Martian atmospheric disturbances from orbital images and surface pressure at Jezero Crater, Mars, during Martian Year 36

Martian Atmospheric Disturbances From Orbital Images and Surface Pressure at Jezero Crater, Mars, During Martian Year 36 A. Sánchez‐Lavega 1 , E. Larsen 1 , T. del Rio‐Gaztelurrrutia 1 , J. Hernández‐Bernal 2 , I. Ordóñez‐Etxebarría 3 , R. Hueso 1 , B. Tanguy 4 , M. Lemmon 5 , M. de la Torre Juarez 6 , G. M. Martínez 7,8 , A. Munguira 1 , J. A. Rodríguez‐Manfredi 8 , A.‐M. Harri 9 , J. Pla‐García 8 , D. Toledo 10 , and C. Newman 11 1 Escuela de Ingeniería de Bilbao, Universidad País Vasco, UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain, 2 Laboratoire de Méteorologie Dynamique, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France, 3 Planetario de Pamplona, Pamplona, Spain, 4 LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France, 5 Space Science Institute, College Station, TX, USA, 6 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA, 7 Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, TX, USA, 8 Centro de Astrobiología (INTA‐ CSIC), Madrid, Spain, 9 Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland, 10 Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, INTA, Madrid, Spain, 11 Aeolis Research, Chandler, AZ, USA Abstract We present a study of atmospheric disturbances at Jezero Crater, Mars, using ground‐based measurements of surface pressure by the Perseverance rover in combination with orbital images from the Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter missions. The study starts at L s ∼13.3° in MY36 (6 March 2021) and extends up to L s ∼30.3° in MY37 (28 February 2023). We focus on the characterization of the major atmospheric phenomena at synoptic and planetary‐scales. These are the thermal tides (measured up to the sixth component), long‐period pressure oscillations (periods >1 sol), the Aphelion Cloud Belt, and the occasional development of regional dust storms over Jezero. We present the seasonal evolution of the amplitudes and phases of the thermal tides and their relation with the atmospheric dust content (optical depth). Three regional dust storms and one polar storm extending over Jezero produced an increase in the diurnal and semidiurnal amplitudes but resulted in inverse responses in their phases. We show that the primary regular wave activity is due to baroclinic disturbances with periods of 2–4 sols and amplitudes ∼1–15 Pa increasing with dust content, in good agreement with theoretical predictions by model calculations. The spacecraft images show a number of arc‐shaped, spiral and irregular cyclonic vortices, traced by dust and clouds at the edge of the North Polar Cap, that could be behind some of the pressure oscillations measured at Jezero. Plain Language Summary We study atmospheric disturbances observed as clouds and dust in images obtained from orbiting spacecraft, with simultaneous pressure measurements on the surface of Mars by the Perseverance rover on Jezero crater at latitude 18° North. The analysis focuses on the northern hemisphere in Martian Year 36. We study the seasonal evolution of the amplitudes and phases of the thermal tides (atmospheric oscillations in temperature and pressure forced by solar heating) and their relation with the dust content of the atmosphere and the presence of clouds, including the different types of dust storms reaching the crater Jezero. The images show a number of arc‐shaped, spiral, ring‐like and irregular rotating vortices, traced by dust and clouds at the edge of the North Polar Cap that could be behind some of the effects observed in pressure at Jezero. We detect wave activity with periods of 2–4 sols (a Martian day) and amplitudes ∼1–15 Pa that increase with the dust content, in good agreement with theoretical predictions by General Circulation Models. 1. Introduction Mars has a rich and varied meteorology, strongly influenced by daily and seasonal insolation cycles and where rapid changes develop due to the low atmospheric mass and a short radiative time constant (Zurek, 2017). Observations of Martian atmospheric phenomena have been typically carried out with telescopes on Earth and in near‐Earth space, with spacecraft orbiting the planet, and with landers and rovers on the surface (James et al., 2017). Studies of particular meteorological phenomena are usually performed focusing on just one of these data sets. But, they rarely focus on both spacecraft imaging and in situ observations. In this work we use daily images obtained in the visible‐optical range with the Visual Monitoring Camera (VMC) onboard Mars Express RESEARCH ARTICLE 10.1029/2024JE008565 Key Points: •We study the surface pressure and the thermal tides and waves, from the first Martian Year, obtained by the rover Perseverance at Jezero •We correlate pressure variability and oscillations with dust storms, clouds and baroclinic cyclones studied from images taken from orbit •We present the relationships between the surface pressure and tides up to six components, with the optical depth measured at Jezero Correspondence to: A. Sánchez‐Lavega, [email protected] Citation: Sánchez‐Lavega, A., Larsen, E., del Rio‐ Gaztelurrrutia, T., Hernández‐Bernal, J., Ordóñez‐Etxebarría, I., Hueso, R., et al. (2025). Martian atmospheric disturbances from orbital images and surface pressure at Jezero Crater, Mars, during Martian Year 36. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets,130, e2024JE008565. https://doi. org/10.1029/2024JE008565 Received 28 JUN 2024 Accepted 19 DEC 2024 © 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution‐NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes. SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 1 of 26 (MEX) (Hernández‐Bernal et al., 2024b; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018a) and with the MARCI (Mars Color Imager) instrument onboard Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) (Bell III et al., 2009; Cantor et al., 2010). We combine them with simultaneous in situ measurements from the Mars Environment Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) instrument onboard the rover Perseverance in operation in Jezero Crater since 18 February 2021 with landing at longitude 77.45°E and latitude 18.44°N (Rodríguez‐Manfredi et al., 2021,2023). This research focuses on synoptic (or mid‐scale) and planetary‐scale phenomena as they evolve in temporal scales approximately ≥1 sol, specifically on wave disturbances, dust storms and thermal tides (see Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2024 for a classification of space and time scales). Pressure has been shown to have high sensitivity and reliability as a reference magnitude to track the mid‐ and large‐scale dynamical processes in the atmosphere (Hess et al., 1977,1980; Ryan & Henry, 1979; Wilson & Hamilton, 1996; Harri et al., 2014,2024; Banfield et al., 2020; Martinez et al., 2017; Steele et al., 2021; Rodríguez‐Manfredi et al., 2023; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2023 (paper 1); Zurita‐Zurita et al., 2022; Hernández‐Bernal et al., 2024a). This study covers one Martian Year (see Cantor et al., 2010 for the MY numeration), starting on Perseverance sol 16 (L s ∼13.3° MY 36, 6 March 2021) and extending to sol 720 (L s ∼30.3° MY 37, 28 February 2023). During this period, pressure data were also acquired simultaneously by other surface missions located in nearly equatorial latitudes: the rover Curiosity (4.6°S, 137.4°E), the platform Insight (4.5°N, 135.6°E) that operated until 21 December 2022, and the rover Zhurong (25.07°N, 109.92°E) that was active between 27 June 2021 and 6 May 2022. Therefore, our analysis of the atmospheric perturbations detected in the images obtained from orbit can be of interest in further comparative studies of the pressure measurements performed at these other locations. This article is organized as follows. In Section 2, we present the data sources used and the methodology followed in the analysis of the surface pressure and orbital images. In Section 3, we present the study of the pressure measurements in Jezero with Sections 4and 5devoted to the study of thermal tides and baroclinic waves, respectively. In Section 6, we present the different phenomena observed in the images of the northern hemisphere, ordered by solar longitude periods in which each atmospheric phenomenon develops. Finally, in Section 7, we interpret these observations in the context of thermal tides, dust storms and baroclinic cyclones and their relation to the amount of atmospheric dust measured over Jezero. We conclude with a point‐by‐point listing of the main results. 2. Data Analysis The methodology and techniques employed in this article for the analysis of MEDA pressure measurements have been described in previous articles (Rodríguez‐Manfredi et al., 2023; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2023, hereinafter called paper 1; Jaakonaho et al., 2023; Harri et al., 2024). In particular, the method to calculate the tidal components and long period waves was described in Sánchez‐Lavega et al. (2023), which covered half of the period studied in this article (up to sol 460, L s ∼241°). Data are available in Rodriguez‐Manfredi and de la Torre Juarez (2021). For the survey of atmospheric phenomena, we have used images taken by two types of cameras onboard two spacecraft with different and complementary orbits. MEX is a spacecraft in a polar orbit with a pericenter at an altitude ∼300 km, an apocenter at an altitude ∼10,000 km and an orbital period ∼7.5 hr, allowing to observe Mars with different phase angles and local times (Hernández‐Bernal et al., 2024b; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2024). In contrast, MRO has a sun‐synchronized nearly circular orbit, with an altitude over the surface of ∼250–316 km and a period ∼1.86 hr (Zurek & Smrekar, 2007). MRO observes the same area nearly every 24 hr at the same Local Martian Time, around 14–15 hr. VMC is a frame camera of 640 ×480 pixels covering the spectral range ∼400–650 nm with a Field of View (FOV) of 40° ×30° (Hernández‐Bernal et al., 2024b; Ormston et al., 2011; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018a). The camera takes a sequence of images in each orbital observation block assigned to the camera with a spatial resolution at nadir varying between ∼300 m and 12 km, the latter allowing coverage of the entire Martian disk. We have analyzed VMC images (2024) using the Elkano software described by Hernández‐Bernal et al. (2021). We also analyzed the optical channel images of the MARCI camera, which has a wavelength coverage from 437 to 718 nm reaching a resolution of 1 km/pixel (Bell III et al., 2009; Cantor et al., 2010). MARCI captures observations of the entire planet every sol by combining data from 13 consecutive orbits (MARCI images, 2024). The Local True Solar Times (LTST) at the center of the observed swath range around 15:00 ±02:00 hr. We combined MARCI frames (scans over the entire planet or tiles) and projected them in polar or rectangular maps in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 2 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Meteomars software (Ordóñez‐Etxeberria et al., 2022). This software allows navigation (longitude and latitude grid and local time) and measurement of distances on the Martian surface. Complementarily, we use the software ISIS‐USGS (2024) for the processing and map projection of selected MARCI tiles and QGIS (2024) for the corresponding measurements. Because of the northern equatorial latitude of Perseverance at 18.5°N, we limit our image survey and analysis on synoptic‐scale disturbances evolving in the northern hemisphere, with the exception of those phenomena that extend to both hemispheres, such as regional dust storms. A classification scheme of the studied phenomena in terms of either their temporal and spatial scales, or their location on Mars and seasonal distribution has been presented in Figures 1–3 in Sánchez‐Lavega et al. (2024). We have performed velocity measurements of global motions of weather systems and local motions of clouds and dust masses within them, following the identification and tracking of well‐defined features (their centers or their edges) on images separated by a known temporal interval. In VMC, there is a wide variety of time intervals between images used for tracking. Typically, we observe blocks separated by 30 min, 2–3 hr, and a whole day. In MARCI, the time interval between successive swaths capturing the same region depends on latitude. Completing a polar orbit in about 2 hr, the spacecraft can observe high‐latitude areas on every pass, providing higher temporal resolution. Near the equator, however, Mars's rotation shifts the location longitudinally, resulting in intervals of over 24 hr before the same region is revisited. 3. Surface Pressure at Jezero In Figure 1a we show the pressure measurements along each sol over the studied period and in Figure 1b the seasonal evolution (sol to sol) of the mean daily pressure in Jezero. The observed behavior of the pressure follows Figure 1. Surface pressure and optical depth measured at Jezero. (a) Daily surface pressure (vertical axis LTST, Local True Solar Time) as a function of the sol number measured by MEDA on board Perseverance. The pressure is given in Pascal (Pa). Gaps in the measurements caused by limited resources of the mission and operations such as rock sampling appear in gray. (b) Seasonal evolution of the daily mean pressure between sols 16 and 716 (L s =13° in MY 36 to L s =30° in MY 37). Black dots and grays bars represent the mean pressure and its standard deviation for each sol. The orange dots are predictions by the Mars Climate Database for the standard climatology and average solar conditions. (c) Differences of maximum and minimum pressures relative to their mean value for each sol; (d) The seasonal evolution of the visible‐optical depth measured with Skycam (600–800 nm) and Mastcam‐Z (880 nm) on board Perseverance. The identifications correspond to the following cases: CL (clouds), DS‐1 (Dust Storm 1, first regional storm over Jezero), DS‐A (Dust Storm A), DS‐C (Dust Storm C), DS‐NPC (Dust Storm at the edge of the North Polar Cap passing close to Perseverance). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 3 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License the expected pattern from the cycle of polar condensation and sublimation of CO 2 and the influence of the amount of dust suspended in the atmosphere, measured as opacity in Figure 1d, changes the daily range of pressure data (Figure 1c) similarly to what was observed by Viking (Ryan & Henry, 1979). Lower dust content and higher cloud abundance (not shown, e. g. Figure 4 in Smith et al., 2023) occurred approximately from L s ∼0° to L s ∼130°, when sol‐to‐sol variations remained approximately constant. This period was followed by an epoch of high atmospheric dust opacity from L s ∼130° to L s ∼360° with larger sol‐to‐sol variations (Figure 1c). The arrival of dust storms over Jezero during this second epoch is revealed in the optical opacity measurements performed by Perseverance (Figure 1d). The optical depth was measured on a daily basis at different LMSTs from images obtained by the cameras Mastcam‐Z and Skycam (Lemmon et al., 2022) and TIRS on MEDA (Smith et al., 2023). The first regional storm over Jezero occurred at L s ∼153–156° (sols 312–318) (labeled DS‐1 meaning dust storm 1 in figures in this paper) and was analyzed in previous papers (Lemmon et al., 2022; Munguira et al., 2023; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2023). We extend its study in Section 6.4. A north polar storm, not directly arriving at Jezero, is analyzed in Section 6.5. The second and third storms directly affecting Jezero corresponded to the regional events known as A (L s ∼218°, sol 425 and labeled DS‐A in figures in this paper) and C (L s ∼314°, sol 575 and labeled DS‐C in figures in this paper) (Kass et al., 2016; Martin‐Rubio et al., 2024), and are studied in Sections 6.6 and 6.7. A later increase of opacity corresponds to the close passage of a storm evolving at the northern edge of the polar cap (L s ∼358°, sol 656; labeled as DS‐NPC in figures in this paper) and is documented in Section 6.8. 4. Tide Amplitudes and Phases Figures 2a–2f show the seasonal evolution of the amplitude of the six tidal components (S i , i =1–6) corresponding to periods of 24, 12, 8, 6, 4.8 and 4 hr (see Paper 1 for details of the measurements and data analysis). For L s >130°, the correlation of the amplitudes of the diurnal (S 1 ) and semidiurnal (S 2 ) components with the optical depth is evident because both follow the dust storm events (Figures 2a and 2b; see Section 7.1). The amplitudes S 3 to S 6 follow dual behavior. The odd components S 3 and S 5 show a similar pattern with a peak amplitude on sols ∼90–100 (L s ∼50°) and a minimum around sol 200(L s ∼100°) (Figures 2c–2e). The even components S 4 and S 6 exhibited nearly simultaneous maximum amplitudes at sols ∼380 (L s ∼191°) and ∼640 (L s ∼350°) and a broad minimum from sol ∼80 to 260 (Figures 2d–2f). This dual behavior was also observed by Insight for S 3 to S 6 (Hernández‐Bernal et al., 2024a). As a comparison, we show the calculations according to the Mars Climate Database (MCD v 6.1) by the Laboratoire de Météorology Dynamique (LMD) (Forget et al., 1999) for standard climatology and average solar conditions, and the pre‐landing predictions from the Mars Weather Research and Forecasting (MarsWRF) for the innermost nest for Jezero crater (domain 5 with a horizontal resolution of about 1.5 km) (Newman et al., 2021). In general the Martian PCM results reproduce the behavior of the tidal amplitudes reasonably well. There is some disagreement in S 1 in the range of sols 120–290 (L s =62°–141°) and for S 3 around sols 40–160 (L s =25°–80°), but in general the agreement is very good, in particular for S 2 and S 4 ‐S 6 , which validates the measurements. A detailed study of the relationship between tides and water ice and dust optical depth is presented in Section 7.1. The seasonal behavior of the phases of the six tidal components is more complex (Figures 2g–2h). Components S 1 ‐S 3 showed varying degrees of variability up to sol 290 (L s ∼140°). The phase of the diurnal component showed a change of ∼11 hr (∼½ cycle) between sols 130 and 210 (L s ∼66°–102°), and then had punctual decreases of 2–4 hr during the storms except for storm DS‐C that underwent a complete phase reversal (24 hr). The phase of the semidiurnal component showed a large drop of 4 hr with a minimum in sol 280 (L s ∼136°) and then punctual increases of ∼2 hr during the four storms. The phase of component 4 is relatively constant, while the phase of component 3 was noisier and showed a larger variability. The phases of tides 5 and 6 (not shown in Figure 2) were significantly noisier during that period and could be affected by the measurement strategy of the MEDA instrument resulting in many gaps in MEDA measurements (gray regions in Figure 1a; for a description of the MEDA measurement strategy see Rodríguez‐Manfredi et al., 2023). In particular, the dusty period was abundant in rock sampling activities that further limited MEDA measurements with many sols with pressure data acquired in blocks of 15 min separated by almost 1 hour. 5. Long‐Period Waves We have studied the long‐period oscillations (>1 sol) that occur around the daily mean pressure trend, using the same methodology as in paper 1, i. e. calculating the residuals to polynomial fits for sol sectors that typically cover Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 4 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License >60 sols according to the pressure cycle shown in Figure 1b. The resulting detrended pressure is shown in Figure 3a, where the large‐scale atmospheric phenomena are labeled in the figure. The results clearly show the existence of two epochs. In the first epoch, corresponding approximately to the first half of the Martian year with less suspended dust (Figure 1d), the peak to peak amplitudes of the long‐period waves are low, on average 1.6 Pa (sols 80–288, L s ∼40°–140°). In the second epoch, corresponding to the dusty epoch (sols 288–720, L s ∼140°– 30°), the amplitudes are higher, on average ∼4.2 Pa, but with peaks reaching up to 18 Pa. The most pronounced Figure 2. Seasonal behavior of the amplitudes and phases of the tidal components. (a)–(b) Diurnal and semidiurnal amplitudes S 1 and S 2 (black points), with clouds (CL) and dust storm events (DS) identified as in Figure 1. (c)–(f) Amplitude of the components 3 to 6 (S 3 to S 6 ) (black points). In panels (a)–(f) the MCD predictions are shown by the orange line and in panels (a)–(d) the GCM‐MarsWRF model predictions by a blue line. (g) Phase of the diurnal (black line) and semidiurnal (blue line) components with features identified as in panel (a). (h) Phase of the terdiurnal (red line) and quarter diurnal (green line) components with features identified as in panel (a). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 5 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License increases in amplitude (up to ∼5–8 Pa larger) took place during dust storms (DS‐1, DS‐A, DS‐C, DS‐NPC). We also made a tentative identification of the impact of other phenomena, such as the dust spirals that develop at North Polar Cap edge (producing amplitudes ∼2.5 Pa) and the Double Annular Cyclone DAC (∼1.2 Pa). The details of the different cases studied in the images are presented in the following sections. We have calculated the period of these oscillations as in paper 1 from the time separation between consecutive peaks. The result is shown in Figure 3b. The dominant period is between 2 and 4 sols, with a mean value of 3.8 ±1.9 sol. 6. Imaging Synoptic and Planetary‐Scale Disturbances In this section, we classify and study the different types of synoptic and planetary‐scale atmospheric phenomena visible in VMC/MEX and MARCI/MRO images, and look for their possible relationship with the pressure observations previously described. We focus on disturbances in the Northern Hemisphere, but we also consider regional dust storms propagating from the South. Sánchez‐Lavega et al. (2024) present a schematic classification of the main Martian atmospheric disturbances. In the specific case of the Dust Storms, an analysis of their statistics, size and aerographical and temporal distribution during this same Martian year (MY 36) can be found in Guha et al. (2024). Figure 3. Seasonal evolution of the long‐period pressure oscillations (>1 sol) at Jezero over one Martian Year. (a) Detrended pressure with some of the phenomena discussed in the text identified by their acronyms. Dust storm spirals at the edge of the North Pole Cap and the double annular cyclone (DAC) took place along the sols between magenta and green bars, respectively. The dust storms 1 (DS1), A (DS‐A), C (DS‐C) took place along the sols between blue bars. (b) Period of the oscillations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 6 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6.1. North Pole Edge Dust Cyclones (Ls =0°–90°) Intense atmospheric activity occurs at the edge of the North Polar Cap during the spring season. Dust storms with a variety of shapes (irregular, textured, arcs and spirals) and sizes ranging from ∼1,000 to 2,000 km form and disappear on short temporal scales of 1–3 sols (Barnes et al., 2017; Guzewich et al., 2015; Heavens, 2017; Hinson & Wang, 2010; Kahre et al., 2017; Montabone et al., 2015; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018a,2022,2024) (Figure 4). They are identified as “Storms NP edge” in the pressure amplitude oscillations (Figure 3a). There can appear up to 4–6 cyclones per latitude band (Figure 4b), with some long arcs reaching lengths of ∼4,000 km. In some cases there are water‐ice cloud fields are associated with these storms (Figures 4c and 4d), indicating that the disturbances extend from the surface (where they lift the dust) to the middle atmosphere where they form condensation clouds. The most intense activity takes place in the longitude sector 310°E–330°E and in latitudes 50°N–80°N, following the retreat of the North Polar Cap (Figure 5). These storms move predominantly eastward, sometimes with a northward component (direction indicated by arrows in Figure 5). We have measured averaged translation velocities <V>= +20 to +35 ms −1 for the arc‐shaped features (VMC/MEX images, sols 16–38, L s =14°–25°, Figure 4. Selected cyclone dust storms at the North Polar Cap edge (L s =0°–45°) are marked with black arrows in (a)–(b). (a) 30 March 2021, sol =39, L s =24.5° (VMC/MEX). (b) Polar map showing a series of five storms, 31 March 2021, sol =40, Ls =24.9° (MARCI/MRO). (c) 31 March 2021, sol =40, Ls =24.9° (MARCI/MRO). This is the same storm as in (a), and the leftmost in (b). (d) 17 May 2021, sol =86, Ls =46.4° (MARCI/MRO). The blue arrows in panels (c)–(d) show the accompanying water ice clouds. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 7 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License March 2021) and <V≥3 to 16 ms −1 for 10 spiral cyclones (MARCI/MRO images between sols 40 and 800 (L s =25°–43°, April–May 2021). Taking into account that the time intervals are longer than one day and that the resolution of MARCI images is ∼1 km (nadir view) and of VMC ∼5–10 km (average MEX distance to Mars), the errors in the velocity measurements are very low. However, we estimate that intrinsic changes in the shape of the tracers and in the cursor pointing can give velocity errors of 1–2 ms −1 . The shortest distance to Perseverance reached by one of these spirals was ∼2,600 km in sol 40 (L s ∼25°, 31 March 2021). 6.2. Double‐Annular Cyclone (DAC) (L s =120°–140°) The DAC is a seasonally recurrent disturbance that forms at dawn in the longitude range ∼270°–330°E and at subpolar latitudes near 60°N, dissipating during diurnal hours, and reappearing again the next sol (Cantor et al., 2002,2010; Gierasch et al., 1979; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018b). Its vorticity is cyclonic with measured tangential velocities ∼5–20 ms −1 (±1 ms −1 ) at 10 km altitude. It appears sometimes as a single ring of water‐ice clouds (marked as “center” in Figure 6) and sometimes with two coupled cyclones (east and west), each with a size of 600–800 km (Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018b). During MY 36, it was observed from L s ∼116°–134° (sols 239–276) (Figure 6). The western cyclone was placed at latitudes 60°N to 66°N and slightly northward from the eastern cyclone at latitudes 58°N to 62°N, with both occupying a large zonal extent in longitude from ∼255°E to 345°E. Their centers remained separated by about 1,550 km. Both cyclones moved northeast with mean velocities <V>= +0.5 to +3.7 m/s (derived from tracking their centers on MARCI images). The shortest distance to Perseverance reached by the eastern cyclone was ∼4,500 km in sol 278 (L s ∼135°, 30 November 2021). 6.3. Aphelion Cloud Belt (L s =55°–140°) The Aphelion Cloud Belt (ACB) develops progressively during the aphelion season, when dust content is minimum (Clancy et al., 2017; Wang & Ingersoll, 2002; Wolff et al., 2019). Water‐ice clouds form over the Figure 5. (a) Latitude location and displacement of dust storms (arcs, spirals, irregular shape) at the edge of the North Polar Cap for L s =0°–90° (dot: center of the feature). The same feature is identified by a black line joining consecutive dots. (b) Map showing the tracks (black line joining dots) of the storms shown in panel (a). The arrows mark the motion direction. The location of Perseverance is indicated by the blue‐outlined white disk. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 8 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License volcanos and cover a great part of the equatorial band between latitudes ∼30°N and 20°S, with a large cloud concentration from longitudes 220°E to 360°E (Figure 7a). Inspection of MARCI images during this period shows the central part of the Syrtis Major area covered with water‐ice clouds toward L s ∼100°, with a higher density of clouds reaching Jezero mostly on sols 284–305 (L s ∼138°–149°) (Figures 7b–7d), increasing the optical depth of the atmosphere (Lemmon et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2023). This is consistent with the high density cloud detection from L s ∼130°–150° by two different Perseverance instruments by Toledo et al. (2023) and Patel et al. (2023). The development of the ACB and the arrival of clouds at Jezero affected the diurnal and semidiurnal tides (Figures 2a, 2b, and 2g), which followed a complementary trend. Hinson and Wilson (2004) have shown the strong coupling that exist between the thermal tides and the radiatively active water ice clouds. With the beginning of the ACB period, S 1 decreased, becoming essentially null in sols 117–131 (L s ∼60°–67°) and in sols 189–199 (L s ∼93°–97°). Then, with clouds present in Jezero, S 1 has a maximum in sol 300 (L s ∼146°) followed by a minimum in sol 306 (L s ∼149°), with a maximum‐to‐minimum pressure change of 7 Pa. This behavior of S 1 follows the evolution of the cloud opacity measured by Toledo et al. (2023) and Patel et al. (2023) that found an increase in cloud opacity around L s ∼120°–150°. The S 2 component had two deep minima reaching essentially zero at the beginning of the ACB period in sols 46–57 (L s ∼28°–33°) and at its end in sols 287–290 (L s ∼139°– 141°), and was larger than the diurnal component during most of the ACB period. The phase of the diurnal component showed a deep and prolonged decrease of about 8 hr (1/3rd of the daily cycle) from sols 130–210 (L s ∼66°–102°) and then increased to a maximum in sols 235–286 (L s ∼114°–139°). In parallel, the phase of the semidiurnal component showed a drop of 4 hr (1/3rd of the semidiurnal cycle of 12 hr) starting in sol 230 (L s ∼112°) but with a deep minimum in sol 286 (L s ∼139°) just before the arrival of DS‐1. 6.4. Regional Dust Storm Over Jezero (L s =150°–156°) The first dust storm of the season in Jezero (DS‐1) initiated on 1 January 2022 (L s =150.7°, sol 308) close to the edge of the south polar cap (latitudes 35°S to 45°S and 95°E to 135°E) (Figure 8). The storm expanded rapidly Figure 6. The double annular cyclone (DAC). (a) and (b) Two views of DAC on 12 Nov. 2021 (sol 260, Ls =126°) (MARCI). (c) DAC well developed on 29 Oct. 2021 (sol 247, Ls =119.6°) (MARCI). (d) DAC on 17 Nov. 2021 (sol 265, Ls =128.6°) (VMC). (e) Plot showing the longitude location of the two DAC cyclones in time (West and East edges and Center). (f) Map showing the displacement in longitude and latitude of the two DAC components. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 9 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 571–574 (Figure 14b). These changes in S 1 occurred 3–4 sols before the optical depth reached its maximum value at Perseverance in sol 574, that is, while the dust was still propagating from the west toward Jezero (Section 6.7, Figure 12). A similar behavior was reported at Gale crater (Figure 11 in Zurita‐Zurita et al., 2022) suggesting that this is a robust dynamical coupling on a planetary scale. The semidiurnal amplitude underwent a drop of ∼2 Pa in S 2 in sol 568, that is, 3 sols after the onset of the storm, when the dust was still far from Jezero. This was followed by a sharp increase in S 2 to about 21 Pa, reaching the maximum in sol 576, while its phase shifted by 2–3 hr between sols 567 and 579. The changes in the phases of the diurnal and semidiurnal components occurred simultaneously (Figure 14b), but the maximum in S 1 occurred about 8 sols earlier than that of the S 2 (Figure 14a). The storm also affected the amplitude and phase of the terdiurnal component S 3 , but with small changes, close to the detection limit of the retrieval. Figure 14. Changes in the amplitude and phase of the tides during the evolution of Dust Storm C. (a) Amplitude of the diurnal, semidiurnal and terdiurnal components together with the optical depth evolution. (b) Same as panel (a) but for the tidal phases. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 16 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6.8. North Polar Edge Dust Cyclones (L s =335°–360° and 0°–17°) This is the start of a new season of formation of dust cyclones at the edge of the NPC, an activity that continues up to L s =90° (see Section 6.1). The first storm of the season was observed on 11 November 2022 (sol 615, L s =336.8°) centered at about 52°N and 162°E. Subsequently, new cyclonic storms were regularly observed at the edge of the NPC (see another example in Gebhardt et al., 2023). The most interesting cases are those in which the storm comes close enough to Jezero to introduce dust into the skies over Perseverance or to disturb the pressure measurements. One such case occurred between 18 and 27 December 2022 (sols 650–659, L s =356°– 0.7°) (Figure 15). A storm that we called DS‐NPC grew up north of Perseverance, evolving from a compact textured feature to an arc‐shaped storm. The disturbance moved eastward at 15 ms −1 and its center was ∼1,480 km north of Perseverance on sols 654–655 (Figures 15b and 15c). The edge of this storm was only 585 km Figure 15. A compact dust storm (arrow) evolving to an arc‐shape feature approaching Perseverance on MARCI images. (a) 21 December 2022 (Ls =357.7, sol 653); (b) 22 December 2022 (Ls =358.2, sol 654); (c) 23 December 2022 (Ls =358.7, sol 655); (d) 27 December 2022 (Ls =360.7, sol 659). In all these images LTST ∼14 hr. The blue‐outlined white disk marks the location of Perseverance. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 17 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License from Perseverance, close enough to inject dust over the rover. On sols 657–658 the optical depth data show a peak in opacity (Figure 1d) and the diurnal and semidiurnal amplitudes of the thermal tides raised their pressure by ∼9 Pa (sol 659, L s =0.4° in MY37) and by ∼2 Pa (sol 655, L s =358.4° in MY36) (Figures 2a and 2b), respectively. Although smaller in amplitude, this behavior remembers what was seen with major storms. However, their phases do not show a change in sols 650–660. There is a previous peak in opacity in sols 600–640, with a corresponding increase in the amplitude of the diurnal component, this time leaving no clear signal in the semidiurnal tide or in the phases. We did detect a tidal phase trend similar to previous storms in sol 703 (L s ∼22°), with the diurnal phase dropping ∼2 hr (∼1/12th diurnal cycle) and semidiurnal increasing by 3 hr (∼1/8th diurnal cycle) simultaneously (Figures 2a and 2b, 2b, and 2g). We think these phase changes are not related to storm DS‐ NPC because the time difference is around 40 sols. Later on, other storms formed regularly at the NPC and were observed up to the end of our imaging survey on 31 January 2023 (L s =17.4° in MY37, sol 693). It should be noted that these dust storms are also accompanied by clouds, probably formed along with the storm but at higher altitudes than where the dust is injected (see Section 6.1, Figure 4). 7. Discussion In this section, we study the effects and correlations between the synoptic and planetary‐scale disturbances presented in Section 6and the long‐period waves and tides as characterized from the surface pressure measurements by Perseverance presented in sections 3‐5. 7.1. Dust and Cloud Optical Depth and Their Effects on Tides We first examine the relationship between the amplitudes of the thermal tides and the aerosol content in the atmosphere as measured at Jezero. Figure 16a shows the comparison between the normalized amplitudes of the diurnal and semidiurnal components (i.e., the tide amplitude divided by the mean pressure in that sol) with the aerosol optical depth according to the empirical formulation proposed by Wilson et al. (2008) (and paper 1). The correlation between the seasonal variation of S 1 and S 2 with a linear function on τ is good for L s ∼130°–360°, that is, during the dusty period. However, no correlation is found in the range L s ∼0°–130° when S 1 and S 2 show opposed seasonal trends during the low‐dust period, when the contribution to the optical depth of the water‐ice clouds was significant (Patel et al., 2023; Smith et al., 2023; Toledo et al., 2023), and the total τ ∼constant (Figure 1d). The relationship between the seasonal variation of the combined tidal amplitudes and the total optical depth measured at Jezero is further explored in Figure 16b. Here, as in paper 1, we show that the observed pattern in the seasonal evolution of the optical depth is similar to that followed by a combination of a 50% of S 1 and S 2 components. This correlation slightly improves when the combination includes a mixture of S 1 to S 4 amplitudes in the following percentages: S 1 (27%), S 2 (53%), S 3 (16%) and S 4 (4%). 7.2. Long‐Period Waves We have seen in Sections 6.1, 6.2, and 6.8 that abundant cyclones develop at the NPC edge during the L s periods 335°–360° and ∼0°–140° (approximately the epoch of the ACB development). They evolve in the latitude band from ∼55°N to 75°N and follow the polar ice‐cap retreat (Figure 5). Most of these cyclones generate strong surface winds that lift the dust up to 6–11 km (Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2022). Other cyclones, such as the recurrent DAC (L s ∼120°–140°), do not lift dust but form clouds at heights ∼10–20 km (Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018b). If the observed pressure oscillations at Jezero, with amplitudes between 2 and 4 Pa and periods between 3 and 4 sols (Figure 3), are related to this cyclone activity, the radius of action of the low pressure disturbance associated with the cyclonic vorticity would be larger (by a factor 2–3) than the vortex size as traced by dust and clouds. From the measured size of the observed cyclones L ∼1,000–2,500 km we get wavenumbers n∼(πRMcos 600)/ L∼2−5 (assuming the cyclone size is half a wavelength) where R M is the radius of Mars. If we use the radius of action of the depression (indicated above) instead, then n∼1–3 which is in agreement with previous works (Barnes et al., 2017; Collins et al., 1996; Hinson & Wilson, 2021). Waves with periods in the range 2–5 sols (and wavenumbers 1–3) were also inferred from the signal lag in the pressure data measured at the same season at Jezero and at Gale crater by Curiosity (Battalio et al., 2022). The amplitude of the pressure oscillations increased dramatically around sol ∼300 (L s ∼146°) with the start of the dusty season, and particularly during the evolution of dust storms over Jezero, when peak to peak amplitude was Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 18 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License above 10 Pa (Figure 3). The largest amplitude was ∼22 Pa, and it was measured during the dust storm C on sols ∼560 to 580 (L s =307°–312°) just before the dust reached its maximum optical depth at Jezero (Figures 1d and 14a). Battalio and Wang (2020) studied the evolution of eddy activity during large‐scale dust storms. Here, we have analyzed the behavior of the pressure oscillations along the Martian Year 36 at Perseverance location by conducting simulations with the LMD Martian PCM (Planetary Climate Model) (Forget et al., 1999) following the method described in Lewis et al. (1999) and Millour et al. (2022). Figure 17 shows pressure oscillations as obtained from the simulation in the region of Jezero crater when filtering the pressure data from the diurnal mean and seasonal trend. The simulation described in this section was carried out with a 64 ×48 lat/lon grid Figure 16. Relationships between the amplitudes of the thermal tides and the aerosol optical depth. (a) Normalized amplitudes of the diurnal S 1 and semidiurnal S 2 and their relation with a linear function of the optical depth given by 1.6τ+0.3. (b) Relationship between the optical depth and two combinations of the amplitudes of the tides. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 19 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License (2.8° ×7.5°, latitude x longitude), and 36 vertical levels, with a vertical resolution decreasing from 5 m near the surface to 10 km at the model top (∼80 km). The physical time‐step is ∼7 min and we use windows of 10° in L S (in steps of 0.5°). The reference simulation is performed with two‐moment aerosol sizes distributions for water ice and dust. Dust particles are represented by a lognormal particle size distribution with an effective variance of 0.5 and an effective particle radius of 3 μm. This choice is driven by better agreement between simulated and observed opacities. The simulation has been carried out over multiple annual cycles for MY36 using the available MCS‐ and EMIRS‐derived column opacity maps for that year (Montabone et al., 2023), as a constraint for the simulation to match. In practice, dust is injected from the surface into the PBL when the simulated dust column opacity is lower than that in the column opacity map so that the aerosol and temperature distributions could reach a seasonally equilibrated state. We use radiatively active dust, water vapor and water ice clouds. The period of the Figure 17. Pressure oscillations obtained from a PCM simulation in MY36 in the region of Jezero crater, calculated as residuals between the simulated mean daily pressure and the mean pressure over a 10‐sols sliding window (seasonal trend). Upper plot shows the amplitude and the lower plot shows the period. The resulting oscillations are mostly due to the baroclinic activity. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 20 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License model simulated oscillations range from ∼2 sols (sol range ∼380–470, Ls =190°–248°) to ∼8–20 sols (sol range 180–290, Ls =89°–141°). Overall, the model reproduces the main trend observed with MEDA (Figure 3), with low amplitude oscillations obtained during the first half (“clear season”) of the Martian year and larger amplitude oscillations obtained during the second half (“dusty season”). The seasonal trend in the peak‐to‐peak periods and amplitudes predicted by the model agrees well with that observed for the range of sols ∼10–150 (with periods 4–5 ±1.5sols) and ∼340–700 (with periods 3–4 ±1 sols). As observed, the atmospheric waves have large amplitudes during the dusty season. It could be tempting to assign the oscillations observed during the period from L s ∼337° (sol 615) to L s ∼44° (sol 80, MY36) to the transient dust cyclone activity at the NPC edge (Figures 4, 5 and 14). The model and observations are consistent in this period within the global trend, although the model predicts higher amplitudes than observed (Figures 3and 17). Clarification of this point would require new simulations, which is beyond the scope of this paper. Baroclinic instability induces waves with periods <8 sols as observed by sensors on landers (Banfield et al., 2020; Barnes, 1980,1981,1984; Barnes et al., 1993; Haberle et al., 2018; Zurita‐Zurita et al., 2022). The observations and measured properties of cyclones from orbit (Banfield et al., 2004; Battalio et al., 2022; Greybush et al., 2019) are compatible with their baroclinic origin (Barnes, 1984; Battalio & Wang, 2020; Hinson & Wilson, 2021; Hollingsworth & Kahre, 2014; Hunt & James, 1979; Sánchez‐Lavega et al., 2018b,2022). Here, we use the maximum growth rate of baroclinic disturbances in Mars' northern hemisphere to assess the development of the observed cyclones at the North Polar Cap edge. A useful estimate of the growth rate is given by the baroclinic index, defined as (Battalio et al., 2016; James & Gray, 1986; Lembo et al., 2017; Lindzen & Farrell, 1980): σBI =0.31 f N    ∂U ∂z    (1) here f=2Ω sin φis the Coriolis parameter with φthe latitude and Ω =7.08 ×10 −5 s −1 the angular rotation velocity of Mars, N2(z) = g T(z)[dT dz (z) + g Cp]is the Brunt‐Väisäla frequency where we used for the adiabatic gradient g/C p =4.5 K km −1 , and ∂U ∂zis the vertical shear of the zonal wind velocity (U). Although Equation 1was derived for a constant vertical wind shear, Lindzen and Farrell (1980) argue its more general validity. We preserve in Equation 1the coefficient 0.31 to get the approximate time‐scales involved in the growth rate of the baroclinic disturbances in Mars. To calculate the baroclinic index σ BI , we use the MCD for standard climatology and average solar conditions to get the temperature and zonal wind maps (latitude‐altitude), T(z,φ) and U(z,φ), at the Perseverance longitude and for LTST ranging from 7 to 12 hr. We selected the values of L s for representative cases of the observed wave activity. We then calculate the mean N(z) and (dU/dz) (z) in the latitude range ∼55°N– 65°N where the peak velocity of the northern eastward jet stream is predicted. Figure 18 shows the vertical profiles of the growing time of the instability (the inverse of the baroclinic index σ BI ) for the selected L s periods at 10:00 LTST. Globally, we can divide the behavior of the growing time profiles into two periods. In the first part of the year, for L s ∼45°–135°, the fastest growing time occurs at two heights ∼4 and 22 km. Closer to the surface, the temperature profile in the model is convectively unstable even at 07:00 LTST in the morning. The observation of the dust spirals and similar features in this epoch (Figures 4, 5 and 15) suggests that the baroclinic instability actually extends near the surface where the dust cyclones form and the vortex winds raise the dust (Hollingsworth & Kahre, 2014; Mulholland et al., 2016). During the dusty period (L s ∼180°–360°), the amplitude of the surface pressure oscillations measured by Perseverance increases as does the amount of dust in the atmosphere (Figures 3and 17). The growing time of baroclinic waves in this period has its fastest values very close to the surface at LTST 7–12 hr and is quite constant with altitude above 4 km. This time of the year corresponds to the polar night in the northern hemisphere and to the development of the North Polar Hood. 8. Summary We have used the Martian year 36 as a case study of the relationship between surface pressure measurements and the development of medium and large scale atmospheric phenomena in the northern hemisphere of Mars observed in orbital images. Our most relevant findings are Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 21 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License •Thermal tides: In the dusty period (broadly, L s ∼130°–360°), the amplitudes of the diurnal and semidiurnal components of the daily pressure cycle correlate with the optical depth measured at Jezero and with the development of dust storm events near Jezero. No correlation is found from L s ∼0°–130°, coinciding with the development of the ACB. The amplitudes of the tidal components 3 and 5 on the one hand, and 4 and 6 on the other, follow a similar behavior. The seasonal evolution of the aerosol optical depth correlates well with a combination of 50% of the amplitudes of the diurnal and semidiurnal components. The correlation improves when combining the amplitudes of the four components with various empirical weights dominated as before by the contribution of the semidiurnal and diurnal tides. The increase in optical depth produced by water ice clouds correlates well with an increase in the amplitude of the diurnal component and with a pronounced drop in the semidiurnal component. •Dust Cyclones. Spiral, irregular and comma‐arc vortices traced by dust were observed at the edge of the North Polar Cap (50°N–80°N) in the L s ranges ∼0°–90°, 160°–190°, 335°–360° (MY 36) and 0°–17° (MY 37). Their typical size is L ∼1,000–2,000 km and the most active area where they grow is the Acidalia Planitia (longitude ∼330°E). These vortices evolve at distances from Perseverance ∼1,500 km (closest) to 4,500 km (on average). They are most probably behind the pressure oscillations detected at Perseverance with amplitudes of ∼1.5–4 Pa (amplitudes increasing with dust content in the atmosphere) and periods 2–4 sols. One of them (DS‐NPC at L s ∼357°–360°) reached Perseverance, leaving its imprint in the diurnal and semidiurnal tides. Their properties agree with a baroclinic origin and their amplitudes and periods agree with the Martian PCM predictions. •Double Annular Cyclone (DAC). The recurrent DAC, traced by water ice particles, was observed from L s ∼120°–140° at subpolar latitudes near 60°N. This peculiar disturbance, of baroclinic origin, grows and dissipates within each sol, while it translates slowly eastward, evolving at large distances from Perseverance (4,500 km to 7,000 km along a latitude circle). The pressure oscillations detected by Perseverance in this period present a small amplitude (<2 Pa) and it is uncertain whether the DAC contributes to them. •Aphelion Cloud Belt. The development of the ACB and the cloud arrival at Jezero possibly affected the diurnal and semidiurnal tides. The diurnal component was null at L s ∼60°–67° and in L s ∼93°–97° but reached a maximum at L s ∼146° when clouds were over Jezero, a trend consistent with measurements of the water‐ice cloud optical depth. The phase of the diurnal component underwent a significant decrease of about 8 hr (1/3rd of the daily cycle) from L s ∼66°–102° and then a maximum at L s ∼114°–139°. The amplitude of the semidiurnal component was zero at the beginning of the ACB at L s ∼28°–33° and at its end at L s ∼139°–141°, and has a maximum in between. In parallel, the phase showed a drop of 4 hr (1/6th of the daily cycle) starting at L s ∼112° and with a pronounced minimum at L s ∼139° when clouds arrived at Jezero. Comparatively, the behavior of the diurnal and semidiurnal components, both in amplitude and phase, followed a complementary trend. •Dust Storms on Jezero. Four episodes injected dust at the location of Perseverance. (a) The first regional storm (DS‐1) took place from L s ∼150°–156°. Expansion velocities were of around 20‐25 ms −1 , reaching an area of 4.1–8.7 ×10 6 km 2 . (b) The recurrent event A (DS‐A) took place between L s ∼205°–235°. (c) The recurrent storm C (DS‐C) took place between L s ∼308°–318° showing a complex expansion behavior with velocities between 16 and 26 ms −1 (±1‐2 ms −1 ), reaching a regional scale with an area ∼2.9 ×10 7 km 2 . The dust altitude was ∼30 km at the latitude of Perseverance, but in the south it reached 60–80 km. (d) The fourth was a spiral storm (DS‐NPC) that evolved at the edge of the North Polar Cap at L s ∼1 (MY37). •Dust Storms and tides. The four dust storms produced first a decrease and then a rapid increase in the amplitude of the diurnal and semidiurnal tides (by a factor ∼2, or ∼10–20 Pa). The phase of the diurnal component showed punctual decreases during the storms (∼2–3 hr, 1/12th‐1/8th of the daily cycle) except for the case of DS‐C that produced a full phase change of 24 hr. The phase of the semidiurnal component showed punctual increases during the four storms of ∼3 hr (1/8th of the daily cycle). In some cases, lags of 1–3 sols Figure 18. Vertical profiles of the growing times of baroclinic disturbances associated with the northern eastward jet stream centered at latitude ∼60°N at the longitude of the Perseverance rover (77.5°E) and at LTST =10 hr for selected values of the solar longitude L s (based on MCD data). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1029/2024JE008565 SÁNCHEZ‐LAVEGA ET AL. 22 of 26 21699100, 2025, 1, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008565 by Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Wiley Online Library on [09/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License occur between the maximum in the optical thickness and the maximum change in the tidal amplitudes and phases. Future work will aim to interpret the phenomena described here and their effect on surface pressure measurements by means of numerical models. Among other phenomena, we need to understand the relationship between the vertical and horizontal distribution of suspended dust and water‐ice clouds, the dust storm properties, and the amplitudes and phases in the surface pressure associated with the components of the thermal tides. Another future study is the development of models for the baroclinic cyclones generated at the edge of the NPC (such as the dust spirals and the DAC and other similar vortices) and the structure of their pressure field at large distances. Data Availability Statement The images from the VMC/MEX and MARCI/MRO cameras can be retrieved from the references MARCI images (2024) and VMC images (2024). The MEDA/Perseverance pressure measurements are available through Rodriguez‐Manfredi and de la Torre Juarez (2021). The software is available through the references ISIS‐ USGS (2024) and QGIS (2024). The Mars Climate Database (MCD) from LMD can be accessed at https://www‐ mars.lmd.jussieu.fr/mars/access.html. 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Transient eddies in the TES/MCS ensemble Mars atmosphere reanalysis system (EMARS). Icarus,317, 158–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2018.07.001 Acknowledgments This work has been supported by Grant PID2019‐109467GB‐I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/and by Grant PID2023‐149055NB‐C31 funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and FEDER, UE, and by Grupos de Investigacion del Gobierno Vasco IT‐ 1366‐19. Parts of this work were also funded by the Aula EspaZio Gela, which is supported by a grant from the Diputación Foral de Bizkaia (BFA). EL and JHB were supported by ESA Contract No. 4000118461/16/ES/JD, Scientific Support for Mars Express Visual Monitoring Camera and through the Faculty of the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) ‐ Funding reference ESAC‐531. The authors are very grateful to the entire Mars 2020 science operation team. 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