa ed o he cases examined in
ea lie sec ions, whe e he Low Emission Zone implemen a ion ook a mo e
inclusi e app oach, hese ci ies ha e been locked in a one-sizes- i s-all plan. While
he esul s a e s ill una ailable, he li e a u e sugges s ha hey may be in need o
modi ica ions. Ne e heless, such scena io is no no el, i he h ee go e nmen s
decide o abandon hei s anda dized plan, hey will ealize ha hey ha e plen y o
examples o lea n om.
In he Basque Coun y, h ee o he ci ies can be o ced o implemen a Low Emission
Zone: Ba akaldo, Ge xo and I un. The Ba akaldo and I un ha e al eady s a ed
de eloping he design o he LEZ, while Ge xo´s u u e is s ill unce ain. Based on
he lessons lea ned and he weaknesses de ec ed in p e ious chap e s, his hesis
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would poin he local go e nmen s in wo di ec ions. On he one hand, i would
ecommend a big implica ion o s akeholde s, by lis ening o hei ideas and
wo king oge he o ensu e ha bo h hei needs and hose o he ci y in gene al a e
ul illed. On he o he hand, i would encou age he own halls o only use he
Spanish Guidelines as a baseline and o build on op o hem. The goal would be o
adap he ecommenda ions o he di e en eali ies o he ci y, going u he han
he one-size- i s-all app oach p esen ed in hem. All in all, his hesis wan s o
p omo e a mo e holis ic app oach o he ini ial and planning phases o he Low
Emission Zone, so ha he p ojec is buil a ound he ci y and no he ci y a ound
he p ojec .
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13. CONCLUSIONS
This hesis has ied o ind an answe o he sui abili y o Low Emission Zones o
adap o he needs o small and medium-sized ci ies, and he sea ch has expanded
om li e a u e e iews o compa a i e analysis o esea ching h ee case s udies.
The main conclusion is ha al hough he main cha ac e is ic o a success ul Low
Emission Zone o SMSC can be easily iden i ied, in p ac ice, hese p ocedu es ha e
no been well execu ed. Nei he in he ecommenda ions p o ided by na ional
go e nmen s, no by he local go e nmen s when designing he implemen a ion o
he LEZ.
As i can be seen in Sec ion 7 (LEZ Implemen a ion in SMSC), o a Low Emission
Zone o be e ec i e when es ablished in a small o in a medium-sized ci y, h ee
cha ac e is ics a e essen ial: he s a egy has o be pe sonalized o he necessi ies
o he ci y, s akeholde s should be ac i e and suppo i e pa icipan s in he p ocess,
and, las ly, complemen a y measu es ha wo k oge he wi h he LEZ a e essen ial.
Sec ion 10 (Spanish Guidelines) and 11 (Case S udies: Basque Ci ies) show he lack
o in e na ionaliza ion o how hese quali ies, and, hus, we e no e lec ed in he
design o he Spanish Guidelines o he planning o he Low Emission Zones in
Bilbao, Donos ia, and Vi o ia-Gas eiz.
The esul s show how e en hough li e a u e backs he heo y o pe sonalized
solu ions, s a es and ci ies p e e a one-size- i s-all app oach. The easons may a y,
bu i is clea ly easie o es ablish a single model and adap o each ci y, wi hou
aking in o conside a ions he pa icula i ies o i . Mo eo e , i is no only ha he
plans a e no adap ed o he ci y, bu , as i has been p o en, ci izens a e also no
encou aged o pa icipa e. A leas no in an ac i e manne , no ollowing he model
o small and medium-sized ci ies, which has p o en success ul in o he ci ies such
as Ghen o F eibu g. Las ly, he complemen a y measu es and he cohe ence wi h
o he plans, bo h es ablished in he Spanish Guidelines, a e gi en minimal
impo ance.
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The e is no elling he consequences o he a i udes aken by he Basque ci ies, since
he implemen a ion phase is oo ecen . Howe e , p e ious expe ience, like he case
o Ams e dam, shows ha he e may be a ime when a mo e holis ic app oach is
needed in o de o implemen u he measu es ha lowe emissions (Kok, 2023).
Public suppo o such measu es may also cons i u e an issue in he nea u u e. A
ecen s udy by Giza e o he Basque B oadcas ing g oup shows ha only 39,9%
o young people a e in a ou o mo e limi a ions (Gizake , 2025). On he o he side
o he bo de , F ance has elimina ed all Low Emission Zones, on he basis ha i
a ec ed mos ly low-income ci izens (Taus, 2025). Wi h his, i becomes appa en
ha wi hou public suppo LEZs a e doomed o ailu e. .
Ne e heless, i mus no be o go en ha one o he goals o his hesis was o ill
he la ge gap ha exis s on he li e a u e o Low Emission Zones. While ha goal
may be ul illed, ha same lack o li e a u e may diminish he alidi y o his
esea ch. No a lo has been s udied om a social o compa a i e pe spec i e, hus,
he conclusions he e p esen ed may be skewed. Mo eo e , because he da a is
limi ed o Eu ope, he image p esen ed may be sho -sigh ed. This hesis has
in es iga ed and analysed om he li e a u e a ailable a he momen , which does
no mean ha he conclusions eached a e ac ually co ec .
Thus, i is o he u mos impo ance ha u he esea ch is conduc ed. No only
because o clima e change, bu also because ci ies ha e o be li eable and accessible
o i s popula ion. Fu u e a icles and hesis should no limi hei each o emissions
bu should explo e socio-economic impac s o Low Emission Zones and o he
emission educing measu es. I is also impo an o he esea ch o ocus on SMSC,
especially on compa a i e analysis be ween di e en smalle ci ies o a numbe o
coun ies. As he opic is so unde s udied, he e is a wide ange o op ions o u u e
esea ch o explo e, op ions ha could imp o e he eali y o many ci ies and hei
ci izens.

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