CHAPTER 4
Is he T ade Ag eemen Be ween he EU
and Colombia Cohe en wi h Eu opean
Suppo o Peacebuilding?
Edua do Bida a zaga Au e and Ángeles Sánchez Díez
1In oduc ion
T ade ag eemen s be ween cen al and pe iphe al coun ies o egional
g oups wi h e y di e en comme cial and p oduc i e specialisa ions ha e
been in ope a ion o se e al decades. The i s g ea impulse ini ially
occu ed on he ini ia i e o he go e nmen o he Uni ed S a es o
E. Bida a zaga Au e (B)
Depa men o Applied Economics and Hegoa (Ins i u e o In e na ional
Coope a ion and De elopmen S udies), Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
(UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
e-mail: edua do.bidau [email p o ec ed]
Á. S. Díez
Depa men o Economic S uc u e and De elopmen Economics,
Au onomous Uni e si y o Mad id (UAM), Mad id, Spain
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
© The Au ho (s) 2023
K. Pé ez de A miño (ed.), Eu opean Union Suppo o Colombia’s Peace
P ocess, Re hinking Peace and Con lic S udies,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-24797-2_4
103
104 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
Ame ica (USA) in he 1990s wi h i s p omo ion o F ee T ade Ag ee-
men s (FTAs), he majo i y wi h o he coun ies o he Ame icas. Subse-
quen ly he Eu opean Union (EU) also signed Associa ion Ag eemen s
(AAs) wi h di e se La in Ame ican coun ies.
In his way di e en indi idual economies o in eg a ion p ojec s in
La in Ame ica became p e e en ial pa ne s o he USA and he EU.
Following Mexico and o he Cen al Ame ican coun ies, se e al coun-
ies om he Andean egion en e ed he logic o signing comme cial
ag eemen s o he c ea ion o ee ade a eas, i s wi h he USA, and
mo e ecen ly wi h he EU, al hough in he la e case on he basis o a
model wi h ce ain speci ic di e en ia ing ea u es.
Thus, he Eu opean au ho i ies ha e placed special emphasis on gene -
a ing and exhibi ing a wide ision han ha o he FTAs, o which
pu pose hey ha e c ea ed a discou se and a model based on h ee pilla s
(economic, poli ical and coope a ion), as well as a di e en name o such
ag eemen s.
As in he case o he FTAs, he EU has p omo ed hese ag eemen s
wi h o he egional g oups as a p io i y, bu whe e his has no been
possible i has aken ecou se o bila e al ag eemen s wi h some coun-
ies in an indi idual o m. Tha was ini ially he case o he ag eemen s
wi h Mexico and Chile, signed in 1997 and 2002 espec i ely, which
do no belong o any egional economic in eg a ion g oups in La in
Ame ica; wi h Pe u and Colombia, in 2012; and wi h Ecuado in 2016,
a e encoun e ing di icul ies in signing an ag eemen wi h he Andean
Communi y (CAN).
In he pa icula case o Colombia, al hough i s economic and poli ical
ela ions wi h he USA, including he es ablishmen o ade ag eemen s,
we e ea lie and ha e a p io i y cha ac e , i is clea ha he EU has no
abandoned he idea o becoming a leading pa ne in ela ions wi h his
Andean coun y in a se ies o highly a ied ields, especially in ade and
suppo o he peace p ocess ha is unde way.
The aim o his chap e is o analyse he main cha ac e is ics and conse-
quences o he T ade Ag eemen signed in 2012 be ween he EU and
Colombia, as well as i s u u e pe spec i es in he cu en con ex . We
enqui e abou he poin o which his Ag eemen migh wo k in a ou
o imp o ing ce ain indica o s linked o hese o eign ela ions in he case
o Colombia, as well as con ibu e o i s g ea e p oduc i e di e si ica ion,
educe i s p ima y expo dependence, and imp o e he li ing condi ions
o i s popula ion, especially in he u al a eas and e i o ies mos a ec ed
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 105
by he con lic . Simila ly, his ex enqui es abou he cohe ence1 o he
Ag eemen wi h espec o o he policies p omo ed by he EU, in pa ic-
ula in he a ea o coope a ion, in he con ex o he b oad suppo gi en
o ending he oo ac o s ha gene a e con lic and p omo ing las ing
peace in he coun y; all o his, mo eo e , in he con ex o he ecen
elec o al ic o y o a p og essi e candida e in he coun y’s p esiden ial
elec ion o he i s ime in i s his o y.
To ha end, his ex begins wi h a b ie e iew o he main an eceden s
in he EU’s ela ions wi h La in Ame ica, he Andean egion and wi h
Colombia in pa icula . Nex , i analyses he EU’s T ade Ag eemen wi h
Colombia and i s mos salien aspec s. Subsequen ly, i s udies he e olu-
ion and cu en s a e o he economic ela ions be ween he EU and
Colombia in e ms o ade and in es men . Finally, i examines he cohe -
ence o he ag eemen s in ela ion o o he policies p omo ed by he EU
in Colombia in he amewo k o peacebuilding.
2An eceden s and Logic o he Ag eemen
Be ween he EU and Colombia
In he la e 1990s he Eu opean Union began o p omo e T ade Ag ee-
men s wi h di e en La in Ame ican coun ies and egional g oups. All o
his e inced a signi ican change in i s ea lie amewo k o ela ions wi h
he egion’s coun ies, gi en ha since he 1970s his amewo k had
been limi ed o he concession o unila e al p e e ences o de eloping
economies no belonging o he ACP (A ica, Ca ibbean and Paci ic)
g oup h ough he sys em o he Gene alised Sys em o P e e ences
(GSP). This app oach was ex ended e e y en yea s un il he so-called
GSP + came in o e ec , which conceded mo e a ou able condi ions o
mo e ulne able coun ies whose go e nmen s we e willing o sign a se ies
o in e na ional con en ions conside ed essen ial by he EU.2
1 The cohe ence o policies can be analysed om di e en pe spec i es and on he basis
o di e en dimensions (see Gu ié ez e al., 2017;Ma ínez&Ma ínez, 2012; Unce a
e al., 2015). He e, we concen a e on analysing he cohe ence be ween di e en EU
policies owa ds Colombia, p incipally ade policy and ha o de elopmen coope a ion.
2 These in e na ional con en ions (27) a e es ablished in ields such as human igh s,
employmen igh s, he en i onmen and good go e nance. Amongs he coun ies bene-
i ing om he cu en GSP + (in e ec un il he yea 2023), only one, Boli ia, belongs
o he La in Ame ican egion.
106 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
This new di ec ion in he amewo k o he EU’s o eign ela ions
wi h espec o La in Ame ica, beyond he EU’s own con ic ion and he
impulse ha i p o ided, is also la gely explained by he need o adap o
he egula ions o he Wo ld T ade O ganisa ion (WTO). Since i s oun-
da ion in 1995, his o ganisa ion has es ic ed he use o non- ecip ocal
p e e en ial ea men o he Leas De eloped Coun ies (LDCs); in La in
Ame ica only Hai i belongs in his ca ego y a p esen .
In his con ex , he Eu opean Union has signed di e se AAs wi h La in
Ame ican coun ies and egional g oups, cha ac e ised by h ee basic
pilla s: ade, coope a ion and he co esponding poli ical dialogue. In
ade e ms, AAs p omo e he o ma ion o ee ade a eas ha esul
in he libe alisa ion o he ade in goods unde a a iable geome y
app oach in ol ing di e en speeds. Howe e , o he case o sensi i e
ag icul u al p oduc s he e a e no able excep ions, wi hou o ge ing he
di e en dis o ions gene a ed by subsidies o he ag icul u al sec o o
he EU.
Equally, and in a o m ha is cohe en wi h he logic o expanding
and deepening he WTO’s agenda,3 he ag eemen s p omo ed by he EU
also include p o isions on libe alisa ion o he ade in se ices, p o ec-
ion o in ellec ual p ope y, public p ocu emen , policy o compe i ion
and in es men s. In addi ion, o he b ead h o issues co e ed in hese
ag eemen s mus be added hei expansi e cha ac e , which, h ough he
esou ce o p og essi e clauses, o o u u e e ision o hose ye o
be nego ia ed subjec s ha igu e in he gene al p o isions, widens he
po en ial o ac i i y o hese ag eemen s (UNCTAD, 2018).
Simila ly, in keeping wi h i s p agma ism, he EU has ecognised ha
he g ea he e ogenei y o La in Ame ica makes i necessa y o ha e
di e en models o coope a ion wi h each coun y o g oup o coun ies,
which has ma e ialised in a b oad ange o ag eemen s. The i s ag ee-
men o his ype was signed in 1997 wi h Mexico, subsequen ly enewed
in 2016. Chile has had an ag eemen since 2002, in he p ocess o e i-
sion since 2017. The nego ia ions wi h MERCOSUR began in he yea
2000, and we e e-launched in 2016 a e se e al in e up ions, a ou ed
by he changes in he go e nmen s o A gen ina and B azil (Ma chini,
2018), un il he ag eemen was inally achie ed in 2019.
3 The specialised li e a u e is e e ing o his eali y when i employs exp essions like
WTO-plus o WTO-ex a.
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 107
In 2010 he nego ia ions o wo u he ag eemen s we e inalised,
an AA wi h Cen al Ame ica and a T ade Ag eemen wi h Colombia
and Pe u, bo h signed in 2012. The nego ia ions wi h Colombia and
Pe u began in he CAN as a whole4 in 2007, bu he impossibili y o
main aining a join posi ion on he side o he CAN esul ed in hei
suspension. Boli ia abandoned he nego ia ions in 2008 in disag eemen
wi h he lack o lexibili y on he EU’s side and he ea men a o ded o
aspec s like in ellec ual p ope y and biodi e si y.5 Ecuado also wi hd ew
om he nego ia ions in 2009 o e di e ences wi h espec o immi-
g an s’ igh s, he ag eemen s on in es men s and he “banana con lic ”,6
al hough i subsequen ly adhe ed o he T ade Ag eemen . In he ace o
so many di icul ies du ing he nego ia ion p ocess, he EU p oposed he
possibili y ha he Andean coun ies could nego ia e he comme cial pa
o he AA independen ly i hey conside ed his con enien , which led o
he signing o he T ade Ag eemen wi h Colombia and Pe u in 2012,
which was inally joined by Ecuado in 2016 (Bodeme , 2019; Eu opean
Commission, 2016; Eu opean Union, 2012).
While he EU p io i ised an AA- ype in e egional ag eemen o he
CAN as a whole, as had ma e ialised in he cases o Cen al Ame ica and
mo e ecen ly MERCOSUR, he di e se di icul ies desc ibed abo e and
he ac ha he USA al eady had p io FTAs wi h Colombia and Pe u
indi idually, did no help o make a g oup ag eemen possible. Simi-
la ly, he nego ia ions wi h Colombia we e less di icul , gi en ha , acing
i s in en ion o join7 he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and
4 No did he ac ha Venezuela le he Andean Communi y (CAN) and joined
MERCOSUR in 2006 help in he p ocess o join nego ia ion o an AA wi h ha egional
g oup.
5 Boli ia, which a p esen enjoys GSP + s a us, could also join he ag eemen should
i conside his oppo une a some momen .
6 This con lic a ose in he ield o he WTO as a esul o he p e e en ial ea men
gi en by he EU o i s o me colonies in he ACP g oup, o he de imen o some La in
Ame ican economies and US expo companies. This con lic was ended by an ag eemen
in 2009, a i ied in 2012, by means o which he EU commi ed i sel o lowe ing cus oms
a i s (p e iously he quo as as well) on bananas o La in Ame ican o igin o “accep able”
le els. Un il i was esol ed, he con lic had c ea ed complica ions o ela ions and o
eaching ag eemen s be ween he EU and di e en coun ies in he egion (Gómez, 2022;
Schade, 2022).
7 Colombia began he p ocess o joining he OECD in 2013 and o icially became
he 37 h membe s a e in 2020, he hi d in he La in Ame ican egion, a e Chile and
Mexico.
108 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
De elopmen (OECD), i s go e nmen wan ed o a oid any possibili y o
con lic wi h he Eu opean membe s a es (Ga cía, 2022; Gómez, 2022;
Schade, 2022). All o his made i possible o ad ance in he bila e al logic
o a ade ag eemen be ween he EU and Colombia.
3P incipal Cha ac e is ics
o he T ade Ag eemen
The Ag eemen , which has been applied p o isionally8 o Pe u and
Colombia since 2013 (1 Ma ch and 1 Augus , espec i ely) and since 1
Janua y 2017 o Ecuado , has as i s s a ed goals he gene a ion o s able
and p edic able condi ions o imp o ing ade and in es men s be ween
he coun ies on he wo sides o he A lan ic, he in eg a ion o hei
alue chains, and suppo o he de elopmen o local companies in hei
egional ma ke s wi h he aim o imp o ing hei compe i i eness a he
wo ld le el.
To ha end, he wo sides ag eed on a p ocess o p og essi e cus oms
libe alisa ion o he ade lows in goods. Simila ly, he ex includes egu-
la ions on ques ions o non- a i ba ie s and in ellec ual p ope y igh s,
as well as p o isions o he p og essi e libe alisa ion o he se ice sec o ,
public p ocu emen and o eign in es men s, o which pu poses i aims
o es ablish a secu e and p edic able egula o y amewo k ha acili a es
capi al mo emen and a ac s he la e o he Colombian ma ke . The
Ag eemen also includes a chap e on T ade and Sus ainable De elop-
men ,9 e incing he g owing EU conce n abou en i onmen al ma e s.
Simila ly, he ex i ncludes he so-called “democ acy and human igh s
clause” ha , in keeping wi h A icle 21 o he T ea y o he Eu opean
Union and he logic o he pilla on poli ical dialogue es ablished in AAs
wi h o he La in Ame ican coun ies, makes explici e e ence o demo-
c a ic p inciples, he ule o law and espec o human igh s. In his
sense, like he es o he ag eemen s signed by he EU since he 1990s,
his en isions he possibili y o he Ag eemen being immedia ely and
8 I s de ini i e en y in o o ce equi es he a i ica ion o he na ional pa liamen s o
he signa o y coun ies and o all he membe s a es o he EU.
9 This chap e includes egula ions on he a eas o labou (linked o basic igh s and
p inciples o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion) and he en i onmen ( ela ed o he
Mul ila e al En i onmen Ag eemen s – MEA), se ing ce ain minimums wi h espec o
he p oduc ion and comme cialisa ion o goods and se ices.
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 109
unila e ally suspended in he case o “g a e iola ions” o hese igh s
and libe ies, on he unde s anding ha his would signi y he non ul ill-
men o he Ag eemen ’s e ms (Eu opean Commission, 2022; Ioannides,
2019; Zygie ewicz, 2018).
Wi h espec o ade, he Ag eemen has mean a signi ican imp o e-
men o he EU in e ms o i s access o he Colombian ma ke .
P e iously, Colombia enjoyed p e e en ial ade ea men in he EU in
he amewo k o he GSP + ,10 bu his did no occu in he oppo-
si e di ec ion o he EU, gi en ha his amewo k is based p ecisely
on non- ecip oci y. The Ag eemen imp o es Colombia’s access o EU
p oduc s, while espec ing he asymme y be ween he wo sides de i ing
om hei di e en le els o de elopmen . A g adual hy hm o libe ali-
sa ion is es ablished in he logic o a a iable geome y app oach, whe e
Colombia libe alises i s ma ke s mo e slowly (o e a maximum pe iod o
up o 17 yea s) han he E U.
In spi e o he abo e, as a esul o he Ag eemen he e is an imme-
dia e libe alisa ion o 65% o EU expo s o Colombia in he sec ion
o indus ial p oduc s (machine y, anspo equipmen and chemical
and pha maceu ical p oduc s mainly) and ishing p oduc s, wi h he es
becoming libe alised in a pe iod o 10 yea s. In he case o some o he
main EU ag icul u al p oduc s (dai y p oduc s, wines and o he alcoholic
d inks, oli e oil, p ocessed po k, e c.) access is conside ably imp o ed,
while a he same ime a high deg ee o p o ec ion is ob ained o Eu o-
pean ag icul u al and li es ock p oduc s wi h geog aphical indica ions and
designa ions o o igin (Go e nmen o Colombia, 2022a).
A he same ime, by means o he Ag eemen he main Colom-
bian ag i- ood p oduc s also ob ain imp o ed access o he Eu opean
ma ke compa ed o he p e ious GSP + , which con ibu es o di e -
si ying i s expo s beyond he adi ional mining sec o . Ou s anding in
his espec is he ee access ob ained by p oduc s like lowe s, oas ed
co ee, c ude and e ined palm oil, he majo i y o ui s and g een ege a-
bles, and obacco amongs o he s. Simila ly, imp o emen s a e ob ained
in he con ingen s o mea and suga , in a i educ ions on bananas,
o in he ules o o igin o he ex ile and clo hing sec o (Go e nmen
o Colombia, 2022b). The Ag eemen also con ibu es o le elling he
10 The empo a y and unila e al cha ac e o hese ag eemen s became an a gumen in
a ou o he de ende s o he cu en ade ag eemen , unde s anding ha i s unde ined
cha ac e would gene a e s abili y o comme cial exchanges be ween he wo sides.
110 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
playing ield acing o he La in Ame ican compe i o s in he Eu opean
ma ke , wi h which he EU al eady has ee ade ag eemen s, such as
Mexico, Chile, he Cen al Ame ican coun ies, and mo e ecen ly he
membe s o MERCOSUR.
E en so, he Ag eemen con ains bila e al sa egua d measu es and
speci ic s abilisa ion mechanisms a e es ablished o sensi i e p oduc s,11
like he banana, amongs o he s, in o de o a oid an inc ease in hei
impo a ion being de imen al o Eu opean p oduc s. In u n, while he
g ea majo i y o he Eu opean p oduc s en e Colombia du y- ee, he e
a e also some excep ions, such as suga cane and um (Go e nmen o
Colombia, 2022a; Eu opean Commission, 2019 and 2022).
Finally, he pe iods o libe alising he access o Colombian indus ial
p oduc s o he Eu opean ma ke a e sho e han hose ob ained in i s
comme cial ea y wi h he USA. None heless, he impo ance o his
sec o in i s p oduc i e and expo ma ix ( mainly linked o he ex ile and
clo hing sec o ) is e y small, as will be shown in he ollowing sec ion.
4S a e and E olu ion o he Main
Va iables Linked o he Ag eemen
The ela i e impo ance o he ade ela ions be ween he Eu opean
Union and Colombia is e y di e en o each side. Fo he EU i s ade
wi h Colombia has oscilla ed be ween ba ely 0.2–0.4% o i s non-EU
ade acco ding o he yea s in he 2002–2022 pe iod.
Howe e , o Colombia he EU is a majo pa ne , al hough no he
mos impo an one (see Table 1). In ac , i s main ade pa ne is he
USA, wi h which i has had a FTA since 2006, accoun ing o a ound
28% o Colombian expo s. Simila ly, he p og essi e loss o impo ance
in ela i e e ms o he EU as a des ina ion o Colombian p oduc s has
been obse ed wi h conce n, especially om Colombia, gi en ha his
also esponds o a all in i s ade lows in absolu e e ms. In spi e o
ha , he EU con inues o be one o he mos impo an des ina ions o
Colombian goods. Conce ning supplie s o he Colombian economy, he
11 The EU equen ly includes hese measu es in i s ade ag eemen s, which make i
possible o empo a ily annul he co esponding cus oms p e e ences in o de o p o ec a
pa icula na ional sec o . Besides he banana, mainly p oduced in ul a-pe iphe al Eu o-
pean egions, he EU es ablishes a i con ingen s o some sensi i e p oduc s like suga ,
bee , swee s, swee co n, cows’ milk, um, mush ooms, and yogu .
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 111
Table 1 Colombia’s o eign ade (pe cen age o o al)
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Colombian expo s des ined o
EU 14.5 11.8 11.7 12.9 12.1
China 5.3 9.0 11.6 8.6 9.0
US 29.1 26.5 31.1 30.4 28.5
Colombian impo s p oceeding om
EU 14.5 13.7 14.8 13.0 12.9
China 16.2 17.1 18.3 21.4 23.5
US 29.0 29.5 29.3 27.4 26.9
Sou ce Elabo a ed by he au ho s on he basis o T ademap
EU con inues o occupy hi d place, a e he USA and China. Al hough
a ela i ely impo an all can be obse ed in his case, wi h a d op
om 14.5% o 12.9% o o al impo s made by Colombia in he 2017–
2021 pe iod, his does no in ol e a decline in absolu e ade lows, bu
an inc ease a a slowe speed han he pu chases made om China by
Colombia (Eu opean Beaumon e al., 2019; Commission, 2019).
As can be seen in Fig. 1, he EU had a nega i e o eign ade balance
wi h Colombia un il 2014, he yea when a g owing ade su plus began,
which was duly nuanced by he pandemic in 2020. The all in Eu opean
impo s p oceeding om Colombia explains his change in a ou o he
EU, which egis e ed a ade su plus o 1,848 million eu os in 2021. I
should be kep in mind ha his change o endency in he ade balance
occu ed only a ew yea s a e he signing o he T ade Ag eemen . Thus,
his change and he high le el o Colombia’s ade de ici 12 wi h he
EU a p esen become ac o s o be aken e y much in o accoun when
analysing he e ec s o he Ag eemen o he wo sides.
The e o e, in spi e o he a iable geome y app oach used so as o
a ou a slowe g adual libe alisa ion o Colombia, he Ag eemen seems
o ha e been mo e a ou able o he EU, inso a as he new ins i u ional
amewo k has acili a ed he g ow h o Eu opean expo s o Colombia
o a g ea e ex en han hose o Colombia o Eu ope. In ac , du ing
he 2013–2021 pe iod Colombian sales egis e ed inc eases in only h ee
12 This same endency can be obse ed in he pe iod ollowing he signing o he FTA
be ween Colombia and he USA, acing he all in Colombian expo s and he inc ease
in impo s (Á ila & Sánchez, 2015).
118 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
e ms o consume access o a g ea e ange o p oduc s a a be e p ice,
om he p oduc ion side his does no lea e much oom o doub abou
which o he wo sides is bene i ing mo e om he T ade Ag eemen .
As no ed p e iously, i should be ecalled ha p io o he coming
in o e ec o he Ag eemen , Colombia al eady had p i ileged access o
he Eu opean Union ma ke in he amewo k o he GSP + , while
Eu opean p oduc s did no ha e a i educ ions on en e ing he Colom-
bian ma ke . Tha is, he Ag eemen in i sel en ails asymme y, inso a
as i esul s in an imp o emen o he condi ions o Eu opean expo e s
ela i ely g ea e han o Colombian ones.
I was no o no hing ha he Ag eemen was iewed e y posi-
i ely by he coali ions o Eu opean companies, gi en he po en ial i
holds o hese companies in sec o s like he chemical and pha maceu-
ical indus y, wine and o he alcoholic d inks, o elecommunica ions,
cons uc ion, inancial se ices and anspo se ices, as well as in he
sec o o ag icul u al p oduc s and hei p ocessing (Zygie ewicz, 2018).
E en so, in sec o ial e ms he e has been an inc ease in Colombian
ag icul u al and li es ock expo s18 since he Ag eemen came in o e ec ,
as well as in he numbe o small and medium-sized companies ha
ha e made use o he p e e en ial access (Ioannides, 2019; T emolada
e al., 2019). Tha is, beyond he luc ua ions in he demand and p ices
o hyd oca bons in he anomalous con ex o ecen yea s, he ag icul-
u e and li es ock sec o seems o be gaining weigh wi h espec o he
o al expo s o Colombia. None heless, his does no mean a subs an ial
change ega ding he ans o ma ion o he coun y’s p oduc i e ma ix
in in e -sec o ial e ms, gi en ha no educ ion has been achie ed in i s
g ea dependence on he p ima y expo sec o , and ha imp o emen s
in e ms o di e si ying o educing his concen a ion a e limi ed.
To all o his mus be added he isk ha he sea ch o supplie s o
hyd oca bons o eplace Russia migh s eng hen he p o ile o Colombia
as an expo e o na u al esou ces e en u he , in spi e o he ac ha he
ecen ly appoin ed p esiden Gus a o Pe o has exp essed his eluc ance
o con inue elying on he ex ac i e sec o in gene al, and ha o hyd o-
ca bons in pa icula . In any case, o i s pa he EU is also inc easing he
pe cen age o p ima y p oduc s ha i expo s o he Colombian ma ke .
18 In addi ion o c ops like co ee and lowe s, his has bene i ed he p oduc ion o
ege ables, ui and d ied ui , while i has been de imen al o he p oduce s o dai y
p oduc s (Á ila & Sánchez, 2015; Fai lie, 2022).
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 119
A he same ime, he EUs’ suppo o u al de elopmen h ough
di e en unds and ini ia i es migh seem cohe en wi h he inc ease o
he weigh o ag icul u al and li es ock p oduc s in expo s. Howe e , all
o his seems o s eng hen he commi men o a model o la ge-scale
ag icul u e p incipally o ien a ed o expo a ion ha equi es huge a eas
o land and in ensi e use o esou ces (wa e , e ilise s, pes icides…),
no mally in he hands o big na ional o ansna ional ag o-expo compa-
nies. Meanwhile, he peasan popula ion, he majo i y o whom a e
indigenous, and many ex-comba an s, s ill ha e se ious p oblems in
gaining access o land,19 ha e small-scale plo s and sca ce esou ces,20
and su e om o ced displacemen s when he land hey a e using comes
o be occupied by big ag ibusiness companies o he ex ac i e sec o .
Peasan p o es s and s ikes om 2013 onwa ds ha e made he scale o
his p oblem clea , as well as i s link o he ee- ade ag eemen s signed
(Coscione & Ga cía, 2014;C uz, 2019).
This con ex e inces ha he p oblems in he u al medium a e impo -
an and endu ing, and ha he ad ances made in he necessa y e o ms
a e s ill minimal. In ac , as exp essed by he K oc Ins i u e o In e na-
ional Peace S udies, one o he o ganisa ions en us ed wi h moni o ing
and e i ying he Peace Ag eemen s o 2016, he implemen a ion o he
commi men s con ained in he i s poin o he Peace Ag eemen on
In eg al Ru al Re o m and he eplacemen o illegal c ops ha e made
e y li le p og ess up o now (Echa a ía e al., 2022). I is mo e han
doub ul ha he playing ield es ablished by he T ade Ag eemen will
con ibu e o imp o ing he complex p oblems in he u al medium, and
in pa icula hose a ec ing he small peasan y.
Conce ning in es men s, he Colombian economy is mainly a ecipien
o FDI lows in i s ela ion wi h he EU, bo h be o e and since he Ag ee-
men , while lows o he EU ha e been imp o ing, al hough i egula ly,
a e i s signing (Zygie ewicz, 2018). None heless, i is ob ious ha he
19 The p oblem o land dis ibu ion amongs small a me s and close o 6 million
displaced pe sons acco ding o he s ipula ions o he Law o Vic ims and Res i u ion o
Lands o 2011, is wi hou doub going o be a complex ask gi en he lack o eco ds
o a p ope y egis y o he lands ha we e in he egions con olled by he gue illa
g oups (Bodeme , 2019).
20 The si ua ion o sca ce esou ces is especially no able in he case o u al women,
whose incomes a e es ima ed o be 33% lowe han hose o u al men (UN Women,
2022).
120 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
me e a i al o capi al lows does no gua an ee hei po en ial con ibu-
ion o he agenda o sus ainable de elopmen (UNCTAD, 2020, 2021).
Fu he mo e, he concen a ion o he main FDI lows o Colombia in he
mining and hyd oca bon sec o s and in anspo and communica ions,
inally esul s in big in es men s by ex ac i e companies and di e en
megap ojec s ha gene a e socioeconomic and en i onmen al con lic s o
di e se ypes wi h he espec i e local communi ies ha a e a ec ed.
Wi h espec o in ellec ual p ope y igh s, in spi e o he e e ences
in he Ag eemen o coope a ion in ma e s o echnological ans e
and p o ec ion o biodi e si y and adi ional knowledge, he dominan
posi ion o he Eu opean companies acing hei La in Ame ican coun e -
pa s in he egis a ion o pa en s and b ands lea es no oom o doub
abou he exis ing imbalance be ween he wo sides. The low numbe
o in en ion pa en s in Colombia e inces a low echnological capaci y,
o which is added he high p opo ion o pa en s p esen ed by non-
esiden s as agains esiden s. The s i ua ion o he EU is he comple e
opposi e, ha is, he e is an ex ao dina ily highe numbe o in en-
ion pa en s, he majo i y p esen ed by esiden s (Eu opean Commission,
2012; Zygie ewicz, 2018). All o his has di ec e ec s on he sec o o
echnological manu ac u es and on ha o he chemical and pha maceu-
ical indus y, whe e he EU has a clea compa a i e ad an age o e i s
Andean coun e pa .
Conce ning he Ag eemen ’s chap e on ade and sus ainable de el-
opmen , he Eu opean Commission moni o s and pe iodically e alua es
he e o s made by Colombia acco ding o he ecommenda ions made
by he In e na ional Labou O ganisa ion (ILO) in ques ions o employ-
men igh s. In ha sense, nowadays Colombia has signed 61 o he ILO’s
ag eemen s; hese include 3 o he 4 ha a e conside ed o ha e a p io i y
cha ac e , and 8 o he 10 ha a e conside ed undamen al, besides
ano he 50 wi h a echnical na u e. Simila ly, i should be unde sco ed
ha he coun y has made a ious imp o emen s h ough implemen ing
ini ia i es o educe he le els o in o mal and child labou 21 (Fai lie,
2022; Ioannides, 2019).
The o ma ion o he Domes ic Ad iso y G oup (DAG) on he eques
o he o ganisa ions o Colombian ci il socie y has also con ibu ed o he
21 Ag eemen s a e being p omo ed h ough he Red de Fo malización Labo al (Labou
Fo malisa ion Ne wo k) and he e is a na ional s a egy o he p e en ion and elimina ion
o he wo s o ms o child labou .
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 121
la e ’s pa icipa ion in labou and en i onmen al ma e s. None heless, in
his o um he ci il socie y o ganisa ions ha e epea edly exp essed hei
conce n o , amongs o he issues, he iola ion o human and employ-
men igh s, he co esponding impuni y, he c iminalisa ion o social
p o es , and he non- ul ilmen o ILO Con en ion 169 on indigenous
and ibal peoples. Di e se epo s o o ganisa ions like he T ansna ional
Ins i u e (TNI) and he O icina In e nacional de los De echos Humanos –
Acción Colombia (OIDHACO—The In e na ional O ice o Human
Righ s Ac ion on Colombia) (2016), Amnes y In e na ional (2021)and
Human Righ s Wa ch (2021) ha e highligh ed his si ua ion. In his
sense, he abundan and incessan cases o h ea s agains and mu de s
o ade union leade s, social leade s and human igh s de ende s, e en
ollowing he Peace Ag eemen o 2016, making Colombia he coun y
wi h he highes a e o mu de s o human igh s de ende s a he wo ld
le el, con inue o be a cause o g ea conce n, al hough he e ha e also
been some ecen ad ances and ini ia i es in his espec .22 Howe e , in
spi e o he EU’s suppo in hese ma e s h ough he a ailable consul-
a i e mechanisms, he e idence shows ha he e ec s o he Ag eemen
in his espec a e a om sa is ac o y, gi en ha he discussions and
comp omises acqui ed a e no binding, emaining es ic ed o me e
decla a ions (Ioannides, 2019; Zygie ewicz, 2018).
Conce ning en i onmen al issues, he e ha e been ad ances h ough
he Consejo Nacional de la Lucha Con a la De o es ación (Na ional
Council o he Figh agains De o es a ion) and he signing o he Pac o
Nacional de Economía Ci cula (Na ional Ci cula E conomy S a egy)
(Fai lie, 2022). Howe e , he igh agains he pollu ing ac i i ies o he
big ansna ional co po a ions in he ex ac i e sec o , and in pa icula
agains hei use o me cu y, con inues o be an a ea o g ea a gumen
and con lic ; all o his in a con ex in which a g ea e lexibilisa ion o
he egula ions linked o he ene gy-mining sec o has been obse ed in
ecen yea s (Ioannides, 2019; Zygie ewicz, 2018). The same can be said
wi h espec o he igh s o he land and esou ces o he indigenous
peoples in u al a eas, whe e he e is a g owing dispu e wi h ansna ional
capi al and he au ho i ies ha a e p omo ing he la e ’s ac i i ies.
22 In ecen yea s, ollowing decades o impuni y, he e ha e been 966 condemna o y
ulings o c imes commi ed agains ade unionis s, and 301 ade union leade s and
ac i is s whose li es we e h ea ened ha e been placed unde a p og am o he Unidad
Nacional de P o ección (UPN—Na ional P o ec ion Uni ).
122 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
In spi e o hese ci cums ances, he so-called democ a ic and human
igh s clause o he T ade Ag eemen has o da e ne e been exe cised
in e ms o he immedia e and unila e al suspension o he Ag eemen ,
and he h ea o exe cising i has no e en been aised. The EU unde -
s ands ha he demands es ablished i n ha espec ha e been me o da e
hanks o he go e nmen ’s e o o imp o e he si ua ion h ough he
app o al o a Plan Nacional de Acción en De echos Humanos (Na ional
Ac ion Plan in Human Righ s) (Zygie ewicz, 2018). All o his gi es
ise o huge doub s abou he consis ency o he ine wo ds con ained
in he ag eemen s and he will o capaci y o he EU o pu p essu e on
he go e nmen o Colombia in case o he non- ul ilmen o he clauses
on labou , human igh s and he en i onmen , beyond i s commi men
o moni o he si ua ion in hese ields and p o ec ic ims (Eu opean
Commission, 2019; Ioannides, 2019).
6Conclusions
In ecen decades o eign ela ions be ween he EU and i s p e e en-
ial pa ne s ha e changed signi ican ly as a esul o he compe i ion,
mainly om he USA, o espec i e a eas o in luence, oge he wi h he
di e en changes in he mul ila e al egula o y amewo k in oduced by
he WTO. All o his has led o a d i e owa ds ade ecip oci y and he
p omo ion o ee ade a eas, besides he inclusion o o he issues on
he ade agenda, such as se ices, in es men s, public p ocu emen and
in ellec ual p ope y igh s.
The EU’s ela ions wi h La in Ame ican coun ies in ecen decades a e
a e lec ion o all ha , whe he in in e egional o bila e al amewo ks,
and a e based on he AAs and hei h ee pilla s: ade, poli ical dialogue
and coope a ion.
In he case o Colombia his has been conc e ised in a bila e al T ade
Ag eemen ha includes many o he aspec s linked o he o he wo
pilla s, speci ically o a policy o coope a ion e y much o ien ed owa ds
peacebuilding and he de ence o human igh s. In ha sense, he signing
o he T ade Ag eemen wi h Colombia is in e p e ed by he EU as pa
o a join package o measu es ha cohe en ly pu sue peacebuilding and
he p omo ion o de elopmen h ough i s coope a ion policies.
The e is no doub ha he e o s, ini ia i es, human esou ces and
unds employed by he EU in ques ions o coope a ion wi h Colombia
ha e been conside able. Mo eo e , i s accompanimen o he p ocess
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 123
o peacebuilding in he coun y employing a b oad pe spec i e and
wi h a e i o ial ocus, ying o d aw away om con en ional secu i y
pe spec i es, has been gene ally welcomed. Howe e , while many o hese
elemen s depa om he logic o he libe al app oach o peace, o he s,
and in pa icula ha linked o he T ade Ag eemen , con inue o d aw
hea ily on ha app oach. Indeed, om ha pe spec i e ade libe alisa ion
and he WTO agenda a e conside ed alid as ideal ins umen s o gene -
a ing condi ions o de elopmen , in he pa icula con ex o an economy
such as he Colombian one, and on he basis o i s ela ions wi h he EU.
All o ha appea s o o ge he imbalances gene a ed in he balance
o ade and se ices o he de imen o Colombia, as well as in he ield
o in ellec ual p ope y igh s, amongs o he s. And in spi e o he sligh
imp o emen in ques ions o di e si ica ion in a ou o he ag icul u al
and li es ock sec o , his dynamic con inues o be concen a ed in he
p ima y sec o , wi h sca ce in e -sec o ial e ec s on he manu ac u ing
sec o s ha gene a e he g ea es le els o employmen and added alue.
P omo ing p ocesses ha gene a e p oduc i e ac i i ies wi h g ea e
added alue on he basis o p ima y p oduc s should be amongs he
EU’s p io i ies in Colombia in he immedia e u u e. All o ha would
con ibu e o sus ainable de elopmen , u al de elopmen , he igh
agains d ug a icking, and p oduc i e di e si ica ion.
Simila ly, in he a ea o in es men s he e is also po en ial o a ac ing
FDI owa ds sec o s gene a ing employmen in p oduc i e ac i i ies wi h
highe added alue, like manu ac u ing and ag icul u e. The EU, in i s
cu en posi ion as he main o eign in es o , can play an impo an
ole in ha espec . In u n, o he ex en ha he EU eally in ends
i s in es men p ac ice o be cohe en wi h i s coope a ion policies, i
mus p omo e and moni o policies in in es men ma e s ha make a
di e ence wi h espec o in es men s om o he sou ces in e ms o a
high commi men o sus ainable de elopmen and he de ence o human
igh s, some hing ha has no happened up o now.
A he same ime, al hough di e se ad ances ha e aken place in he
ields o employmen igh s, human igh s and en i onmen al p o ec-
ion, he lacks and limi a ions a e ex ensi e, con lic s wi h he ac i i ies
o ansna ional capi al a e abundan , and ecou se o he democ a ic and
human igh clause is non-exis en . Thus, when i comes o e alua ing he
cohe ence o he EU’s policies in i s o eign ela ions wi h Colombia, as in
he ields o i s o eign ac i i y in gene al, i can be concluded ha he e
con inues o be a subs an ial gap be ween i s s a ed in en ions and he
124 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
eali y o i s policies (Chicha o, 2017). This is exp essed in he ample
p o i s gene a ed by he p io i isa ion o he economic agenda ( ade,
in es men s, in ellec ual p ope y…) in i s o eign policy, which does no
always bene i i s coun e pa , and is no always compa ible wi h achie ing
o he goals o i s policy o de elopmen coope a ion.
The capaci y ha he new p og essi e go e nmen in Colombia migh
ha e o ans o m and imp o e all his, gi en i s c i ical discou se on he
ee ade ag eemen s and i s suppo o he peasan cause, is some hing
ha only ime will ell. Bu , om he ou se i will ha e o play i s ca ds on
a p e-es ablished playing ield, subjec o di e en limi a ions ma ked by
he T ade Ag eemen and he economic ela ions ha de i e om i . All
o his esul s in a limi ed ma gin o manoeu e o designing and imple-
men ing he economic policies in he na ional and in e na ional ields ha
he go e nmen conside s mos sui able o imp o ing he li ing condi-
ions o i s popula ion, in pa icula in he u al a eas mos a ec ed by
he con lic , hus limi ing i s capaci y o con ibu e o a s able and las ing
peace.
Re e ences
Agudelo, J., & Ricca di, D. (2019). La coope ación in e nacional pa a la paz en
Colombia: los casos de Es ados Unidos y de la Unión Eu opea (1998–2016).
Geopolí ica(s). Re is a de es udios sob e espacio y pode , 10(1), 107–134.
ALOP e al. (2011, No embe 11). Acue dos come ciales de la Unión Eu opea
con Cen oamé ica, Colombia y Pe ú: obs áculos pa a el desa ollo sos enible.
EU-LAT Ad ocacy Ne wo k. h ps://eula ne wo k.o g/es/acue dos-come c
iales-de-la-ue-con-cen oame ica-colombia-y-pe u-obs aculos-pa a-el-desa
ollo-sos enible. Las accessed 10 Janua y 2023.
Amnes y In e nacional. (2021). In o me Colombia.
Á ila, R. A., & Sánchez, L. M. (2015, June). Colombia y la Unión Eu opea:
elación de complemen a iedades económicas a la luz del a ado de lib e
come cio. Pe spec i as. F ied ich Ebe S i ung.
Beaumon , N. e al. (2019). The challenge o coope a ion. The Eu opean Union’s
engagemen in human igh s in Colombia: 2012 o 2019. Policy Repo .
Uni e si y College London’s Ins i u e o he Ame icas.
Be múdez, A., & Ga zón, J. C. (2020). El ca álogo de las pequeñas soluciones:
al e na i as pa a sus i ui los cul i os de coca en Colombia. Fundación Ideas
pa a la Paz & F ied ich-Ebe -S i ung.
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 125
Bodeme , K. (2019). El ol de la Unión Eu opea como ac o ex e no en
la polí ica colombiana: En e el bila e alismo y el ila e alismo. Anua io
La inoame icano Ciencias Polí icas y Relaciones In e nacionales, 8, 297–319.
CEPAL. (2022). La in e sión ex anje a di ec a en Amé ica La ina y el Ca ibe.
Comisión Económica pa a Amé ica L a ina y el Ca ibe. Uni ed Na ions.
Chicha o, A. (2017). Cohe encia de Polí icas pa a el Desa ollo en la Unión
Eu opea. Re is a Ibe oame icana De Es udios De Desa ollo, 6(1), 4–25.
Coscione, M., & Ga cía, V. (2014, Sep embe ). TLCs, pa o nacional ag a io y
mo imien o social en Colombia. Nue o Mundo Mundos Nue os, Cues iones del
Tiempo P esen e, 5. h ps://doi.o g/10.4000/nue omundo.67127
C uz, E. (2019). La ecomposición del mo imen o campesino en Colombia
(2013–2016). Re is a Vía Iu is, 26, 103–124.
De elopmen Solu ions e al. (2009). EU-Andean ade sus ainabili y impac
assessmen , inal epo . Eu opean Commission, DG T ade.
Echa a ía, J. e al. (2022). Cinco años después de la i ma del Acue do Final:
Re lexiones desde el moni o eo a la implemen ación. Uni e si y o No e Dame.
Espinosa, A. (2013). Análisis del Acue do de Asociación en e Colombia y
la Unión Eu opea: ag icul u a y medidas sani a ias y i ossani á ias.Se ie
Es udios y Pe spec i as. Comisión Económica pa a Amé ica La ina y el
Ca ibe–CEPAL. Uni ed Na ions.
Eu opean Commission. (2012). The EU ade ag eemen s wi h Colombia & Pe u
and wi h Cen al Ame ica. Publica ions O ice o he Eu opean Union.
Eu opean Commission. (2016, No embe 11). Ecuado joins he EU’s ade
ag eemen wi h Colombia and Pe u. B ussels.
Eu opean Commission. (2019, Oc obe 14). Indi idual epo s and in o shee s
on implemen a ion o EU F ee T ade Ag eemen s.
Eu opean Commission. (2022). EU-Colombia-Pe u-Ecuado T ade Ag eemen .
DG T ade.
Eu opean Union (2012). Acue do Come cial en e la Unión Eu opea y sus Es ados
memb os, po una pa e y Colombia y el Pe ú, po o a. O icial Dia y L354,
21 Decembe . B ussels.
Fai lie, A. (2022). Nue os e os pa a el Acue do Come cial Mul ipa es de la
Unión Eu opea con Pe ú, Colombia y Ecuado (Wo king Pape s, Special
numbe ). Fundación Ca olina/Fundación EU-LAC.
F ancois, J., e al. (2012). Assessing he economic impac o he ade ag eemen
be ween he Eu opean Union and signa o y coun ies o he Andean communi y
(Colombia and Pe u). Cen e o Economic Policy Resea ch.
Ga cía, M. (2022). The EU-Pe u/Colombia ade ag eemen : Balancing, accom-
moda ion, o d i e o change? In M. Ga cía & A. Gómez ( Eds.), La in
Ame ica-Eu opean Union ela ions in he wen y- i s cen u y. Manches e
Uni e si y P ess.
126 E. BIDARRATZAGA AURRE AND Á. S. DÍEZ
González, E. (2014). Las muje es en la indus ia colombiana de las lo es(Repo
No. 11). Paz con Dignidad y Obse a o io de Mul inacionales en Amé ica
La ina.
Gómez, A. (2022). In e egionalismo y Acue dos de Asociación UE-Amé ica
La ina y el Ca ibe. In J. A. Sanahuja (Ed.), Relanza las elaciones en e
Amé ica La ina y la Unión Eu opea. Fundación Ca olina.
Go e nmen o Colombia. (2022a). Acue dos Come ciales de la UE: Colombia .
Minis e io de Indus ia, Come cio y Tu ismo.
Go e nmen o Colombia. (2022b). Acue do Come cial en e la Unión Eu opea,
Colombia, Pe ú y Ecuado . Minis e io Come cio de Indus ia y Tu ismo.
Gu ié ez, J., e al. (2017). Den o o más allá de la ayuda: El di ícil camino
de la Cohe encia de Polí icas pa a el Desa ollo. Re is a Ibe oame icana De
Es udios De Desa ollo, 6(1), 26–49.
Human Righ s Wa ch. (2021). Líde es desp o egidos y comunidades inde ensas.
Asesina os de de enso es de de echos humanos en zonas emo as de
Colombia.
Ioannides, I. (2019). Peace and secu i y in 2019. E alua ing e o s o suppo
peace in Colombia. Eu opean Pa liamen a y Resea ch Se ice.
Jus T ade. (2011). Time o Eu ope o pu alues and human igh s abo e
comme cial ad an age. Policy B ie .
Ma chini, J. (2018). Acue do de lib e come cio en e el MERCOSUR y la Unión
Eu opea: una negociación apu ada que ahonda asime ías. In C.S. Flo es e al.
(Eds.), Amé ica La ina: una in eg ación egional agmen ada y sin umbo.
CLACSO.
Ma ínez, I., & Ma ínez P. (2012). Cohe encia de polí icas. In J. He nández
Zubiza e a, E. González, & P. Rami o (Eds.), Dicciona io c í ico de emp esas
ansnacionales. Cla es pa a en en a el pode de las g andes co po aciones.
Ica ia.
Ruiz, D., e al. (2017). El TLC con la Unión Eu opea y sus implicaciones en el
sec o ag ícola colombiano. Sinapsis, 9(1), 42–58.
Schade, D. (2022). In e linkages in EU-Andean communi y ade nego ia ions.
In M. Ga cía, & A. Gómez (Eds.), La in Ame ica-Eu opean Union ela ions
in he wen y- i s cen u y. Manches e Uni e si y P ess.
TNI. (2012). Dossie on EU-Colombia ee ade ag eemen . T ansna ional
Ins i u e.
TNI/OIDHACO. (2016). Repe cusiones en Colombia del acue do come cial
con la Unión Eu opea as es años de su implemen ación. The T ansna-
ional Ins i u e & O icina In e nacional de los De echos Humanos Acción
Colombia.
T emolada, E., e al. (2019). Colombia y la Unión Eu opea. Una asociación cada
ez más es echa. Uni e sidad Ex e nado de Colombia.
4 IS THE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE EU … 127
Unce a, K. e al. (2015). Cohe encia de Polí icas pa a el Desa ollo en Euskadi:
diagnós ico y p opues as. Basque Go e nmen .
UNCTAD. (2018). T ade and De elopmen Repo 2018. Powe , Pla o ms
and he F ee T ade Delusion. Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and
De elopmen .
UNCTAD. (2020). Wo ld in es men epo : In e na ional P oduc ion Beyond he
Pandemic. Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen .
UNCTAD. (2021). Wo ld in es men epo : in es ing in sus ainable eco e y.
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen .
UN Women. (2022). La si uación de las muje es en Colombia. Bogo á.
Zygie ewicz, A. (2018). Acue do Come cial en e la Unión Eu opea y Colombia
y P e ú. E aluación Eu opea de la Aplicación. Eu opean Pa liamen .
Open Access This chap e is licensed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/
by/4.0/), which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion
in any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal
au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons license and
indica e i changes we e made.
The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his chap e a e included in he
chap e ’s C ea i e Commons license, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line
o he ma e ial. I ma e ial is no included in he chap e ’s C ea i e Commons
license and you in ended use is no pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds
he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om he copy igh
holde .
