Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
A ailable online 12 Feb ua y 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Quan i ying in e na ional ene gy jus ice: The cos o elec ici y wi hin
oo p in accoun s
Ma ía San Sal ado del Valle
a
, O zi Akizu-Ga doki
b
,
c
,
d
,
*
, Go ka Bueno
a
,
c
,
e
, Robe o Be mejo
a
a
Hegoa Ins i u e o In e na ional Coope a ion and De elopmen S udies. Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU). A da. Lehendaka i Agi e, 81, Bilbao, 48015,
Spain
b
Depa men o G aphic Design and Enginee ing P ojec s, Facul y o Enginee ing in Bilbao. Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, 48103, Spain
c
Ekopol: T ansi ion Pa hways Resea ch G oup, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Leioa, 48940, Spain
d
Li e Cycle Thinking G oup, Depa men o G aphic Design and Enginee ing P ojec s. Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Plaza Ingenie o To es Que edo 1,
48013, Bilbao, Biscay, Spain
e
Depa men o Elec onics Enginee ing, Facul y o Enginee ing. Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Handling Edi o : Mingzhou Jin
Keywo ds:
Cos o elec ici y
Ene gy jus ice
Jus ice in elec ici y cos s indica o
Hidden elec ic cos indica o
Elec ic oo p in
Consump ion-based accoun s
Ene gy Foo p in
Hidden Ene gy Flow
ABSTRACT
This esea ch quan i ies he in e na ional elec ic paymen s embodied in goods and se ices, o he pu pose o
mo ing owa ds a clea and ai elec ic exchange wi hin in e na ional oo p in accoun s. The elec ic con-
sump ion and ela ed cos o 43 coun ies ha ep esen 84% o global G oss Domes ic P oduc (GDP) has been
calcula ed, shi ing om adi ionally used P oduc ion-Based Accoun ing (PBA) o Consump ion-Based Ac-
coun ing (CBA). This esea ch has iden i ied no only he elec ic cos o wha is p oduced in each coun y, bu
also he elec ic cos embodied in impo ed and expo ed goods and se ices. The di e ence be ween P oduc ion-
and Consump ion-Based Accoun s has been de ined as “Hidden Elec ic Cos ” (HEC). Secondly, we ha e calcu-
la ed he hypo he ical na ional elec ic cos i coun ies we e o p oduce wi hin hei own bo de s all he goods
and se ices hey consume. The di e ence be ween he cu en elec ic oo p in cos and hypo he ical sel -
su iciency cos has been e e ed o as “Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s” (JIEC), an indica o which shows how
much a coun y would ha e o spend o achie e elec ic so e eign y. This indica o e eals ha he e a e
coun ies (usually de eloped ones) ha would ace g ea e cos s han wha hey cu en ly pay by ou sou cing he
p oduc ion o goods o o he less de eloped coun ies. The s udy shows ha , om he 43 coun ies analysed, and
he Res o he Wo ld (RoW) conside ed a 44
h
one, he en mos de eloped ones a e spending on a e age 14.36%
mo e on elec ici y han decla ed, and he en leas de eloped ones, 1.35% less han decla ed. A he same ime,
he 10 mos de eloped coun ies would ha e o spend e en 0.86% mo e o achie e elec ical so e eign y, while
o he en leas de eloped coun ies his would mean sa ings o 1.04%. In addi ion, a mo e speci ic analysis has
been made o he ex ile and ag icul u e sec o s, showing he en coun ies wi h he highes Human De elop-
men Index (HDI) among hose analysed would ha e o spend 438.75% mo e on a e age o pay o impo ed
elec ici y a na ional p ice and achie e elec ic so e eign y o he ex ile sec o , and 24.4% mo e o he
ag icul u e sec o . In he in e es s o achie ing ai global elec ic paymen s, i would be app op ia e o
coun ies o ake hese a ia ions in paymen s in o accoun in in e na ional ela ions so as o mo e owa ds
g ea e in e na ional jus ice.
1. In oduc ion
The cu en ongoing ise in impo a ion o aw ma e ials, ood,
manu ac u ed p oduc s and e en se ices om de eloping o so-called
de eloped coun ies is changing globalised consump ion pa e ns
(Wiedmann and Lenzen, 2018). Gi en in e na ionalised ma ke s and
s anda dised p oduc p ices, No he n coun ies a e ou sou cing hea y
indus ies as a s a egy o educe p oduc ion cos s o inal p oduc s, and
as colla e al e ec na ional ene gy consump ion is educed (Akizu--
Ga doki e al., 2021; A o Olaizola e al., 2016). In his con ex , he
di e ences in paymen s o ene gy and manpowe be ween No he n
and Sou he n coun ies a e causing conce n a ound equi y and ai
paymen s, since he isks and ex e nali ies a e a ec ing he lowe social
* Co esponding au ho . Depa men o G aphic Design and Enginee ing P ojec s, Facul y o Enginee ing in Bilbao. Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU),
Bilbao, 48103, Spain.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (O. Akizu-Ga doki).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jclep o.2022.130797
Recei ed 7 Sep embe 2020; Recei ed in e ised o m 25 No embe 2021; Accep ed 30 Janua y 2022
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
2
classes o coun ies mo e in ensely (So acool e al., 2016). Thus, he e is
conce n abou how o de ine whe he di e ences in cos s o consumed
na u al and human esou ces a e ai . As i s ands, no he n coun ies
a e used as sus ainable ene gy sys ems models wi hou aking in o ac-
coun he ene gy consumed in ou sou ced indus ies ha a e eeding
na ional needs. As an example, Swi ze land is e e ed o as one o he
wo ld’s leade s in clima e change ac ion and achie ing sus ainable
de elopmen goals (Wendling, 2020) bu a he same ime, due o i s
loca ion, size, and he lack o na u al esou ces, i is a coun y highly
dependen on o eign ade (ICEX, 2011). Simila ly, Luxembu g, a ec-
ognised Eu opean leade coun y in g een inance and sus ainable
de elopmen goals (Rahman, 2019), has an ene gy sys em which is
cha ac e ised by high impo dependence; in 2018 86% o i s elec ici y
supply was impo ed (IEA, 2020). While mos wes e n de eloped
coun ies a e pe cei ed as ene gy ansi ion ca ie s, coun ies like
China wi h la ge expo s a e accused o being he main causes o damage
o global en i onmen al and public heal h (G acie, 2015), (Buckley,
2021) and he des ina ion o i s p oduced goods and espec i e e-
sponsibili ies a e no clea ly shown.
This un ai ela ionship among coun ies, occu ing when na u al
esou ces and espec i e impac s need o be sha ed, has pola ised
coun ies in o so-called de eloped and non-de eloped ones. A numbe o
de ini ions o de elopmen and di e en c i e ia ha e been used o
classi y coun ies. A common economic c i e ion o hei classi ica ion
p omo ed by he O ganiza ion o Economic Coope a ion and De elop-
men (OECD) di ided coun ies in o de eloped ones, o hose wi h high
income (OECD, 2020); and de eloping coun ies, which co e s mos
coun ies in A ica, La in Ame ica and Asia; and hose “in ansi ion” o
capi alism, such as in Eas e n Eu ope and he o me USSR (IMF, 2020).
The phenomenon o he eme gence o so-called leas de eloped o un-
de de eloped coun ies occu ed mainly a he end o he Cold Wa . The
No h-Sou h di ision became popula in he ield o in e na ional e-
la ions in he la e 60’s, wi h he decolonisa ion p ocess in Asia and A -
ica. Un il hen, in e na ional ela ions we e domina ed by Eas -Wes
con lic . I was only in he mid-1960s and ea ly 1970s ha he so-called
‘No h-Sou h dialogue’ became a key issue on he in e na ional agenda,
which ma ked an impo an change in he dynamics o poli ics and he
wo ld economy (P ado, 1998). The Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade
and De elopmen (UNCTAD) and o he UN agencies p omo ed he
classi ica ion o coun ies in o he ollowing ou ca ego ies: Sou he n
coun ies, in e e ence o de eloping coun ies; No he n coun ies,
e e ing o de eloped coun ies; Eas e n coun ies, as a e m o an-
si ion coun ies; and inally, leas de eloped coun ies. In 1990 he
Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme (UNDP) c ea ed he Human
De elopmen Index (HDI) o analyse each coun y’s ex en o de elop-
men . The in en ion was o c ea e a de elopmen index ha was no only
based on economic conside a ions, bu also in oduced o he a iables
ocused on people and hei capabili ies, as well as he dimensions o
heal h and educa ion (UNDP, 2019). The use o he HDI indica o in
ene gy ansi ion s udies has al eady shown ha mos de eloped
coun ies ha e a clea pa e n o consuming Hidden Ene gy Flows (HEF)
om less de eloped ones. Ac ually, he 10 mos de eloped coun ies a e
consuming 18.5% mo e ene gy han ha accoun ed by he In e na ional
Ene gy Agency (IEA), due o impo ed p oduc s and se ices (Akizu--
Ga doki e al., 2021). In con as , he 10 leas de eloped coun ies ha e
been de ec ed o consume 1.6% less ene gy o hei own uses han he
one decla ed by IEA (Akizu-Ga doki e al., 2021).
The geospa ial sepa a ion be ween p oduc ion and consump ion is
leading o he displacemen o en i onmen al and social impac s
(Wiedmann and Lenzen, 2018). No he n coun ies consume mos o he
esou ces, whe eas sou he n coun ies ace he co esponding social and
en i onmen al impac s (Ga mendia e al., 2016), and hus, he way o
sha ing he esponsibili y o hose impac s needs o be add essed
in e na ionally (Lenzen e al., 2012). An inc easing numbe o oices
ha e highligh ed ha , by lea ing de eloped coun ies, mul ina ionals
ha e no only eloca ed ac o ies, bu also pollu ion. This is China’s case,
whe e no only indus ial manu ac u ing and p oduc ion i sel bu also
ene gy in aes uc u es, such as coal anspo a ion om inland egions
o ene gy-consuming a eas in he eas o he coun y, cause signi ican
en i onmen al and social impac s (M´
endez, 2014). Incipien p oposals
ega ding sha ed esponsibili y o he socio-en i onmen al impac s
gene a ed by low-cos p oduc ion ha e been o mula ed (Gallego and
Lenzen, 2005). Ne e heless, when applying he heo y o eal ac ions o
boos in e na ional equali y, i is highly challenging o each ag eemen s
(Eisens ein, 2017). Mul ina ionals blame consume s o wan ing
e e y hing a he lowes p ice, and he impo e ished coun ies blame
ich coun ies, hei accommoda ed end-consume s and hei p oducing
companies. Explici and sys ema ic s a egies a e needed o each ene gy
sus ainabili y (Chen e al., 2020). Fu he mo e, s ong na ions a gue
ha ou sou cing indus ies a e helping non-de eloped coun ies o in-
c ease hei na ional G oss Domes ic P oduc (GDP) (Hussain and
Ajmai , 2015). In con as , ene gy so e eign y seems o ha e gained
ele ance in ecen decades, since cu en hype connec i i y may be a
h ea o humani y, gi en ha , in cases o unp edic able c isis, i causes
he consequen eme gencies o sp ead apidly (Wo ld Economic Fo um,
2013). Such would be he case o he ecen COVID-19 c isis. The e o e,
o adap o hese new eali ies, i would be necessa y o p io i ise
esilience as opposed o he adi ionally sough cos educ ion (NAEC,
2020).
In his complex in e na ional pano ama, an “un ai ” paymen o
ene gy consump ion, and in pa icula o elec ici y, en ails social and
en i onmen al impac s. As he human impac on he en i onmen in-
c eases, he di e ence in dis ibu ion o hese damages be ween sou h-
e n and no he n coun ies inc eases. The e is a change in ecosys em
se ices, bu he dis ibu ion o damage and wha he d i ing o ces a e
has no been assessed (S ini asan e al., 2008). In connec ion wi h he
di e en classi ica ions o he coun ies acco ding o hei de elopmen
le el, ends ha e al eady been de ec ed ha iden i y mas e and se an
Abb e ia ions
CBA Consump ion-Based Accoun s
EU Eu opean Union
GDP G oss Domes ic P oduc
GMRIO Global Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu
GTAP Global T ade Analysis P ojec
HDI Human De elopmen Index
HEC Hidden Elec ic Cos
IEA In e na ional Ene gy Agency
IMF In e na ional Mone a y Fund
IO Inpu -Ou pu
JIEC Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s
OECD O ganiza ion o Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen
PBA P oduc ion-Based Accoun s
RoW Res o he Wo ld
TPELF To al P ima y Elec ic Foo p in
TPELS To al P ima y Elec ic Supply
TPES To al P ima y Ene gy Supply
UN Uni ed Na ions
UNCTAD Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen
UNDP Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme
UNSTATS Uni ed Na ions S a is ics Di ision
UPV/EHU Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
USSR Union o So ie Socialis Republics
WIOD Wo ld Inpu -Ou pu Da abase
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
3
coun ies, whe e se an coun ies a e he ones enabling he high
de elopmen o mas e coun ies (Alsamawi e al., 2014).
Gi en his con ex , he philosophy o Ecological Economics has
ad oca ed, he need o Consump ion-Based Accoun s (CBA) (A ionis
e al., 2017; Kande e al., 2015; S eininge e al., 2016), since adi-
ional P oduc ion-Based Accoun s (PBA) ha e limi a ions in making he
embodied impac s o in e na ional ade isible. Ne impo e coun ies
ha e he p i ilege o being able o main ain hei le el o well-being a
he expense o ene gy consump ion in o he coun ies (Akizu-Ga doki
e al., 2020). The e mus be in e na ional acknowledgmen o his ac
and he es ablishmen o a clea me hodology o isualising hese in-
e na ional lows o embodied ene gy (Akizu-Ga doki e al., 2018).
Fu he mo e, due o he non-acknowledgmen o de eloped coun-
ies’ ou sou ced ene gy consump ion and he di icul y unde s anding
“ene gy” as a ield ha goes beyond “elec ici y”, exis ing “sus ainable
ene gy ansi ion” policies ocus mainly on na ional ac ions ela ed o
elec ic supply and consump ion, such as enewable ene gy co-
ope a i es. This is no ha m ul, bu could e lec a na ow iew o he
in e na ional ene gy eali y. The cu en global di ec esiden ial elec-
ici y consump ion ep esen s only 3.35% o global ene gy consump-
ion (Akizu e al., 2017). In his esea ch, no only esiden ial elec ici y
bu also indus ial elec ici y has been conside ed, and Table 1 shows he
exac amoun o he To al P ima y Ene gy Supply (TPES) ha his ep-
esen s, which is 40.93% i ans o ma ion and dis ibu ion losses a e
included. I losses a e no aken in o accoun , To al P ima y Elec ic
Supply (TPELS) makes up 18.71%. Thus, he scope o ac ion o his
esea ch has been inc eased om he adi ional 3.35% elec ic ene gy
consump ion by inhabi an s, o 40.93% elec ic consump ion by he
same inhabi an s, signi ican ly ex ending he bounds o ou unde -
s anding o elec ici y, all while being awa e ha he conclusions o his
pape s ill need o be combined wi h non-elec ic ene gy consump ion in
o de o be used in na ional s a egies. Fig. 1 shows he di e ences be-
ween TPES, TPELS including elec ic losses and TPELS wi hou elec ic
losses in coun y le el (deepe na ional elec ic sys em e iciency in-
o ma ion in Supplemen a y Table S2). I mus also be aken in o ac-
coun ha he ansi ion owa ds a sus ainable ene gy model needs o be
accompanied by an es ima ed educ ion o 50.16% o he global a e age
ene gy consump ion, om he cu en TPES (21.67 MWh⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
)
shown in Table 1, o he sus ainable 10.8 MWh⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
(O’Neill
e al., 2018).
Wi hin his in e na ional pano ama, he goal o his esea ch is o
analyse he paymen s o esiden ial and indus ial elec ici y consumed
by he selec ed 43 coun ies plus he Res o he Wo d (RoW) as coun y
numbe 44. The main goal is o compa e he amoun paid o elec ici y
consumed in he 43 coun ies and RoW acco ding o PBA accoun ing,
wi h ha paid acco ding o he CBA accoun s, hus e ealing he Hidden
Elec ic Cos . In addi ion, he esul o he cos ha each o hese
coun ies would incu o elec ici y i all he impo ed p oduc s we e
na ionally manu ac u ed is also p esen ed, and de ined as Jus ice in
Cos .
Thus, his esea ch ackles, o he i s ime, no only he ai
isualisa ion o he embodied elec ic consump ion beyond he na ional
geog aphical bo de s, bu also he signi icance o quan i ying he dis-
c epancies in he economic paymen s o he embodied elec ici y con-
sump ion. The e is a gap o quan i y how o model he in e na ional
ene gy jus ice, and in his case mo e speci ically ocusing on elec ici y,
his a icle p oposes o he i s ime a quan i a i e way o app oaching
i . Speci ically, wo indexes ha e been designed in o de o ackle he
in e na ional ene gy injus ice. Fi s ly, a Hidden Elec ic Cos (HEC) has
been designed in o de o calcula e which is he hidden elec ic expense
o a coun y embodied in impo ed/expo ed p oduc and se ices.
Secondly, a Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos index (JIEC) has been designed so
as o calcula e how ai /un ai he paymen o he impo ed hidden
elec ici y has been acco ding he na ional elec ic p ice.
This is an analysis wi hin he amewo k o ene gy jus ice (So acool
and Dwo kin, 2015), and aims o se e as a decision-making ool ha
allows a be e unde s anding o he cu en in e na ional elec ic e-
ali y. The e is a g im eali y in he cu en in e na ional ene gy injus ice.
While la ge spo u ili y ehicles a e being e illed a Ame ican pe ol
s a ions, we a e conce ned abou why amily membe s ha e been
igh ing in I aq o ge cheape oil, wi hou seeing he e hical connec ion
behind he pe sonal oil demand and mili a y causali ies in he Middle
Eas (So acool and Dwo kin, 2015). Gene ally, Kan ian logic has been
applied o ene gy ai ness, which holds “each pe son as an end” (So a-
cool and Dwo kin, 2015), e en hough he indi iduals a e no awa e o
i . To make ene gy ansi ions ai , a b oade unde s anding o ene gy
jus ice is c i ical, and jus ice behind he embodied ene gy has al eady
been iden i ied as a goal o be accomplished ( an Bommel and H¨
o ken,
2021). I global ai ness in esou ce consump ion is a goal, as s a ed in
in e na ional agendas (Eu opean Commission, 2016; IPCC, 2014; UNEP,
2017), indica o s o measu e i , such as hose p oposed in his s udy,
need o be ega ded as essen ial, and empi ical e idence o pa icula
o ms o ene gy jus ice emains sca ce (Hanke e al., 2021). Ene gy
Jus ice has also been add essed wi hin he amewo k o he Sus ainable
De elopmen Agenda, in an e o o unde s and he ansi ion owa ds
uni e sal clean ene gy access (Ciple , 2021). The ene gy ansi ions
d i en in some coun ies like he Uni ed S a es a e p oducing winne s
and lose s, and policy make s ha e highligh ed he need o mo e p ecise
iden i ie s a ound ene gy jus ice o add ess hese dispa i ies (Ca ley
e al., 2021). Fu he mo e, an e o o quan i y he na ional ini ia i es
o suppo ene gy jus ice has been made in he USA (Ca ley e al., 2021).
Ne e heless, he e is a gap o quan i y how o model said in e na ional
ene gy jus ice. Fu he p ac ical analyses ha e been ca ied ou in o de
o help end consume s unde s and o wha ex en di e en echnological
inno a ions (sola pho o ol aic ins alla ion, elec ic ehicle, low ca bon
hea ing, o ene gy se ices con ac ing) may bene i he global ene gy
jus ice (So acool e al., 2019). Ne e heless, a a coun y le el, no in-
dica o has been de eloped o unde s and how ai cu en ene gy
paymen s a e wi h espec o impo ed ene gy embodied in acqui ed
goods and se ices. Thus, ou esea ch aims o shed ligh on he in e -
na ional jus ice behind he elec ic use and espec i e paymen s in hose
impo ed goods and se ices, going beyond he Kan ian philosophy, and
aking a communi y- o na ion-based app oach o esponsibili y (as in
he capabili y o ap i ude o espond o a p oblem o a ac : esponsum
habili as).
Fu hemo e, special a en ion has been paid o he ex ile and ag i-
cul u e sec o s, hese being signi ican sec o s in in e na ional ade
among he 17 sec o s s udied. The ex ile ene gy oo p in in China wen
om 4.1 M in 1991 o 99.6 M in 2015, pu ing he ex ile sec o in
China in he spo ligh in e ms o p essu e o educe ene gy consump ion
(Wang e al., 2017). In he case o Po ugal, 30% o o al p ima y ene gy
consump ion co esponds o he indus ial sec o , which is mo e han
wha i p oduces in e nally (jus 28%) and o which 6% is consumed in
he ex ile sec o (Cos a e al., 2019). Wi h ega ds o he ag icul u e
sec o , be ween he yea s 1950 and 2000, global ood p oduc ion has
doubled, which has had an impo an impac on he en i onmen ,
especially in e ms o wa e and ene gy used. Global ood sys ems a e
Table 1
The global a e age TPES (To al P ima y Ene gy Supply) and TPELS (To al P i-
ma y Elec ic Supply) a e shown and he pe cen age ha TPELS ep esen s o m
TPES.
TOTAL PRIMARY ENERGY
SUPPLY (TPES)
(MWh⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
)
21.67
Including
ans o ma ion and
dis ibu ion losses
Excluding
ans o ma ion and
dis ibu ion losses
TOTAL PRIMARY
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
(TPELS) (MWh⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
)
8.869 4.508
TOTAL PRIMARY
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
(TPELS) (%)
40.93% 20.80%
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
4
mo e and mo e agile and a ec ed by a ia ions in ene gy accessibili y
and ene gy p ices (Khan and Hanj a, 2009).
Acco dingly, he main objec i e o his pape is o calcula e he
amoun spen by he 43 coun ies and RoW analysed on elec ici y use in
indus ial and esiden ial sec o s. The aim is o make a compa ison o
each coun y among he expense acco ding o PBA accoun ing, he
expense acco ding o CBA accoun ing, and he expense ha each o hese
coun ies would ha e i hey ca ied ou hei en i e p oduc ion wi hin
hei own bo de s. Fi s ly, he o al elec ic cos o he coun ies will be
analysed, and secondly, he speci ic esul s pe aining o he ex ile
sec o and he ag icul u e sec o will be p esen ed. The in en ion is o
his analysis o se e as a ool ha con ibu es o he in e na ional en-
e gy jus ice deba e.
Fo y- h ee coun ies a e analysed in his pape , including 34 wi h a
Ve y High HDI, 7 wi h a High HDI and 2 wi h a Medium HDI (UNDP,
2011). These 43 coun ies ep esen 84% o he wo ld’s GDP (UNSTATS,
2011) and 63% o he wo ld’s popula ion (Wo ldBank, 2011). In addi-
ion, he Res o he Wo ld (RoW) is analysed showing da a om he es
o he coun ies as a single egion. RoW is composed o 46 coun ies wi h
Low a HDI, 41 wi h a Medium HDI, 46 wi h a High HDI and 13 wi h a
Ve y High HDI.
2. Me hodology
2.1. Global mul i- egional inpu ou pu (GMRIO) me hodology
In his esea ch, he well- ecognised Global Mul i-Regional Inpu -
Ou pu me hodology (Owen, 2017; Wiedmann and Lenzen, 2018) has
been used o calcula e he cos o elec ici y consumed acco ding o CBA
accoun ing. This me hodology is commonly used o CBA calcula ions
ega ding ene gy use, since i allows us o include he amoun and
p o enance o ene gy embodied in in e na ional ade (Akizu-Ga doki
e al., 2018; A o Olaizola e al., 2016; Owen e al., 2017). The analysis
has been made o he yea 2011 as di e en Inpu -Ou pu da abases
ha e been used: Eo a (Lenzen e al., 2013), EXIOBASE (S einmann e al.,
2018), WIOD (Chen e al., 2019), GTAP (Pe e s e al., 2011) and OECD
(OECD, 2016); and 2011 is he mos ecen yea o which he e is in-
o ma ion on all o hem, pa icula ly EXIOBASE, which has he mos
up- o-da e da a o ha yea . Finally, a e compa ing he esul s om all
i e da abases, only he esul s om WIOD da abase a e p esen ed he e,
since we conside hese o be ep esen a i e o he g oup.
The GMRIO me hodology de eloped in his esea ch has been buil
on op o he algo i hms de eloped by he au ho s in p e ious esea ch
(Akizu-Ga doki e al., 2021). Based on his p io wo k, a u he de el-
opmen o he code has been ca ied ou in his s udy o he HEC and
JIEC calcula ions o 43 coun ies plus he Res o he Wo ld.
•F om To al P ima y Elec ic Supply (TPELS) (see Fig. 1), which has
been ex ac ed om he To al P ima y Ene gy Supply (TPES) om
he da abase o In e na ional Ene gy Agency (IEA) da a, he To al
P ima y Elec ic Foo p in (TPELF) has been calcula ed. To make his
calcula ion, he Leon ie Inpu -Ou pu (IO) equa ion has been used
(Akizu-Ga doki e al., 2021), which is he keys one in he
inpu -ou pu model.
•The undamen al a chi ec u e o he Leon ie IO model (Owen, 2017;
Raa, 2006) is shown in Fig. 2, whe e Z is he ansac ion ma ix, he
ows o ma ix Z indica e wha an indus ial sec o sells o o he
indus ial sec o s, and he columns indica e wha an indus ial sec o
buys om each indus ial sec o in o de o p oduce i s p oduc . Y
ep esen s he sales o inal demand, hus, each elemen o Y in-
dica es he demand o his speci ic sec o p oduc . X ep esen s he
o al ou pu ob ained om Z and Y. Simila ly, o al inpu X can be
ob ained om Z and h.
•Da a included in he ed squa e o Fig. 2 is ob ained om he Wo ld
Inpu -Ou pu Da abase (WIOD) (Timme e al., 2015), whe eas he
elec ic ex ension ec o is o med om IEA da a. The WIOD IO
da abase includes in o ma ion abou 57 sec o s while IEA p o ides
in o ma ion o 108 ca ego ies. Thus, conco dance ma ixes ha e
been used in o de o uni y he WIOD da abase and IEA elec ici y
da a o he 17 indus ial sec o s (Supplemen a y Table S1) analysed
in his a icle.
•Once TPELS is ob ained om IEA, TPELF is calcula ed using he
Leon ie equa ion. Technical coe icien s ma ix A is ob ained by
di iding co esponding column Z by ou pu x. Subs i u ing Z wi h Ax
and eo ganising he equa ion:
x =(I-A)
−1
y (eq. 1)
(I-A)
−1
being he Leon ie in e se (L) (eq. 2)
Fig. 1. Iden i ica ion o na ional To al P ima y Ene gy Supply (TPES) and he po ion co esponding o elec ici y, measu ed in To al P ima y Elec ic Supply
(TPELS) bo h wi h and wi hou losses, and he co esponding e iciency.
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
5
Leon ie ’s in e se shows ha when he inal demand o a p oduc
ises, he p oduc ion o ela ed indus ial sec o s also inc eases, no only
he speci ic indus ial sec o ha p oduces ha good (Ce ina e al.,
2015).
•A e de ining TPELS (PBA) and TPELF (CBA), he co esponding cos
o each has been calcula ed. In o de o calcula e he amoun spen
by a coun y on PBA elec ici y, indus ial elec ic consump ion and
esiden ial elec ic consump ion has been mul iplied by he na ional
elec ici y p ices, di e en ia ing he indus ial and household p ices
(IEA, 2011a). Rega ding a coun y’s elec ic cos acco ding o CBA,
all he indus ial and esiden ial elec ici y ou sou ced om o he
coun ies has been aken in o accoun and included when mul i-
plying elec ici y consump ion by he co esponding indus ial and
esiden ial p ices o expo e coun ies. Thus, he di e ence be-
ween economic cos s o elec ici y wi hin a coun y (PBA) and cos s
aking ou sou ced goods and se ices in o accoun (CBA) has been
de ined.
•Finally, in o de o know how much i would cos a coun y o ach-
ie e elec ic so e eign y, he cos o p oducing he o al TPELF has
been calcula ed using na ional elec ic p ices. This alue gi es us a
e e ence by which o calcula e he economic sa ings o ex e nalising
elec ici y p oduc ion, in he case o de eloped coun ies. In he case
o ne embodied elec ici y expo e coun ies (mos o which a e
non-de eloped), we ha e calcula ed he elec ici y cos educ ions
ha would ensue i only na ional consump ion needs we e co e ed.
2.2. Hidden Elec ic Cos (HEC) and Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s (JIEC)
calcula ions
Once na ional TPELFs we e calcula ed using he GMRIO me hodol-
ogy, he a ge indica o s o his esea ch we e ob ained. These in-
dica o s ha e been concei ed and de ined by he au ho s in o de o
quan i y o he i s ime he jus ice in paymen s in ene gy ansac ions
be ween coun ies.
•The Hidden Elec ic Cos (HEC) indica o is de ined as he di e ence
be ween paymen acco ding o TPELF
CURRENT
and TPELS
CURRENT
,
ha is, he di e ence in a coun y’s elec ic cos when he p oduc ion
o pa o he goods o se ices consumed in o he coun ies is aken
in o accoun , e sus when i is no .
HEC =(TPELFcu en cos
TPELScu en cos
−1)(3)
•Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s (JIEC) indica o (o , al e na i ely, Injus-
ice in Elec ici y Cos s) shows he di e ence be ween he elec ic
cos ha a coun y would ha e o incu i i we e o p oduce all he
goods i consumes wi hin i s own bo de s TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY
) and he
cu en cos o elec ic consump ion acco ding o consumed goods:
(TPELF
CURRENT
).
JIEC =(1−
TPELSso e eign y cos
TPELFcu en cos )(4)
2.3. Da a
The esea ch has been ca ied ou o he yea 2011, so he da a
collec ed o es ima ed co esponds o ha yea . In any case, all calcu-
la ions would be sui able o analysis o ano he yea solely by changing
he inpu da a, i a ailable.
•Elec ici y Da a
TPELS—in o he wo ds, elec ici y consumed acco ding o PBA
accoun ing—has been calcula ed om In e na ional Ene gy Agency
(2011) da a (IEA, 2011b). TPELS has been ob ained unde wo as-
sump ions: in he i s scena io, he ans o ma ion and dis ibu ion
losses o p oducing he na ional elec ici y om p ima y sou ces ha e
been included (see Fig. 1 and Supplemen a y Fig. S2) (such as he
ans o ma ion losses in elec ic powe plan s o ha consumed by he
elec ic indus y as a whole. A conco dance ma ix has been used in
o de o con e he 108 lines o IEA da a o he 17 indus ial sec o
elec ici y da a ec o (Supplemen a y Table S2). In he second scena io,
he TPELS has been calcula ed wi hou including he ans o ma ion and
dis ibu ion losses, hus, he elec ici y consump ion p o ided by he IEA
o he di e en ca ego ies has been included, bu o he elec ic sec o ,
elec ic consump ion has been measu ed as ze o. This second scena io
gi es us a e e ence o he necessa y elec ic consump ion o a coun y i
ans o ma ion losses whe e ze o (as is he case o enewable elec ic
sou ces) and an 100% e icien ene gy dis ibu ion g id (which is almos
he case wi h dis ibu ed sma mic og ids).
•IO Da a
Global Mul i-Regional Inpu -Ou pu (GMRIO) da a ha e been ob-
ained om he Wo ld Inpu -Ou pu Da abase (WIOD) (Timme e al.,
2015). A conco dance ma ix has been used in o de o con e he
o iginal WIOD da abase wi h da a o 57 indus ial sec o s o he 17
sec o s analysed in his esea ch (Supplemen a y Table S1). The numbe
Fig. 2. S uc u e o he Inpu -Ou pu sys em, whe e he Leon ie in e se has been used.
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
6
o coun ies has been main ained wi hin he WIOD s uc u e wi h 43
egions plus RoW.
•P ice Da a
In o de o ob ain he esul s o he na ional elec ic expenses, in-
dus ial and esiden ial p ices o elec ici y paid in each o he 43 e-
gions plus RoW we e needed. Two p ices ha e been ob ained om
in e na ional da abases: elec ici y p ices o household consume s
( esiden ial sec o ) and elec ici y p ices o non-household consume s
(indus ial sec o ). In he case o Eu opean Union (EU) coun ies, he
Eu os a da abase has been used (Eu os a , 2011a). Fo non-EU coun-
ies, p ice da a has been ob ained om he IEA da abase (IEA, 2011a).
Taxes ha e been included in p ice da a.
Due o he lack o da a o some coun ies o 2011, he ollowing
assump ions ha e been made:
- The p ice o elec ici y in Aus alian indus ial sec o s has been
es ima ed om he household consume elec ici y p ice, based on
he a e age p opo iona e inc ease be ween household and non-
household in he es o he coun ies.
- P ices a ailable o China we e o 2015, so hose o 2011 ha e been
es ima ed based on he a e age e olu ion in p ices ha has occu ed
om 2011 o 2015 in he es o he coun ies analysed.
- Fo F ance and Hunga y, 2012 p ices we e a ailable, and since se-
e e a ia ions ha e no been obse ed om 2011 o 2012, hese
2012 da a ha e been used o bo h.
- The esiden ial elec ic p ice o RoW has been calcula ed om he
a e age o he ollowing coun ies: Albania, Alge ia, A menia,
Bela us, Benin, Bo swana, Chile, Ecuado , Egyp , Geo gia, Iceland,
I an, Is ael, Kazakhs an, Kenya, Ky gyzs an, Laos, Malaysia,
Mau i ania, Mau i ius, Mongolia, Mon eneg o, Mo occo, New Zea-
land, Pa aguay, Philippines, Saudi A abia, Singapo e, Sou h A ica,
Tajikis an, Thailand, Tunisia, Tu kmenis an and U uguay.
- The p ice o indus ial sec o elec ici y o RoW has been calcula ed
om he a e age o he ollowing coun ies: Alge ia, A gen ina,
A menia, Benin, Bo swana, Chile, Ecuado , Islamic Republic o I an,
Is ael, Kazakhs an, Kenya, Laos, Malaysia, Mau i ius, Mon eneg o,
New Zealand, Pa aguay, Saudi A abia, Sou h A ica, Thailand and
U uguay.
P ices om he Eu os a da abase we e p o ided in “
€
⋅MWh
−1
”,
whe eas he IEA p ice uni was “USD$⋅MWh
−1
”, hus, he exchange a e
be ween
€
and USD$ ob ained om Eu os a (2011b) o yea 2011 has
been used o con e all p ices o “
€
⋅MWh
−1
” uni s.
•O he Da a
Popula ion da a o he analysed coun ies used o calcula ions ha e
been ob ained om he Wo ld Bank da abase o yea 2011 (Wo ldBank,
2011). Human De elopmen Index da a ha e been ob ained om he
UNDP da abase o yea 2011 (UNDP, 2011).
3. Resul s and discussion
Fig. 3 compa es he elec ic cos pe coun y acco ding o PBA ac-
coun ing (TPELS
CURRENT
) wi h ha acco ding o CBA (TPELF
CURRENT
)
and he elec ic cos ha each o hese coun ies would incu i hei
en i e p oduc ion ook place in hei own coun y, he cos o To al
P ima y Elec ic Supply o So e eign y (TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY
) (see Sup-
plemen a y Table S3).
3.1. Compa ison be ween TPELS
CURRENT
expense and TPELF
CURRENT
expense
As can be seen in he g aph, 34 o he 43 coun ies plus RoW analysed
ha e a highe expense in TPELF han in TPELS. This means ha i we
compa e he paymen o each o hese coun ies o elec ici y con-
sump ion measu ed acco ding o PBA accoun s wi h ha o elec ici y
consump ion measu ed acco ding o CBA accoun s, he second is
signi ican ly highe o 34 o he egions analysed.
Con e sely, o he emaining 10 coun ies, he paymen o TPELS is
highe han ha o TPELF, which means ha he elec ic cos in PBA
accoun s is highe han ha calcula ed wi h CBA accoun s, so he o me
includes he cos o elec ici y used in he p oduc ion o goods ha will
e en ually be expo ed and no consumed in he coun y.
This classi ica ion shows o which coun ies i is ad an ageous om
he poin o iew o elec ici y consump ion o base hei decla ed ex-
penses on da a om PBA accoun s, since hey sugges less expendi u e
han CBA accoun ing would. Simila ly, he es o he coun ies unde
PBA accoun ing a e p esen ed as ha ing a highe expendi u e on
Fig. 3. Compa ison among he expense in To al P ima y Elec ic Supply, To al P ima y Elec ic Foo p in and To al P ima y Elec ic Supply o So e eign y
(
€
⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
), o de ed acco ding o cu en TPEF expense.
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
7
elec ici y han ha which can ac ually be impu ed o hem based on
hei consump ion.
3.1.1. Hidden Elec ic Cos (HEC)
Fig. 4A and 4.B show he sha e o Hidden Elec ic Cos o he
coun ies analysed, including hei le el o de elopmen , measu ed
h ough he HDI indica o o he UNDP.
When o ganising coun ies om highe o lowe HEC alue, in
Fig. 4A, i can be seen ha he mos ex eme case is ha o Luxembou g,
a coun y whose paymen o TPELF
CURRENT
is 103.97% highe han ha
o TPELS
CURRENT
. The opposi e occu s in he case o Chinese Taipei
(Taiwan), o which he paymen o TPELF
CURRENT
ep esen s sa ings o
24.14% in ela ion o he paymen o TPELS
CURRENT
(see Supplemen-
a y Table S3).
Fo coun ies ha esul in a posi i e HEC alue, which a e 34 o he
44 analysed, i is mo e ad an ageous o epo hei expenses unde PBA
accoun s, inso a as i implies ewe expenses han CBA accoun ing
would in ene gy consump ion and paymen s. The eason o his esul is
ha in hese coun ies, he cos o elec ici y o wha is consumed in he
coun y is signi ican ly highe han he cos o elec ici y o wha is
p oduced by he coun y. The adi ional P oduc ion-Based Accoun s
makes hese coun ies appea mo e e icien and less ene gy dependen .
The en coun ies wi h he highes HDI among hose analysed ha e a
Hidden Elec ic Cos o 14.36% compa ed wi h he adi ional PBA ac-
coun s, an a e age paymen o
€
306.7 mo e pe pe son pe yea on
elec ici y (being he a e age global paymen measu ed in TPELF
1858.3
€
⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
, and a ia ing om 204.3 in India o 5443.8 in
Aus alia, see Supplemen a y Table S3). Meanwhile, he 24 in e media e
coun ies a e spending an a e age o
€
239.60 mo e pe pe son pe yea ,
o 18.15% mo e han he cu en measu ed expense inside na ional
bo de s. Meanwhile, he en egions wi h he lowes HDI spend, o hei
own use, an a e age o
€
37.71 less pe pe son pe yea , which is a
dec ease o 1.35% om PBA measu emen s (see Table 2).
3.2. Compa ison be ween TPELF
CURRENT
expense and TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY
expense
As can also be seen in Fig. 3, he e a e a numbe o coun ies whose
elec ic consump ion would en ail a g ea e cos han hei cu en
TPELF in he e en o p oducing wi hin he coun y i sel e e y hing
hey hen consume ( ha is, achie ing so e eign y). In o he wo ds, hey
would ha e o pay mo e o elec ici y han hey cu en ly do as
measu ed in CBA accoun s. This is he case o 24 o he 44 coun ies
Fig. 4. Sha e o Hidden Elec ic Cos (HEC, %) compa ed o he na ional HDI.
Table 2
A e age HEC alues and co esponding yea ly expense pe capi a in elec ici y.
HEC A e age
%
€
⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
HDI
10 mos de eloped analysed coun ies 14.36% 306.7 0.921
24 in e media e de eloped analysed
coun ies
18.15% 239.6 0.864
10 leas de eloped analysed coun ies −1.35% −37.7 0.722
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
8
analysed. Meanwhile, o he o he 20 coun ies conside ed, he elec ic
cos i so e eign y we e achie ed would be lowe han ha measu ed by
CBA accoun s.
This classi ica ion shows o which coun ies i is ad an ageous om
he poin o iew o he cos o elec ici y o p oduce in o he coun ies
and hen impo he goods, ins ead o ca ying ou local p oduc ion ha
would in ol e highe spending.
3.2.1. Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s (JIEC)
Fig. 5A and 5.B show he sha e o Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s o he
coun ies analysed, including hei le el o de elopmen , measu ed
h ough he HDI indica o o he UNDP.
Acco ding o he Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s (JIEC) indica o , which
ul ima ely e lec s he in es men in elec ici y needed o achie e so -
e eign y, Cyp us would be he coun y a hes om achie ing i , since
he inc ease in cos would be by 15.63%, compa ed o he TPELF
CURRENT
paymen . Luxembou g, on he o he hand, would sa e 8.99% on he
paymen o TPELF
CURRENT
i all p oduc ion ook place wi hin he coun y
wi h cu en na ional elec ic p ices.
The coun ies wi h a nega i e JIEC index a e hose ha bene i he
mos om in e na ional ade, in e ms o he cos o elec ici y. This is
so, because i hey we e o aim o p oduce all he goods and se ices hey
consume in hei own coun y, he cos o elec ici y would be consid-
e ably highe .
Table 3 shows ha , he en mos de eloped coun ies analysed
should be spending 0.86% mo e on a e age han hei cu en elec ic
Fig. 5. Sha e o Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s (JIEC, %) compa ed o he na ional HDI.
Table 3
A e age JIEC alues and co esponding yea ly cos sa ing o inc ease pe capi a
in elec ici y.
JIEC A e age
%
€
⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
HDI
10 mos de eloped analysed coun ies −0.86% −44.25 0.921
24 in e media e de eloped analysed
coun ies
−2.45% −54.9 0.864
10 leas de eloped analysed coun ies 1.04% 6.6 0.722
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 341 (2022) 130797
9
paymen , which means
€
44.25 mo e pe pe son pe yea . Simila ly, he
24 in e media e coun ies should be spending
€
54.98 mo e pe pe son
pe yea , which is 2.45% mo e. On he o he hand, he en leas de el-
oped coun ies should be spending
€
6.58 less han hei cu en elec ic
cos pe pe son pe yea , which is 1.04%.
3.3. Tex ile sec o
The same compa ison among paymen s o TPELS
CURRENT
, TPELF-
CURRENT
and TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY
has been made speci ically o he ex ile
indus y sec o . The ollowing igu e (Fig. 6) shows he esul s:
Especially ele an o he ex ile sec o is he analysis o he sha e o
(In)Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos s, which is he inc ease in spending o
sa ing on elec ici y i e e y hing we e p oduced wi hin he coun y
(TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY)
in compa ison wi h paymen o TPELF
CURRENT
.
Resul s a e shown in Fig. 7.
No way would equi e he la ges in es men , an inc ease in
expendi u e o 1247%, compa ed o hei cu en elec ic cos based on
CBA accoun s (TPELF
CURRENT
), whe eas he People’s Republic o China
would ha e sa ings o 58.46%. As can be seen in he p e ious igu e, he
coun ies o which i would mean sa ings on elec ici y paymen s a e:
Mexico, Romania, India, Chinese Taipei, Tu key, Res o he Wo ld,
Czech Republic, Es onia, Indonesia, Bulga ia and People’s Republic o
China.
3.4. Ag icul u e sec o
This compa ison (among paymen o TPELS
CURRENT
, TPELF
CURRENT
and TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY
) has also been made speci ically o he ag icul-
u e sec o . Resul s a e shown in he ollowing igu e (Fig. 8):
Fig. 9 shows he sha e o Jus ice in Paymen s o he ag icul u e
sec o , measu ed as inc ease in spending o sa ing o TPELS
SOVEREIGNTY
in compa ison wi h paymen s o TPELF
CURRENT
.
Luxembou g would equi e he la ges in es men ; an inc ease in
paymen o 188.64%, compa ed o wha hey ac ually pay o elec ici y
consump ion based on CBA accoun s (TPELF), whe eas he Ne he lands
would ha e sa ings o 76.48%. As can be seen in he p e ious igu e, he
coun ies o which i would mean sa ings on elec ici y paymen s a e:
Hunga y, India, People’s Republic o China, Res o he Wo ld, G eece,
Bulga ia, Aus alia, Belgium, I eland, Tu key, Canada, Denma k, Spain,
Mexico and Ne he lands.
Pa icula ly o he ex ile sec o , as shown in Table 4, he en
coun ies wi h he highes HDI among hose analysed would need o
spend 438.75% mo e on a e age o achie e elec ic so e eign y, he 24
in e media e coun ies would need o pay 227.94% mo e, and he en
egions wi h lowes HDI, 15.67%. This inc ease in all coun ies occu s
due he elec ic exchanges no only among coun ies, bu also be ween
indus ial sec o s. Fo he ag icul u e sec o , Table 4 shows ha he en
leas de eloped coun ies would ha e sa ings o 1.46% on a e age
(compa ed o cu en paymen s) i elec ic so e eign y we e achie ed.
On he o he hand, he en mos de eloped coun ies analysed would
ha e o pay 24.4% mo e han hey cu en ly do in o de o achie e his
goal, while in e media e coun ies would ha e o pay 19.69% mo e.
4. Conclusions
In his s udy wo indexes ha e been de eloped: Hidden Elec ic Cos s
(HEC) and Jus ice in Elec ici y Cos (JIEC). Bo h indexes allow us o
quan i y he jus ice o ai ness in in e na ional elec ic exchanges
embodied in goods and se ices. These indexes ha e allowed us o assign
a nume ic alue o elec ic jus ice, e idencing he need o ecognise he
si ua ion o global ene gy injus ice: he un ai ci cums ances gene a ed
by he CBA accoun s o icially used o measu e coun ies’ consump ion
and expendi u e in he ene gy ield in gene al, and in he elec ic ield in
pa icula . The wo indexes allow us i s ly o unde s and he di e ence
be ween he eal elec ic expendi u e o a coun y and he cu en
elec ic expendi u e e e ence (HEC, in pe cen age), and secondly, o
unde s and how un ai he paymen o he impo ed elec ici y has been,
using as a e e ence he na ional elec ic p ice (JIEC, in pe cen age). All
da a o his esea ch a e a ailable in Supplemen a y Table S3 in o de o
make hem eachable o policymake s and u u e scien i ic s udies. The
no el con ibu ion o his esea ch has been o ela e he hidden elec ic
exchanges be ween coun ies o he economic paymen concep .
C ea ing his nume ical b idge has allowed he au ho s o cas ligh on
elec ic dependencies exis ing among coun ies, and he esul ing le els
o jus ice (in e ms o paymen ). The ac o ha ing a HEC o JIEC in-
dica o can allow he policymake s o a coun y o imp o e he in e -
na ional elec ic exchanges globally, while ac ing locally. In addi ion, an
annual e alua ion could be made o he policies adop ed and hei eal
e ec s ou side na ional bo de s, and he impac s o said ac ions and hei
implica ions wi hin hese indica o s could e en be i ually modelled.
This esea ch ein o ces he s a emen ha ai , esponsible and
sus ainable na ional de elopmen implies he inclusion o a global iew
o he in e na ional use o esou ces (Zhang e al., 2019). I is essen ial
Fig. 6. Compa a i e o he ex ile sec o among he expense in To al P ima y Elec ic Supply, To al P ima y Elec ic Foo p in and To al P ima y Elec ic Supply o
So e eign y (
€
⋅cap
−1
⋅y
−1
).
M. San Sal ado del Valle e al.
