Ci a ion: Smi h-E xebe ia, K.;
Co es-Med ano, I.; Fe nandez-
Villanue a, I. Pa en al Di o ce
P ocess and Pos -Di o ce Pa en al
Beha io s and S a egies: Examining
Eme ging Adul Child en’s
A achmen -Rela ed Anxie y and
A oidance. In . J. En i on. Res. Public
Heal h 2022,19, 10383. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph191610383
Academic Edi o : Paul B. Tchounwou
Recei ed: 10 July 2022
Accep ed: 18 Augus 2022
Published: 20 Augus 2022
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In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Pa en al Di o ce P ocess and Pos -Di o ce Pa en al Beha io s
and S a egies: Examining Eme ging Adul Child en’s
A achmen -Rela ed Anxie y and A oidance
Kla a Smi h-E xebe ia * , I une Co es-Med ano and I zia Fe nandez-Villanue a
Depa men o Basic Psychological P ocesses and De elopmen , Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y, 20018 San Sebas ián, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The main goal o his s udy was o examine he ole o pa en al beha io s du ing bo h
he p ocess o di o ce and he pos -di o ce pe iod on eme ging adul child en’s a achmen - ela ed
anxie y and a oidance. Speci ically, we analyzed how ecalled copa en al espec and coope a ion,
in e pa en al con lic , posi i e pa en ing s a egies, and bo h pa en s’ emo ional s a e and ins abili y
om adul child en’s pe spec i e du ing he di o ce p ocess and he pos -di o ce pe iod we e
associa ed wi h eme ging adul child en’s cu en a achmen ep esen a ions. Ou sample consis ed
o 173 eme ging adul s (Mage = 22.01). The esul s o his s udy demons a e ha pa e nal copa en al
espec and coope a ion along wi h eedom p o ided by he mo he o alk abou he a he du ing
he di o ce p ocess and pos -di o ce pe iod we e bo h ela ed o lowe a achmen - ela ed a oidance.
Ou indings also con i m a signi ican link be ween some pa e nal posi i e a i udes du ing he
di o ce p ocess (i.e., eedom p o ided by he a he o alk abou he mo he ) and low a achmen -
ela ed anxie y. O e all, he esul s o his esea ch con i m ha beyond di o ce pe se, se e al
a iables su ounding he di o ce p ocess be e explain a ia ions in adul child en’s a achmen
ep esen a ions, which con ibu e o be e comp ehending he e ec s o pa en al di o ce.
Keywo ds:
pa en al di o ce; copa en al coope a ion and espec ; pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic ;
pa en al emo ional s a e and ins abili y; posi i e pa en ing; a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance;
eme ging adul child en
1. In oduc ion
E e y yea , a g owing numbe o child en unde go hei pa en s’ di o ce. Fo example,
in Spain, in app oxima ely 60% o all di o ce cases, di o cing couples ha e bo h unde age
and o e age child en [
1
]. Empi ical esea ch has shown ha pa en al di o ce b ings
se e al nega i e consequences in bo h he sho and he long e m. Compa ed o child en
om non-di o ced amilies, bo h child en and adolescen s show mo e in e nalizing and
ex e nalizing p oblems, lowe academic achie emen , o g ea e a achmen insecu i y in
he sho - e m [
2
–
5
]. In he long e m, he e is also ample e idence abou pa en al di o ce
as a isk ac o o adul child en. Mo eo e , on a e age, adul child en o di o ce show
lowe well-being le els, highe di o ce a es, poo ma i al quali y, less posi i e pa en –child
ela ionships, and mo e insecu e a achmen s yles and mo e nega i e in e nal wo king
models abou in ima e ela ionships han adul child en om non-di o ced amilies [
6
–
10
].
Ea ly a achmen in e ac ions and ca egi ing expe iences guide social and close ela-
ionships h oughou he li e span, and shape he de elopmen o wo king models abou
in ima e ela ionships in adul hood [
11
,
12
]. None heless, he pa en al ma i al ela ionship
quali y and dissolu ion may also con ibu e o adul child en’s a achmen ep esen a ions
and he quali y o hei subsequen ela ionships [
13
,
14
]. Since in e pa en al ela ionships
a e equen ly he i s model o oman ic ela ionships o child en, expe iencing he dis-
solu ion o he pa en al couple ela ionship could ha m young adul child en’s in e nal
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph191610383 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 2 o 14
wo king models and secu i y in hei in ima e ela ionships [
14
]. Fu he mo e, ela ionship
dis up ions in he amily o o igin du ing childhood migh in luence he ways in which
young adul s app oach oman ic ela ionships and hei men al ep esen a ions ega ding
hese ela ionships [
14
]. Tha is, pa en al di o ce o sepa a ion migh lead o he de elop-
men o maladap i e schemas abou in ima e ela ionships, such as nega i e expec a ions
owa ds being abandoned by o he s, which in u n has been posi i ely associa ed wi h
anxious and a oidan a achmen s yles in adul child en [15].
A la ge numbe o s udies ha e in es iga ed he impac o pa en al di o ce on adul
child en’s a achmen , heo e ically because o changes in he pa en –child a achmen
ela ionship ollowing di o ce [
16
,
17
]. Tha is, s esso s ha accompany pa en al di o ce
migh a ec pa en s’ abili y o be sensi i e o hei child en’s needs, leading o less se-
cu e pa en –child a achmen bonds. These nega i e changes in pa en –child a achmen
ela ionships migh in u n esul in a mo e insecu e oman ic a achmen among adul
child en [16,17].
In his ein, al hough se e al s udies ha e consis en ly concluded ha adul child en
om di o ced amilies, and especially women, a e mo e likely o be insecu ely a ached
han hei coun e pa s om non-di o ced amilies [
9
,
13
,
18
,
19
], he esul s a e mixed.
Fu he mo e, some o he s udies ha e ailed o eplica e hese esul s, by no inding
signi ican associa ions be ween pa en al di o ce and adul child en’s a achmen - ela ed
s a egies o ep esen a ions [
20
–
23
]. These con o e sial esul s ega ding he e ec s o
pa en al di o ce on adul child en’s a achmen - ela ed ep esen a ions migh be because
mos o hese s udies ha e analyzed pa en al di o ce as a single dicho omous a iable by
uniquely asking pa icipan s whe he hei pa en s we e sepa a ed o di o ced [
22
]. These
p io s udies ha e ailed o examine ci cums ances su ounding he di o ce p ocess and he
pos -di o ce pe iod ha migh be e explain a ia ions in he e ec s o pa en al di o ce on
adul child en’s a achmen - ela ed ep esen a ions. Thus, he lack o conclusi e indings
may indica e ha he e is ample a iabili y in he na u e o pa en al di o ce expe iences,
which migh ha e a global e ec on adul child en’s a achmen s yle, bu ha has no
been iden i ied [
24
]. Hence, one o ou main aims is o shed u he ligh on his issue, by
iden i ying ac o s su ounding he di o ce expe ience ha migh a ec adul child en’s
a achmen ep esen a ions.
Acco ding o he di o ce s ess-adjus men pe spec i e [
25
], di o ce in i sel does no
lead o nega i e consequences on amily membe s, bu a he o amily li e changes and
s ess ul ci cums ances su ounding di o ce ha inc ease he isk o a a ie y o p oblems
among child en. These s ess ul ac o s e e o p e- and pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic
le els, poo e ela ionship quali y wi h he cus odial pa en , lowe equency o con ac
wi h he non-cus odial pa en [
26
,
27
], lowe economic esou ces, and o he s ess ul e en s,
such as changing esidence [
28
]. Mo eo e , his pe spec i e de ines di o ce as a p ocess in
which se e al ac o s may mode a e child en’s eac ions o di o ce, and s esso s ela ed o
his expe ience migh media e he associa ion be ween pa en al di o ce and he nega i e
ou comes ound in child en ha can pe sis in o adul hood. The e o e, since ac o s ha
accompany his amily ansi ion e en migh help be e comp ehend adul child en’s
pos -di o ce adjus men , i is essen ial o examine he po en ial amily unc ioning a iables
in di o ced amilies ha shape adul child en’s pos -di o ce a ec i e well-being.
One pos -di o ce amily unc ioning a iable ha has ecei ed a g ea a en ion in he
li e a u e e e s o copa en ing. Copa en ing is unde s ood no only as he collabo a ion in
child ea ing o wo pa en al igu es who sha e he esponsibili ies o a leas one child, bu
also as he ac i e a emp o suppo each o he ’s pa en ing while main aining heal hy and
lexible bonds [
29
]. This kind o posi i e copa en al ela ionship, also named copa en al
espec and coope a ion, p omo es a posi i e ela ionship be ween he child and he o he
pa en , by also p o iding he child wi h he eedom o alk abou one pa en in on o he
o he , and leads o posi i e consequences in child en [29–31].
The e is obus e idence abou he e ec s o hese amily unc ioning dynamics on
bo h child en and adul s, al hough li le is known abou he po en ial oles ha pa en s’
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 3 o 14
gende play. Tha is, e y ew s udies ha e ocused on sepa a ely in es iga ing he e ec s
o mo he s’ and a he s’ copa en ing beha io s [
29
]. Likewise, e en i a ew s udies
ha e examined he consequences o pa en al beha io s in he pos -di o ce pe iod on
adul child en’s le el o a achmen secu i y, o ou knowledge, none ha e analyzed such
in luence by dis inguishing speci ic a achmen - ela ed ep esen a ions o dimensions (i.e.,
a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance). Hence, in his s udy, we ocus on he analysis
o he e ec s o each pa en ’s copa en al coope a ion and espec beha io s [
29
] on adul
child en’s a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance.
Despi e copa en al in e ac ions migh some imes be posi i e, hese in e ac ions in
di o ced amilies migh also be nega i e o an agonis ic in na u e (i.e., high le els o con lic
o /and unheal hy bonds wi h he child). In ac , e en hough pa en al di o ce may be
pe cei ed as a elie om an ad e se amily con ex (e.g., high le els o in e pa en al con lic )
ha p omp s posi i e consequences [
32
], high le els o pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic
ha e consis en ly been iden i ied as a isk pos -di o ce amily expe ience ha accoun s o
a iabili y in child en’s maladjus men [
33
]. Indeed, in 20–25% o di o ce cases, pa en s
display highly con lic ed copa en al beha io s [
34
], which ha e been cha ac e ized by poo
communica ion, li le coope a ion, mis us , and disag eemen s in decision making. In his
ega d, he e is ex ensi e li e a u e con i ming i s nega i e e ec on child en’s adjus men
( o a e iew, see [
33
]). Pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic migh be exp essed h ough
di ec in e ac ions, such as e bal and physical dispu es, o indi ec ly, such as badmou hing
he o he pa en o he child. This si ua ion migh cause nega i e ou comes in child en by
making hem eel caugh be ween bo h pa en s [
33
–
36
]. Fo example, i is qui e equen o
pu child en in middle o he con lic by badmou hing he o he pa en o he child o by
sending messages o he o he pa en h ough he child [28,37].
These nega i e amily in e ac ions, which may imply pa en s using he child in hei
con lic , also named iangula ion o ocusing on he child as he sou ce o hei disag ee-
men s (i.e., scapegoa ), migh lead o loyal y con lic s in he child, whe e being loyal o
one pa en in ol es being disloyal o he o he [
38
,
39
]. This pu s p essu e on he child
o ake sides in he con lic h ough he a emp o one pa en o o m alliances wi h he
child agains he o he pa en [
40
]. This phenomenon has been concep ualized in di e -
en ways, such as pa en al in e e ence, in which pa en s u ilize beha io s, s a egies, o
ac ions o hinde and damage he ela ionship o he child wi h he o he pa en [
41
]. In
an ex eme pa en al in e e ence si ua ion, he child migh lose con ac wi h and ejec he
o he pa en [42].
P io s udies demons a e ha child en who a e exposed o such nega i e pa en al
a i udes du ing he di o ce p ocess and he pos -di o ce pe iod show ange , guil , hos-
ili y, impulse con ol p oblems, low sel -con idence and sel -es eem, anxie y, dep ession,
di icul ies in pe sonal and social ela ionships, and diminished academic pe o mance ( o
a e iew, see [
41
]). Al hough he e is less e idence ega ding he long- e m implica ions
o his phenomenon in adul child en, a ew s udies conduc ed in his de elopmen al
pe iod ha e ound nega i e emo ional, psychological, and a ec i e consequences. These
include high anxie y and dep ession; low sel -es eem, sel -su iciency, li e sa is ac ion, and
quali y; along wi h nega i e pa en –child ela ionships and insecu e a achmen in in ima e
ela ionships ( o a e iew, see [41]).
In addi ion o heigh ened in e pa en al con lic in he pos -di o ce pe iod o some
amilies, s esso s associa ed wi h he di o ce p ocess migh also nega i ely a ec pa en s’
well-being and emo ional s a e, which, in u n, may ha e a nega i e impac on child en’s
adjus men . In ac , di o ced pa en s epo highe le els o dep ession, anxie y, and un-
happiness, which migh , in u n, nega i ely a ec child en’s adjus men o di o ce [
43
],
since a dec ease in pa en al adjus men may in luence he abili y o pa en s o pa en
e ec i ely [
44
]. A e di o ce, child en a e especially likely o need emo ional suppo ,
and in he ace o socioemo ional and economic dis ess, pa en s a e less likely o p o ide
i e ec i ely [
43
]. Indeed, he ansi ion pe iod ollowing di o ce has been cha ac e ized
as a chao ic and s ess ul pe iod o mos amilies. This s ess ul pe iod usually dis u bs
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 4 o 14
he pa en –child ela ionship and leads o dis up ions in pa en ing beha io s. Fu he -
mo e, esea ch shows ha di o ce gene ally leads o a de e io a ion o posi i e pa en ing
s a egies (e.g., esponsi eness) and an inc ease in nega i e pa en ing s a egies (e.g., ha sh-
ness) in bo h cus odial and non-cus odial pa en s [
43
]. Fo example, cus odial pa en s a e
mo e p one o be inconsis en and mo e puni i e ollowing di o ce, whe eas noncus odial
pa en s end o ha e a diminished le el o con ol o e hei child en [43].
Thus, in he s udy o he e ec s o hese amily expe iences, i is necessa y o ake
in o conside a ion di o ce no as a uni o m expe ience, bu as a p ocess in which se e al
ac o s su ounding his p ocess migh explain he di e si y o child en’s eac ions o
di o ce and he e ec s on hem. In his s udy, we analyze some a iables o he p ocess
o di o ce om eme ging adul child en’s pe spec i e and e ospec i e accoun s, such
as changes in pa en ing, pa en s’ beha io s owa ds he o he pa en in on o he child,
pa en s’ nega i e emo ional s a e and emo ional ins abili y du ing he di o ce p ocess,
and con inued con lic be ween pa en s in he pos -di o ce pe iod, in o de o s udy hei
associa ion wi h young adul child en’s a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance.
Cu en S udy
By examining he ole o pa en al beha io s and emo ional s a e du ing he di o ce
p ocess in eme ging adul child en’s a achmen , we aimed o con ibu e o he li e a u e in
se e al ways. Fi s , al hough he associa ions be ween pa en al di o ce and adul child en’s
a achmen ha e been ex ensi ely in es iga ed, hese indings ha e been inconclusi e,
mainly because, as a as we know, limi ed a en ion has been gi en o he s udy o di o ce
p ocess a iables, such as hose e e ing o copa en al beha io s o pa en s’ emo ional s a e
and ins abili y on child en’s adjus men . Fu he mo e, he e ec s o hese di o ce p ocess
a iables ha e been e en less widely examined on eme ging adul child en’s a achmen
ep esen a ions. Finally, sca ce s udies ha e been conduc ed in o de o in es iga e hese
e ec s in Spain. Thus, he main goal o his s udy was o analyze he associa ion be ween
some pa en al beha io al a iables associa ed wi h he pa en al di o ce p ocess, assessed
e ospec i ely om eme ging adul child en’s pe spec i e, and young adul child en’s
a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance. Based on he e ised li e a u e and he main
goal o his s udy, he ollowing hypo heses a e es ed:
Hypo hesis 1 (H1).
Each pa en ’s posi i e beha io s du ing he di o ce p ocess will be associa ed
wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance in young adul child en. Speci ically, we
expec ed ha bo h pa en s’ copa en al coope a ion and espec would be associa ed wi h lowe
a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance. In addi ion, we expec ed ha bo h pa en s’ con inued
posi i e pa en ing and eedom p o ided by each pa en o he child o alk abou he o he would be
associa ed wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed insecu i y.
Hypo hesis 2 (H2).
Bo h pa en s’ nega i e emo ional s a e ins abili y h oughou he di o ce p ocess
will be associa ed wi h highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance in young adul child en.
Hypo hesis 3 (H3).
Con inued in e pa en al con lic du ing he pos -di o ce pe iod will be
associa ed wi h highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance in young adul child en.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Pa icipan s and P ocedu e
The cu en s udy is pa o a la ge s udy wi h a b oade sample ha ocused on
analyzing and compa ing he e ec s o pa en al di o ce and con lic on se e al social
and a ec i e a iables in eme ging adul s om di o ced and non-di o ced amilies. This
in es iga ion only included eme ging adul s om di o ced amilies. Pa icipan s wi h
missing da a o who did no mee he equi emen o being young adul s (i.e., be ween
18 and 30 yea s) we e excluded. Hence, he analy ic sample included 173 unde g adua e
and oca ional school s uden s om he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y.
All o hem belonged o a he e osexual di o ced amily. Mean age a ime o di o ce
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 5 o 14
was 10.83 yea s. The majo i y o esponden s epo ed ha hei mo he was hei main
cus odial pa en (72.8%), ollowed by bo h pa en s (11.6%), he a he (9.2%), and o he s
(2.9%). The a e age age o esponden s was 22.01 yea s (SD = 3.12), and 59.5% (n= 103)
o pa icipan s we e women. 54.4% (n= 94) we e in a commi ed oman ic ela ionship
(M ela ionship du a ion = 34.13 mon hs), o which 16.2% cohabi ed wi h hei pa ne
(M ela ionship du a ion = 50.21 mon hs).
Responden s we e in o med in class abou he main goals o he s udy, and pa icipa ed
olun a ily a e signing a consen o m. All da a we e collec ed in pe son and in g oup.
Da a collec ion ook app oxima ely 30 min. All u ilized measu es we e adminis e ed
in Spanish. This s udy was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee in Human Resea ch a
he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (e hical app o al code: CEISH/153/2012/SMITH
ECHEBARRIA).
2.2. Measu es
Pa icipan s’ pe cep ions and ecollec ions o pa en al beha io s du ing he di o ce
p ocess we e assessed h ough h ee scales, designed speci ically o his s udy. P io o
his s udy, we conduc ed a pilo s udy o es he psychome ic p ope ies o hese scales.
A e ewo ding some i ems and dele ing o he s based on psychome ic and heo e ical
c i e ia, we designed a de ini e measu e consis ing o h ee di e en scales o his s udy.
He eunde , we p o ide a desc ip ion o each o hese scales.
The i s scale, Ma e nal Posi i e Beha io al S a egies du ing he Di o ce P ocess scale
(MPBSDP), consis ed o nine i ems. An Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA) and subsequen
Con i ma o y Fac o Analysis (CFA) con i med a h ee- ac o s uc u e. These ac o s
include he ollowing: ma e nal copa en al coope a ion and espec ( ou i ems;
α
= 0.86;
e.g., “My mo he con eyed espec and accep ance owa ds my a he ”); con inua ion o
ma e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies ( h ee i ems;
α
= 0.87; e.g., “My mo he con inued o
exe cise he ole as a mo he in he same way: helping me, lo ing me, paying a en ion o
me, wo ying abou my p oblems, e c.”); and eedom p o ided by he mo he o he child
o alk abou he a he ( wo i ems;
α
= 0.90; e.g., “I could exp ess posi i e eelings owa ds
my a he in on o my mo he ”). Fi indices o he CFA we e
χ2
(22) = 46.16; p< 0.01,
RMSEA = 0.08; NNFI = 0.98; CFI = 0.98; and SRMR = 0.04.
The second scale, Pa e nal Posi i e Beha io al S a egies du ing he Di o ce P ocess
scale (PPBSDP), consis ed o nine i ems assessing he ollowing h ee ac o s: pa e nal
copa en al coope a ion and espec ( ou i ems;
α
= 0.85; e.g., “My a he con eyed espec
and accep ance owa ds my mo he ”); con inua ion o pa e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies
( h ee i ems;
α
= 0.87; e.g., “My a he con inued o exe cise his ole as a a he in he same
way: helping me, lo ing me, paying a en ion o me, wo ying abou my p oblems, e c.”);
and eedom p o ided by he a he o he child o alk abou he mo he ( wo i ems;
α
= 0.94 e.g., “I could exp ess posi i e eelings owa ds my mo he in on o my a he ”).
Fi indices o he CFA we e
χ2
(21) = 38.03; p< 0.05, RMSEA = 0.07; NNFI = 0.98; CFI = 0.99;
and SRMR = 0.043.
Finally, a hi d scale, named Pa en al Nega i e Emo ional S a e (PNES), assessed bo h
mo he s’ and a he s’ nega i e emo ional s a e and ins abili y associa ed wi h di o ce.
A wo- ac o s uc u e was con i med h ough an EFA and subsequen CFA: ma e nal
nega i e emo ional s a e ( ou i ems;
α
= 0.90) and pa e nal nega i e emo ional s a e ( ou
i ems;
α
= 0.83). Sample i ems included “My mom/dad was sad and downcas ”, “My
mom/dad had equen mood swings”. Fi indices o he CFA we e
χ2
(17) = 26.11; p< 0.05,
RMSEA = 0.055; NNFI = 0.98; CFI = 0.99; and SRMR = 0.047.
Pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic was assessed wi h a single i em by asking pa ici-
pan s o indica e he le el o con lic s be ween hei pa en s du ing he pos -di o ce pe iod
om 1 (= no con lic s) o 4 (= equen con lic s).
A achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance we e e alua ed wi h he Expe iences in
Close Rela ionships scale (ECR: [
45
]). Since ou sample comp ised bo h eme ging adul s
in ol ed and no in ol ed in a commi ed oman ic ela ionship, we modi ied some i ems
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 6 o 14
and he ins uc ions p o ided o pa icipan s, so ha i could be applicable o one’s gene al
o ien a ion in oman ic ela ionships, o o one’s global “a achmen s yle” [
46
] (p. 84).
In his sample,
α
o a oidance was 0.88 (18 i ems; e.g., “I p e e no o show a pa ne
(signi ican o he ) how I eel deep down”) and 0.87 o anxie y (18 i ems; e.g., “I wo y ha
oman ic pa ne s (o he s) won’ ca e abou me as much as I ca e abou hem”). Responses
o each i em ange om 1 (disag ee s ongly) o 7 (ag ee s ongly).
Finally, some demog aphic cha ac e is ics, such as pa icipan s’ gende (male = 1;
emale = 0) and age, we e accoun ed o as co a ia es.
2.3. Da a Analysis Plan
S a is ical analyses we e conduc ed using IBM SPSS 24, om IBM co po a ion (Chicago,
IL, USA). P io o he main s a is ical analyses, independen sample es s we e pe o med
be ween hose in ol ed and no in ol ed in a commi ed ela ionship on a achmen -
ela ed a oidance and anxie y, and no signi ican di e ences we e ound. Compa isons
we e also made o sex, bu no signi ican di e ences we e ound. The e o e, all he
s a is ical analyses we e conduc ed using he whole sample. Fi s , desc ip i e s a is ics
and bi a ia e co ela ions we e calcula ed using he a e age sco e o each indica o (see
Tables 1and 2). Nex , a se o hie a chical mul iple eg essions we e un on a achmen -
ela ed anxie y and a oidance in o de o analyze he p edic i e abili y o each pa en ’s
posi i e s a egies owa ds he o he du ing he di o ce p ocess, each pa en ’s nega i e
emo ional s a e associa ed wi h he p ocess o di o ce, and pos -di o ce in e pa en al
con lic . Because c oss-gende pa en –child dyads in amily pa en i ica ion p ocesses migh
play a di e en ial ole in eme ging adul child en’s oman ic ela ionships [
47
], ini ially,
in e ac ions wi h child’s gende we e also es ed. Gi en ha hese esul ed non-signi ican ,
in e ac ions wi h child’s gende we e no included in ou eg ession models. Con ol
a iables we e en e ed in Model 1. Model 2 included he h ee ac o s associa ed wi h bo h
ma e nal and pa e nal posi i e s a egies du ing he di o ce p ocess, and he sub-scales o
ma e nal and pa e nal nega i e emo ional s a e ela ed o di o ce. In Model 3, pos -di o ce
in e pa en al con lic was added.
Table 1. Desc ip i e in o ma ion o s udy a iables.
Cons uc s Indica o s M (SD) Range α
Ma e nal posi i e beha io s
Ma e nal
copa en al coop. 4.39 (1.44) 1–6 0.86
Ma e nal
posi i e
pa en ing
4.69 (1.39) 1–6 0.87
F eedom mo he
a he 4.46 (1.59) 1–6 0.90
Pa e nal posi i e beha io s
Pa e nal
copa en al coop. 4.36 (1.44) 1–6 0.85
Pa e nal posi i e
pa en ing 3.80 (1.68) 1–6 0.87
F eedom a he
mo he 4.11 (1.70) 1–6 0.94
Pa en al nega i e emo ional s a e Mo he 3.36 (1.56) 1–6 0.90
Fa he 3.00 (1.40) 1–6 0.83
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 7 o 14
Table 1. Con .
Cons uc s Indica o s M (SD) Range α
Con inued pos -di o ce
in e pa en al con lic – 2.39 (1.16) 1–4 -
Cu en a achmen A oidance 2.51 (0.94) 1–7 0.88
Anxie y 3.62 (0.99) 1–7 0.87
Ma e nal copa en al coop. = ma e nal copa en al coope a ion and espec ; Ma e nal posi i e pa en ing = con in-
ua ion o ma e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies; F eedom mo he a he = eedom p o ided by he mo he o
alk abou he a he ; Pa e nal copa en al coop. = pa e nal copa en al coope a ion and espec ; Pa e nal posi i e
pa en ing = con inua ion o pa e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies; F eedom a he mo he = F eedom p o ided by
he a he o alk abou he mo he .
Table 2. Co ela ions among he s udy a iables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Ma e nal copa en al coop 1
2. Ma e nal posi i e pa en ing 0.59 ** 1
3. F eedom mo he a he 0.66 ** 0.59 ** 1
4. Pa e nal copa en al coop. 0.36 ** 0.21 ** 0.17 * 1
5. Pa e nal posi i e pa en ing 0.04 0.09 0.25 ** 0.50 ** 1
6. F eedom a he mo he 0.17 * 0.27 ** 0.46 ** 0.52 ** 0.66 ** 1
7. Ma e nal nega i e emo. s a e −0.50 ** −0.62 ** −0.37 ** −0.18 * −0.10 −0.14 1
8. Pa e nal nega i e emo. s a e −0.12 −0.07 0.01 −0.55 ** −0.45 ** −0.40 ** 0.22 ** 1
9. Pos -di o ce in e pa en al con . −0.32 ** −0.08 −0.16 * −0.39 ** −0.29 ** −0.28 ** 0.20 * 0.25 ** 1
10. A achmen a oidance −0.04 −0.09 −0.13 −0.20 * −0.16 * −0.15 0.09 0.11 0.02 1
11. A achmen anxie y −0.18 * −0.18 * −0.21 ** −0.07 0.001 −0.14 0.25 ** 0.07 0.07 0.33 ** 1
Ma e nal copa en al coop. = ma e nal copa en al coope a ion and espec ; Ma e nal posi i e pa en ing = con in-
ua ion o ma e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies; F eedom mo he a he = eedom p o ided by he mo he o
alk abou he a he ; Pa e nal copa en al coop. = pa e nal copa en al coope a ion and espec ; Pa e nal posi i e
pa en ing = con inua ion o pa e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies; F eedom a he mo he = eedom p o ided
by he a he o alk abou he mo he ; Ma e nal nega i e emo. s a e = ma e nal nega i e emo ional s a e; Pa-
e nal nega i e emo. s a e = pa e nal nega i e emo ional s a e; Pos -di o ce in e pa en al con . = pos -di o ce
in e pa en al con lic . * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01.
3. Resul s
3.1. Desc ip i e and Bi a ia e Analyses
Ma e nal posi i e beha io s owa ds he a he du ing he di o ce p ocess o encou -
age he child’s posi i e adjus men we e associa ed wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed anxie y.
Speci ically, p omo ing posi i e ela ionships wi h he a he ( =
−
0.18; p<0.05), he ma e -
nal posi i e con inued ole du ing he di o ce p ocess ( =
−
0.18; p< 0.05), and eedom
p o ided o he child o alk abou he a he ( =
−
0.21; p< 0.05) we e nega i ely co ela ed
wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed anxie y.
Fa he ’s posi i e beha io s owa ds he mo he du ing he pos -di o ce p ocess, in
u n, we e associa ed wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed a oidance in adul child en. Tha
is, no badmou hing he mo he o p omo ing a posi i e ela ionship wi h he mo he
( =
−
0.20; p< 0.05) and he pa e nal posi i e con inued ole du ing he di o ce p ocess
( =−0.16; p<.05) we e nega i ely co ela ed wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed a oidance.
Rega ding pa en s’ nega i e emo ional s a e and ins abili y du ing he di o ce p ocess,
ma e nal nega i e emo ional s a e was associa ed wi h highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y
( = 0.25; p< 0.01). Con inued in e pa en al con lic a e di o ce was no signi ican ly
co ela ed wi h ou ou come a iables.
3.2. Hie a chical Mul iple Reg essions
3.2.1. A achmen -Rela ed A oidance in Rela ionships
Resul s a e shown in Table 3. Adul child’s gende was associa ed wi h a achmen
ela ed a oidance, such ha males showed g ea e a achmen a oidance (Model 1). When
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 8 o 14
bo h pa en s’ emo ional s a e and pa en al beha io s associa ed wi h he p ocess o di-
o ce we e added (Model 2), pa e nal copa en al coope a ion and espec , such as no
badmou hing he mo he o p omo ing a posi i e ela ionship wi h he mo he , we e asso-
cia ed wi h lowe a achmen - ela ed a oidance (
β
=
−
0.27; p< 0.05). Likewise, eedom
p o ided by he mo he o hei child en o alk abou hei a he was associa ed wi h
lowe a achmen - ela ed a oidance (
β
=
−
0.25; p< 0.05). These e ec s emained e en
when con inued in e pa en al con lic in he pos -di o ce pe iod was added (Model 3).
Con a y o ou expec a ions, con inued in e pa en al con lic in he pos -di o ce pe iod
did no yield signi ican e ec s on a achmen ela ed a oidance (Model 3).
Table 3.
Summa y o hie a chical mul iple eg ession o some a iables ela ed o he pa en al
di o ce p ocess p edic ing a achmen - ela ed a oidance.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Va iable B SE B βB SE B βB SE B β
Con ol a iables
Gende (male) 0.44 0.15 0.23 ** 0.51 0.15 0.27 *** 0.50 0.15 0.26 ***
Age 0.04 0.03 0.13 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.02 0.09
Explana o y a iables
Ma e nal copa en al coope a ion 0.17 0.08 0.27 0.15 0.09 0.24
Ma e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies −0.003 0.08 −0.005 0.01 0.08 0.02
F eedom mo he a he −0.15 0.08 −0.26 * −0.15 0.08 −0.25 *
Pa e nal copa en al coope a ion −0.17 0.08 −0.26 * −0.17 0.08 −0.27 *
Pa e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies −0.07 0.06 −0.13 −0.08 0.06 −0.14
F eedom a he mo he 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.08
Mo he ’s nega i e emo ional s a e 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.08
Fa he ’s nega i e emo ional s a e −0.04 0.07 −0.06 −0.04 0.07 −0.06
Pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic −0.06 0.07 −0.07
R20.07 0.16 0.16
F o change in R23.49 * 2.33 ** 2.18 *
*p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001.
3.2.2. A achmen -Rela ed Anxie y in Rela ionships
Resul s on a achmen - ela ed anxie y a e shown in Table 4. In suppo o ou second
hypo hesis, when bo h pa en s’ emo ional s a e and pa en al beha io s associa ed wi h
he p ocess o di o ce we e added, ma e nal nega i e emo ional s a e was associa ed wi h
highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y (
β
= 0.23; p< 0.05), e en when con inued in e pa en al
con lic in he pos -di o ce pe iod was added (Model 3). In addi ion, eedom p o ided by
he a he o hei child en o alk abou hei mo he was associa ed wi h lowe a achmen -
ela ed anxie y among young adul child en (
β
=
−
0.24; p< 0.05). Again, con a y o ou
p edic ions (Hypo hesis 3), con inued in e pa en al con lic in he pos -di o ce pe iod was
no signi ican ly associa ed wi h highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y (Model 3).
Table 4.
Summa y o hie a chical mul iple eg ession o some a iables ela ed o he pa en al
di o ce p ocess p edic ing a achmen - ela ed anxie y.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Va iable B SE B βB SE B βB SE B β
Con ol a iables
Sex (male) −
0.14
0.16 −0.07 −0.17 0.16 −0.09 −0.18 0.16 −0.09
Age 0.04 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.08
Explana o y a iables
Ma e nal copa en al coope a ion −0.01 0.09 −0.01 −0.03 0.09 −0.04
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 10383 9 o 14
Table 4. Con .
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Va iable B SE B βB SE B βB SE B β
Ma e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.12
F eedom mo he a he −0.09 0.08 −0.14 −0.08 0.08 −0.13
Pa e nal copa en al coope a ion 0.004 0.08 0.006 −0.001 0.08 −0.001
Pa e nal posi i e pa en ing s a egies 0.10 0.07 0.18 0.09 0.07 0.17
F eedom a he mo he −0.13 0.07 −0.22 * −0.13 0.07 −0.24 *
Mo he ’s nega i e emo ional s a e 0.13 0.07 0.22 * 0.14 0.07 0.23 *
Fa he ’s nega i e emo ional s a e −0.01 0.07 −0.02 −0.01 0.07 −0.02
Pos -di o ce in e pa en al con lic −0.06 0.08 −0.07
R20.02 0.12 0.13
F o change in R21.19 1.71 * 1.61
*p< 0.05
4. Discussion
The main aim o his s udy was o examine he associa ion be ween di o ce p ocess
a iables ela ed o pa en al beha io s and young adul child en’s a achmen - ela ed
anxie y and a oidance. Speci ically, we analyzed how copa en al espec and coope a ion,
in e pa en al con lic , posi i e pa en ing s a egies, and bo h pa en s’ emo ional s a e and
ins abili y in he pos -di o ce pe iod a e associa ed wi h child en’s a achmen ep esen-
a ions du ing young adul hood. E en hough pa en al di o ce o sepa a ion migh be
posi i ely associa ed wi h highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y and a oidance in adul hood
h ough he de elopmen o nega i e schemas abou in ima e ela ionships [
15
], changes
in pa en –child ela ionships de i ed om he s ess o di o ce migh also lead o mo e
insecu e in ima e ela ionships in young adul hood (17).
P io esea ch on he associa ions be ween pa en al di o ce and adul child en’s
a achmen shows inconsis en esul s. In ac , al hough some s udies ha e ound signi ican
posi i e associa ions be ween pa en al di o ce and child en’s a achmen , some o he
s udies ha e no ound such associa ions. Fo example, in a p e ious s udy [
22
], we ound
ha pa en al di o ce was no linked o highe a achmen insecu i y, as assessed h ough
he a achmen a oidance and anxie y dimensions. Howe e , in he cu en s udy, which
was conduc ed wi h he aim o shedding u he ligh on hese disc epancies, we did ind
some pa en al di o ce p ocess ac o s signi ican ly associa ed wi h a achmen - ela ed
anxie y and a oidance. Speci ically, ou indings indica e ha bo h pa e nal and ma e nal
s a egies o child en’s adequa e adjus men du ing he di o ce p ocess in luence anxious
and a oidan a achmen ep esen a ions among adul o sp ing. O e all, ou esul s
sugges ha bo h pa en s’ a i udes du ing he di o ce p ocess, whe he o no hey a o
he adap a ion o hei child en o his amily expe ience, in luence adul child en’s le el o
secu i y in hei a ec i e ela ionships, and pa icula ly hei le el o a achmen - ela ed
anxie y and a oidance in in ima e ela ionships. Thus, om he di o ce s ess-adjus men
pe spec i e [
25
], ou indings make impo an con ibu ions o be e comp ehend he
e ec s o pa en al di o ce by concluding ha ce ain amily p ocess a iables migh be e
explain eme ging adul child en’s eac ions o di o ce han di o ce i sel , in e ms o
a achmen insecu i y. He eunde , we discuss in mo e de ail hese main conclusions.
Fi s , he indings o his s udy indica e ha ma e nal nega i e emo ional s a e and
emo ional ins abili y du ing he di o ce p ocess and pos -di o ce pe iod a e associa ed
wi h highe a achmen - ela ed anxie y among eme ging adul child en. Tha is, when
child en pe cei ed ha du ing he pa en al di o ce p ocess hei mo he was sadde , mo e
dep essed and i i able, had equen mood swings and di icul ies in con olling he
emo ions, young adul child en epo ed g ea e a achmen - ela ed anxie y in hei cu en
in ima e ela ionships. Ma e nal dep ession has long been ela ed o a achmen insecu i y
in child en [
48
]. Mo eo e , ma e nal emo ional ins abili y may educe he sensi i i y
owa ds he child en’s signals o need, which, in u n, migh cause unce ain y and anxie y
in he child en [
48
–
50
]. Acco ding o some au ho s, ma e nal sadness and ins abili y ela ed
o di o ce a e associa ed wi h less a ailabili y and g ea e inconsis ency in he esponses
