259
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion andSubjec i e
Pe cep ion o In eg a ion
in heAu onomous Communi y
o heBasque Coun y
A kai zFullaondo andGo kaMo eno
Abs ac Since he beginning o he wen y- i s cen u y, Basque socie y has been
unde going an in ensi e p ocess o e hnocul u al di e si ica ion, a consequence o
he la es in e na ional mig a o y lows. Fo he Basque Coun y, hese lows imply
a new mig a o y cycle which, as on o me occasions, helps u he di e si y an
al eady di e se socie y. F om he poin o iew o a cohesi e socie y, he in eg a ion
o hese new mig an s is a key elemen . Wha is he ole o social and poli ical pa -
icipa ion in he in eg a ion p ocess? This pape aims a p o iding an answe o he
ques ion. The e may be a a ie y o o ms and models o de ining wha is unde -
s ood as in eg a ion. Howe e , i is gene ally ag eed ha pa icipa ion is a majo
ac o in his in eg a ion p ocess. This consensus is based on he ac ha pa icipa-
ion is a undamen al, democ a ic elemen which is ela ed o poli ical and ci il
igh s, he communi y sys em and a socie y’s ci izens. F om he democ a ic iew-
poin , ha ing immig an s pa icipa e is, he e o e, a undamen al aspec .
In his wo k, we in end o analyse he ela ion be ween he pa icipa ion o peo-
ple o o eign o igin esiding in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y
(CAPV) and hei subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion. To his end, we based ou
wo k on he Basque Go e nmen ’s Su ey o he Fo eign Immig an Popula ion
(EPIE), a su ey ha allows us o analyse he subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion o
people o o eign o igin depending on he di e en o ms o engagemen and hei
sociodemog aphic and mig a o y p o ile. The indings helped show he exis ence o
a posi i e ela ion be ween pa icipa ion and he pe cep ion o in eg a ion.
Fu he mo e, i was likewise obse ed ha he di e en pa icipa ion p o iles iden i-
ied a y depending on he na u e o he o ganisa ion in which hey pa icipa e, he
mig a o y s age and hei socio-economic cha ac e is ics.
Keywo ds Pa icipa ion · Immig a ion · Di e si y · In eg a ion
A. Fullaondo (*) · G. Mo eno
Depa men o Sociology and Social Wo k, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU),
Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]; [email p o ec ed]
© The Au ho (s) 2023
J. Zabalo e al. (eds.), Made- o-Measu e Fu u e(s) o Democ acy?,
Con ibu ions o Poli ical Science, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-08608-3_14
260
1 In oduc ion
Social pa icipa ion in a socie y is a c ucial elemen o he in eg a ion o exclusion
o he people pa icipa ing in i (Subi a s, 2004). Simila ly, pa icipa ion is a co e
dimension o democ a ic p ac ice. Howe e , i s de ini ion is di e se and depends on
he heo e ical posi ion (Ma inez, 2018). F om he academic poin o iew, he
s udies on pa icipa ion a e based on he analysis o he egula o y dimension (pa -
icipa o y p ocedu es and a willingness o edis ibu e powe ), on he consequences
o pa icipa ion (empowe men and inc eased social capi al), on he echnical design
and he implemen a ion o pa icipa ion de ices (delibe a i e and pa icipa o y p o-
cesses) and on he s udy o pa icipa ion om he sec o al pe spec i e (pa icipa ion
in e ms o gende , sus ainabili y o in e sec ionali y, among o he s) (Ma inez,
2018). Wi h his mul idimensional con ex , pa icipa ion and immig a ion can be
s udied om a a ie y o dimensions, o example, he ques ion o he igh o o e
and s and o elec ion ( egula o y dimension), he ela ion be ween pa icipa ion
and social in eg a ion (consequences o pa icipa ion) o a sec o analysis o immi-
g a ion and pa icipa ion.
In any case, i is widely ecognised ha pa icipa ion is a key elemen in he
immig an in eg a ion p ocess, as i indica es, among o he hings, he de elopmen
o ci izen y as a whole (De Lucas, 2007), he expansion o igh s (Schuck, 2018)
and he ein o cemen o mo e in eg a ed and cohesi e socie ies (Odmalm, 2005) in
con ex s o di e si y (Kymlicka, 1995). Howe e , he ole o impo ance i is sup-
posed o ha e may di e depending on he de ini ion gi en o he concep o in eg a-
ion. Indeed, he concep o in eg a ion is used ecu en ly in mig a o y s udies
while being one o he main objec i es o public policies in ecei ing coun ies.
Howe e , he e is no consensus on he exac de ini ion o he concep o in eg a ion
(Godenau e al., 2014), and nei he is he e on he impo ance o pa icipa ion in he
in eg a ion p ocess.
The analysis o he p ocesses o social and poli ical pa icipa ion o immig an s
has become inc easingly impo an in mig a o y s udies since he 1960s (Rex e al.,
1987) and, in ecen yea s, in e na ionally (Zapa a e al., 2013; Ve meulen, 2010;
Ma iniello, 2005). Academic s udies in Spain on mig a ion also e lec his eali y
and ha e deal wi h he subjec , pa icula ly gi en he boom and de elopmen in
mig a o y lows in he las 25yea s (Pé ez-Ca amés, 2018). In his a ea, abo e all,
he e has been an analysis o issues associa ed wi h poli ical pa icipa ion on he one
hand, wi h emphasis on aspec s like access o he o e and s anding o elec ions and
elec o al pa icipa ion (González Fe e , 2013), and, on he o he , social and poli i-
cal pa icipa ion h ough ci il socie y associa ions and o ganisa ions (Moya, 2005;
Apa icio & To nós, 2010; Lacomba & Aboussi, 2017).
S a ing om his ocus on he ela ion be ween pa icipa ion and mig a o y p o-
cesses, in his pape , we shall y o analyse he exis ing ela ion be ween he poli i-
cal and social pa icipa ion o people o o eign o igin esiding in he Au onomous
Communi y o he Basque Coun y (CAPV) and hei p ocess o in eg a ion in
Basque socie y. The me hodology used is based on a quan i a i e- ype analysis o
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
261
he Su ey o he Fo eign Immig an Popula ion (EPIE) which he Basque
Go e nmen has been ca ying ou e e y 4 yea s since 2010. This su ey is based on
a sample o 2200 pe sons and hei homes and includes in o ma ion on he o eign
as well as he na ional popula ion o o eign o igin o he na u alised popula ion.
Based on his su ey, we shall analyse he poli ical and social pa icipa ion o he
people o o eign o igin in ela ion o, on he one hand, hei pa icipa ion in immi-
g an o immig an suppo associa ions, neighbou s’ associa ions, ade unions and
poli ical pa ies and, on he o he , hei pa icipa ion in elec o al p ocesses. In his
espec , we ocus he analysis on he deg ee o pa icipa ion as well as on he p o ile
o he people pa icipa ing, depending on hei socio-economic, ci izenship, mig a-
o y and sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics. Simila ly, we shall analyse he ela ion
be ween pa icipa ion and he subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion.
2 Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion andPe cep ion o In eg a ion
Fo many yea s, immig an wo ke s ha e been conside ed empo a y gues s in hei
ecei ing coun ies and no po en ial ci izens who a e expec ed o be poli ically
ac i e; ha is o say, hei ole in socie y has been conside ed limi ed exclusi ely o
p oduc ion and wo k (Ma iniello, 2005). Fo his eason, he deg ee o impo ance
o he poli ical and social pa icipa ion o immig an s in he in eg a ion p ocess will
a y depending on whe he hey a e conside ed ci izens o no wi h he igh o pa -
icipa e in socie y and, consequen ly, likewise, he impo ance o he pa icipa ion in
in eg a ion policies (Ahokas, 2010).
Wi h ega d o in eg a ion, pa icipa ion is one o he ou dimensions o immi-
g an s’ poli ical inco po a ion in ecei ing socie ies, along wi h he ecogni ion o
igh s, iden i ica ion wi h he hos socie y and he adop ion o democ a ic alues and
s anda ds (Zapa a e al., 2013; Ma iniello, 2005). In his ega d, when speaking o
he poli ical in eg a ion o immig an s, h ee elemen s need o be conside ed,
namely, i s o all, he deg ee o sel -iden i ica ion wi h he poli ical sys em o he
hos coun y; secondly, he deg ee o ac i e pa icipa ion h ough o ing and pa ici-
pa ion in he public sphe e; and, hi dly, he pe cep ion o eeling hea d by he
au ho i ies (Zapa a e al., 2013). Along he same line, En zinge poin s ou ha “one
o he basic p inciples o democ acy implies ha all membe s o a poli ical com-
muni y ha e a sha e in he decision-making p ocesses ha decide on ha commu-
ni y, i s go e nance and i s u u e” (1999:9). In his espec , one o he ways o
ela ing pa icipa ion wi h he immig an in eg a ion p ocess is based on hei deg ee
o social pa icipa ion linked o he decision-making p ocesses (En zinge , 1999).
The deg ee o poli ical and social pa icipa ion o immig an s is condi ioned by
he cha ac e is ics o he immig an s hemsel es as well as by he ecei ing soci-
e y’s con ex . In a hos con ex whe e mig a o y and in eg a ion policies gene a e
spaces o oppo uni y o immig an s’ social and poli ical pa icipa ion, he deg ee
o pa icipa ion will end o be g ea e . We a e e e ing, among o he aspec s, o
pa icipa ion p og ammes, as well as discou ses, issues which a e he subjec o
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
262
consul a ion and decision and access o con en ional (elec ions, poli ical o ganisa-
ions, pa icipa ion p ocesses, e c.) and non-con en ional pa icipa ion (mobilisa-
ion, s ikes, demons a ions, ci il disobedience, e c.) (Zapa a e al., 2013). Thus,
we can see how his hos con ex is de ined, on he one hand, by egula o y and
ins i u ional elemen s and, on he o he , by socie y i sel , by i s indi iduals as well
as by he collec i e, depending on said socie y’s deg ee o inclusion o di e si y in
i s social eali ies and p ocesses. Wi h ega d o he immig an s’ cha ac e is ics,
di e se s udies ha e shown ha he immig an ’s social o igin and hei sociodemo-
g aphic p o ile, such as p io poli ical socialisa ion, social capi al, he language, he
o m o mig a ion, leng h o s ay and he socio-economic si ua ion in he ecei ing
coun y, ha e an impac on pa icipa ion (Ruedin, 2016; Zapa a e al., 2013).
Mo eo e , as we ha e al eady poin ed ou , pa icipa ion is one o he ac o s
in luencing he in eg a ion p ocess. The a ie y in ways o measu e in eg a ion is
conside able, wi h one o hem being he subjec i e pe cep ion ha he immig an s
hemsel es ha e o hei deg ee o in eg a ion. This indica o shows he esul o he
immig an ’s li e expe ience in he hos socie y, a li e expe ience ha he immig an s
hemsel es e alua e by aking in o conside a ion, among o he ques ions, he oppo -
uni ies, obs acles, ejec ion and suppo ecei ed while se ing up hei li e p ojec
in he ecei ing socie y and on which hei own p io expec a ions and hei pe sonal
expe ience p io o he mig a o y p ocess likewise impac (Ami & Riss, 2014).
The e o e, i is an indica o which, a he han jus measu ing he deg ee o objec-
i e in eg a ion and subs an ia ed by da a o indica o s, helps us unde s and he
ex en o which he immig an eels in eg a ed in ou socie y (González, 2014).
3 Pa icipa ion in heAssocia i e Ne wo k
The associa i e ne wo k is an elemen ha cha ac e ises con empo a y socie ies.
Wi h a g ea ange o ypes, o ms, unc ions and cha ac e is ics, i plays an impo -
an ole in a icula ing he communi y and is an essen ial ac o o i s social capi al
(Fe nadez & Cano, 2018). Associa ions and o ganisa ions o cul u e, leisu e, spo s
clubs, eligious bodies, educa ional g oups, e c. a e spaces o social pa icipa ion,
no so much linked o he decision-making- ela ed pa icipa ion which En zinge
(1999) speaks o bu a he o he social muscle on which a majo pa o socie y’s
communi y and social li e is s uc u ed and, he e o e, whe e spaces o social pa -
icipa ion and social ela ions a e gene a ed. A socie y wi h a b oad and di e se
associa i e ne wo k is linked o an ac i e and ull communi y li e. In his espec ,
om he poin o iew o he in eg a ion p ocesses o he immig an popula ion, i
is impo an o know he deg ee o social pa icipa ion o he collec i e in he asso-
cia i e ne wo k (Vecina, 2010).
The EPIE does no allow us o compa e he deg ee o pa icipa ion o he popula-
ion o o eign o igin wi h he deg ee o pa icipa ion exis ing in he whole o Basque
socie y. This compa ison can be made wi h he da a om he Su ey on Social
Capi al ca ied ou by he Basque Ins i u e o S a is ics (Eus a ). Based on his
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
263
s a is ical ope a ion, he Eus a can calcula e he indica o o pa icipa ion in asso-
cia ions and can di e en ia e said indica o depending on he o igin o he popula-
ion. The esul s o 2017 e eal a simila deg ee o pa icipa ion in associa ions in
he case o he o e all popula ion and ha o o eign o igin. To be p ecise, 98.3% o
he o e all popula ion ha e a low deg ee o pa icipa ion, 1.6% a medium deg ee
and 0.1% a high deg ee, whe eas in he case o he popula ion o o eign o igin,
98.7% ha e a low deg ee o pa icipa ion, 1.3% a medium deg ee and 0% a
high deg ee.
Focusing on he esul s p o ided by he EPIE, in G aph 1, we can app ecia e he
pe cen age o people o o eign o igin o e 16yea s who say hey pa icipa e in di -
e en kinds o associa ions and bodies.1 I we look a he da a om 2010, we can
see ha pa icipa ion in he associa i e ne wo k occu ed, in he main, in spo s
associa ions (9.5%) o in eligious bodies (7.9%), ollowed by educa ional and/o
cul u al g oups (4.4%) and in o mal immig an g oups (3.5%). We can he e o e
app ecia e how he pa icipa ion o immig an s a i ing du ing he i s mig a o y
wa e a he beginning o he wen y- i s cen u y was concen a ed mainly in he
spo s and eligious associa i e ne wo k.
1 Wi h ega d o he mig a o y con ex , he da a om 2010 ep esen he collec i e o o eign o igin
ha a i ed in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y du ing he i s mig a o y wa e,
which go unde way a he beginning o he wen y- i s cen u y as a consequence o he building
boom. Wi h ega d o he economic and social si ua ion, hey ep esen he i s yea s o he 2008
economic down u n. Las ly, 2018 was a con ex o mig a o y g ow h ela ed o he eco e y om
he economic slump and he e u n o economic g ow h, hough a om he economic expansion
and wel a e indica o s p io o 2008.
G aph 1 % o popula ion o o eign o igin >16yea s esiding in he Au onomous Communi y o
he Basque Coun y and pa icipa ing in he associa i e ne wo k. (Sou ce: EPIE.Compiled by he
au ho s)
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
264
In 2018, he esul s e eal a change in he ype o pa icipa ion. The e is g ea e
pa icipa ion in educa ional and cul u al g oups (6.9%) and in in o mal immig an
o ganisa ions (4.1%) and a d op in pa icipa ion in spo s associa ions (6.9%) and in
eligious bodies (4.3%). Thus, we can app ecia e how once mig an s ha e se led
and es ablished hemsel es, pa icipa ion is a ec ed, he social ne wo k changes
and mo es, abo e all, o cul u al and educa ional spaces and a eas whe e he immi-
g an s hemsel es can ela e. As o he d op in he numbe s in ol ed in eligious
bodies, i may be associa ed wi h a g ea e deg ee o in eg a ion, as, in he ini ial
s ages o he mig a ion p ocess, pa icula ly in he case o immig an s o ce ain
o igins, eligious bodies p o ide suppo and assis ance.
Do all immig an s pa icipa e equally i espec i e o hei mig a o y and social
cha ac e is ics, o a e he e any di e ences? The ques ion is pe inen . Though he e
is a endency o see he collec i e as a homogeneous whole o , a bes , di e en ia ed
by hei o igin and hei cul u al, eligious and linguis ic cha ac e is ics, he u h is
ha he immig an popula ion is a highly di e se popula ion g oup wi h in e nal di -
e ences as ega ds gende , age s uc u e, leng h o s ay, socio-economic si ua ion o
legal si ua ion, among o he a iables.
Table 1 shows he indings ha help ou line he p o ile o people o e he age o
16 o o eign o igin pa icipa ing in each ype o associa ion and iden i ies se e al
di e ences. Fi s o all, in o de o answe he ques ion posed abo e, i we compa e
he esul o each a iable o he o al popula ion o o eign o igin wi h ha o he
people who say hey pa icipa e, we can app ecia e a se ies o speci ic cha ac e is-
ics in pa icipa ion and he ac ha he cha ac e is ics a y depending on he ype
o associa ion in which hey pa icipa e.
Gene ally speaking, based on he esul s om 2018, he pa icipa ion p o ile o
he immig an s who pa icipa e in in o mal o ganisa ions and eligious bodies is
mo e o ien a ed o he ques o aid o easons o necessi y, associa ed wi h he
mig a o y s age and hei socio-economic si ua ion. These ypes o g oups and en i-
ies usually end o be spaces o in ag oup and co-e hnic communi y assis ance,
whe e immig an s in need go o b oaden hei social ne wo k and ecei e in o mal
suppo . In he case o eligious bodies, he e is an added elemen o communi y
eligious p ac ice. In he case o in o mal immig an o ganisa ions, he p o ile is
mainly people in inancial di icul ies (61.3%); in a p eca ious legal si ua ion (10.9%
illegal and 17.9% empo a y esidence); an a e age leng h o s ay less han he s an-
da d (10.7yea s), on a e age; younge (38.3); and he popula ion o A ican o igin
and he es o he wo ld. In he case o he eligious bodies, he e is a s ikingly high
pe cen age o people in inancial di icul ies (71.7%), an a e age leng h o s ay less
han wha is he s anda d (11.4yea s), low o medium educa ional le el and wi h
o igins concen a ed in he es o Sou h Ame ica, he Magh eb and Romania and
o he eas e n EU coun ies.
Wi h ega d o hose pa icipa ing in cul u al, educa ional and spo s associa-
ions, he p o ile p esen ed is, o a la ge ex en , one o a se led immig an who seeks
o engage in he social ne wo k hough hey a e no necessa ily in any pa icula
si ua ion o need. These ypes o bodies a e likewise pa o he communi y ne wo k
and can se e as spaces o assis ance. Howe e , hey a e mo e ans e sal, open and
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
265
Table 1 P o ile o he popula ion o o eign o igin >16 esiding in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y and pa icipa ing in he associa i e
ne wo k by mig a o y, socio-economic and demog aphic a iables (% e ical)
2010 2018
In o mal
immig an
g oups
Spo s
club
G upos
Educa ional
g oups
Religious
bodies To al
In o mal
immig an
g oups
Spo s
Educa ional
club
Cul u al
g oups Bodies To al
Gende Male 62.2 62.8 37.6 46.1 46.8 51.2 56.2 45.2 35.4 42.7
Female 37.8 37.2 62.4 53.9 53.2 48.8 43.8 54.8 64.6 57.3
Age (a e age) 36.1 33.2 35.9 38.2 35.6 38.3 37.6 40.5 41.4 41.3
Educa ional
le el
No signi ican
educa ion
9.4 3.0 5.9 11.6 8.3 14.3 7.0 6.0 16.3 12.2
Compulso y 21.0 20.2 10.6 28.6 26.7 23.4 15.0 18.4 23.7 26.3
Seconda y 35.9 31.9 32.1 29.3 35.9 24.8 31.1 28.7 38.6 30.5
VT I/II 6.9 9.3 5.2 11.1 10.3 16.3 20.7 14.7 10.1 15.2
Thi d-le el 26.8 35.5 46.3 19.5 18.8 21.1 26.1 32.2 11.4 15.8
(con inued)
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
266 A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
Table 1 (con inued)
Geog aphical
a ea
Wes e n EU 1.6 15.9 12.9 7.0 12.5 3.8 15.1 13.2 3.8 8.4
Romania and
o he Eas e n
EU
1.6 5.2 6.1 8.5 10.5 5.0 6.4 6.9 12.5 9.8
Magh eb 15.8 9.8 9.4 26.2 13.8 14.2 10.9 12.3 24.4 15.1
A gen ina,
Chile, U uguay
4.6 9.5 10.1 3.4 4.9 2.2 8.4 .6.7 2.1 4.1
Colombia,
Ecuado , Pe ú
14.0 14.2 10.6 9.6 18.9 7.8 19.4 24.5 14.8 17.3
Boli ia 14.1 14.5 13.4 6.8 7.4 9.9 6.6 5.5 6.4 6.5
Pa aguay 6.4 3.8 1.8 3.0 3.2 2.1 1.3 1.5 2.9 3.5
B azil,
Venezuela,
Dominican R.
4.2 8.4 6.7 11.2 8.3 8.7 8.3 13.9 4.8 7.8
Res o La in
Ame ica
4.0 7.8 7.1 5.3 5.7 7.6 9.6 5.3 16.8 9.8
China 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.1 2.6 1.9 3.1 0.8 0.7 2.3
Senegal 14.6 2.0 0.9 4.6 1.9 11.9 2.2 0.6 0.7 2.5
Res o A ica 12.7 2.3 13.0 7.6 4.3 11.0 3.6 2.2 4.9 5.6
Res o he
Wo ld
4.7 5.4 6.4 5.6 5.9 14.1 5.1 6.6 5.2 7.4
Leng h s ay-y s. CAPV (a e age) 7.1 9.0 9.5 8.6 8.5 10.7 13.7 15.8 11.4 12.8
2010 2018
In o mal
immig an
g oups
Spo s
club
G upos
Educa ional
g oups
Religious
bodies To al
In o mal
immig an
g oups
Spo s
Educa ional
club
Cul u al
g oups Bodies To al
267
Legal si ua ion Spanish
na ionali y
8.6 25.1 15.1 16.4 18.4 35.9 44.3 48.1 39.1 37.4
Pe manen
esidence
45.5 45.1 50.9 44.2 52.6 34.4 41.7 42.0 46.0 48.6
Tempo a y
esidence
28.9 19.2 26.6 27.4 21.7 17.9 10.2 5.0 11.1 8.3
Illegal 17.1 10.6 7.4 12.0 7.4 10.9 3.7 4.2 3.9 5.1
Financial
di icul ies
Yes 75.6 56.1 61.9 64.6 57.1 61.3 44.1 41.7 71.7 55.0
No 24.4 43.9 38.1 35.4 42.9 38.7 55.9 58.3 28.3 45.0
To al 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Sou ce: EPIE.Compiled by he au ho s
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
274
G aph 3 Popula ion o o eign o igin >18 yea s wi h Spanish na ionali y (%). (Sou ce:
EPIE.Compiled by he au ho s)
In his espec , he legal amewo k egula ing access o na ionali y is he main
ac o condi ioning he deg ee o pa icipa ion o he popula ion o o eign o igin.
This is he case because he condi ions o access di e depending on he coun y.
In some cases, he numbe o yea s equi ed o be eligible o legal esidence a e
mo e and in o he s less. B oadly speaking, he popula ion om La in Ame ican
coun ies equi e 2yea s o legal esidence while he emainde , unde cu en ules,
a e equi ed o ha e esided 10yea s in he coun y. Consequen ly, when analysing
and e alua ing he deg ee o pa icipa ion o people o o eign o igin, i is indispens-
able o know he pe cen age o people who ha e ob ained Spanish na ionali y and
e alua e hei deg ee o pa icipa ion based on his elemen .
In his espec , G aph 3 shows he pe cen age o popula ion o o eign o igin o e
18 yea s who ha e ob ained Spanish na ionali y. In 2018, 36.3% had ob ained
Spanish na ionali y, implying a signi ican inc ease wi h espec o he 18.3% in
2010. Ne e heless, e en in 2010, he e we e no able di e ences acco ding o o i-
gin, and, in 2018, hese di e ences we e e en g ea e .
In 2018, he majo i y o he La in Ame ican o igins eco ded o e 50% ha ing
ob ained na ionali y, wi h coun ies like Boli ia, Colombia, Ecuado , Pe u,
A gen ina, Chile and U uguay eco ding o e 60%. The pe cen age ep esen ing
Spanish na ionali y among he emaining o igins is signi ican ly less, 25.7% in he
case o wes e n EU, 22.8% o he Magh eb and less han 20% in he es o cases.
Mo eo e , he e olu ion in ela ion o 2010 clea ly indica es ha he inc ease in
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
275
na u alisa ions was much g ea e in he case o La in Ame ican o igins and o a a
lesse ex en in ela ion o o he o igins. Thus, we can app ecia e ha he popula ion
o La in Ame ican o igin p edomina e among he popula ion o o eign o igin wi h
he igh o o e.
Wi h espec o he deg ee o pa icipa ion, he elec o al p ocesses held in ecen
yea s ha e eco ded he low pa icipa ion o he immig an collec i e– o hose who
ha e he igh o o e and s and o elec ion (Godenau e al., 2014)– and hey a e
clea ly unde ep esen ed in he ins i u ions. The indings o he EPIE e eal simila
esul s. In 2010, only 34% o people o o eign o igin o e 18yea s o age and wi h
Spanish na ionali y admi ed o ha ing pa icipa ed in Au onomous Communi y
elec ions ( he ype o elec ions we shall analyse), and, in 2018, he pe cen age ose,
bu only o 41.6%.
The esul s in Table3 show he p o ile o he pe son o o eign o igin who akes
pa in elec ions. Based on he da a om 2018, he p o ile is cha ac e ised by a
emale o e (64.5%), wi h an a e age age o 48.5, medium o high educa ional le el
(48.1% wi h oca ional aining o highe ), mainly o La in Ame ican o igin (78.6%),
wi h an a e age leng h o esidency in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque
Coun y o 20.4yea s and e lec ing a ce ain balance be ween people in no inancial
di icul y (55.5%) and hose in inancial di icul ies (44.%). In compa ison wi h he
gene al p o ile, his o e p o ile indica es a pe son abo e he a e age, wi h a high
educa ional le el, longe ime o esidence and a be e inancial si ua ion. As ega ds
gende and o igin, he dis ibu ion o he o e and he gene al p o ile is simila .
A compa ison o his p o ile wi h ha o 2010 e eals ha he e has been a sig-
ni ican ans o ma ion in he ype o pe son aking pa in he Au onomous
Communi y elec ion. In 2010, he o e p o ile was cha ac e ised by being a man
(56.5%) wi h an a e age age o 45.7; wi h a high educa ional le el (48.3%), hi d
le el educa ion; mainly om he EU (33.9%) and om A gen ina, Chile, U uguay,
B azil, Venezuela and he Dominican Republic (30.7%); wi h an a e age leng h o
s ay o app oxima ely 20 yea s; and he as majo i y in no inancial di icul y
(78.4%).
In his espec , he compa ison o bo h p o iles indica es an e olu ion owa ds a
mo e eminised o e , wi h a mo e di e se educa ional le el, mo e La in Ame ican
and wi h a mo e balanced inancial si ua ion be ween hose who a e and a e no in
inancial di icul ies. In sho , we can app ecia e ha , al hough he o e p o ile in
2010 was qui e di e en om he gene al p o ile o he people o o eign o igin wi h
Spanish na ionali y, in 2018, he gap in he case o his p o ile was na owed, e eal-
ing a o e no so di e en o he gene al p o ile.
5 Poli ical andSocial Pa icipa ion andSubjec i e
Pe cep ion o In eg a ion
Ha ing analysed in dep h he deg ee o poli ical and social pa icipa ion o he pop-
ula ion o o eign o igin and he di e en p o iles o he people aking pa , we shall
now ocus on whe he he e is any ela ion be ween his pa icipa ion and hese
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
276
Table 3 P o ile o popula ion o o eign o igin >18 wi h Spanish na ionali y in he Au onomous
Communi y o he Basque Coun y pa icipa ing in Au onomous Communi y elec ions by
mig a o y, socio-economic and demog aphic a iables (% e ical)
2010 2018
Au onomous
Communi y To al
Au onomous
Communi y To al
Gende Male 56.3 45.0 35.5 34.1
Female 43.7 55.0 64.5 65.9
Age (a e age) 45.7 41.7 48.5 45.6
Le el o s udies No meaning ul
quali ica ions
3.1 4.0 3.2 7.2
Compulso y 19.4 23.4 19.0 22.3
Seconda y 18.3 31.2 29.6 31.1
VT I/II 11.1 11.8 21.5 19.1
Thi d-le el 48.3 29.6 26.6 20.3
O igen Wes e n EU 19.6 12.4 7.3 7.2
Romania and o he
Eas e n EU coun ies
14.0 5.9 0.8 0.4
Magh eb 9.7 11.3 6.6 9.9
A gen ina, Chile,
U uguay
15.6 12.1 10.1 7.0
Columbia, Ecuado ,
Pe u
7.1 27.0 35.1 32.2
Boli ia 0.7 1.4 8.4 10.2
Pa aguay 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.1
B azil, Venezuela,
Dominican Rep.
15.1 13.4 12.1 11.8
Res o La in
Ame ica
5.5 7.5 12.2 11.2
China 1.4 1.1 0.3 0.3
Senegal 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.1
Res o A ica 3.3 3.5 2.3 3.3
Res o he wo ld 7.6 3.8 3.7 3.2
Yea s since hey a i ed in he Basque
Au onomous Communi y(a e age)
19.8 15.3 20.4 17.4
Financial di icul ies Wi h di icul ies 21.6 38.3 44.5 50.5
No di icul ies 78.4 61.8 55.5 49.5
To al 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Sou ce: EPIE.Compiled by he au ho s
people’s subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion. A e poli ical and social pa icipa ion
and subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion ela ed? Does pa icipa ion in luence his
pe cep ion?
The desc ip i e esea ch me hodology o his s udy does no enable us o es ab-
lish explana o y o causal ela ions be ween hese a iables, bu i does allow us o
iden i y a se ies o ac s. The able shows he weigh ed a e age o he subjec i e
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
277
Table 4 Weigh ed a e age o he subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion o he popula ion o o eign
o igin >16 (scale 1–5)a
Pa icipa ing 2010 2018
In o mal immig an g oups Yes 3.90 4.21
No 4.01 4.14
Immig an suppo o ganisa ion Yes 3.94 4.32
No 4.01 4.14
Spo s clubs o associa ions Yes 4.22 4.29
No 3.98 4.13
Educa ional and/o cul u al g oups Yes 4.09 4.30
No 4.00 4.13
Religious g oups and bodies Yes 4.06 3.89
No 4.00 4.16
Neighbou s’ associa ions Yes 4.32 4.30
No 4.00 4.14
T ade unions Yes 4.29 4.35
No 4.00 4.14
Poli ical pa ies Yes 4.35 4.38
No 4.00 4.14
Au onomous communi y elec ions Yes 4.56 4.49
No 4.11 4.20
Sou ce: EPIE.Compiled by he au ho s
aIn he case o Au onomous Communi y elec ions, he weigh ed a e age is de e mined on he
people o o eign o igin >18 wi h Spanish na ionali y
pe cep ion o in eg a ion whe e 1 is no a all in eg a ed and 5 highly in eg a ed,
depending on pa icipa ion o no in he associa ions, o ganisa ions and elec ions
ha we ha e been analysing in his wo k. The esul s show ha , in gene al, he
deg ee o subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion is qui e high in he case o he di e -
en i ems (Table4).
The da a poin o a posi i e ela ion be ween pa icipa ion and he pe cep ion o
in eg a ion, al hough he e a e app eciable di e ences depending on he o ganisa ion
in which hey pa icipa e. In 2018, he weigh ed a e age shows ha he people o
o eign o igin who eel mos in eg a ed a e hose pa icipa ing in elec o al p ocesses
(4.49). Wi h espec o he o ganisa ions and associa ions, he pe cep ion o in eg a-
ion is g ea e among hose who pa icipa e in poli ical pa ies (4.38) and ade unions
(4.35), ollowed by immig an suppo o ganisa ions (4.32), neighbou s’ associa ions
(4.30), cul u al and/o educa ional g oups (4.30) and spo s associa ions (4.29). As
o pe cep ion o in eg a ion, i ends o be less among hose pa icipa ing in in o mal
immig an o ganisa ion (4.21) and eligious bodies (3.89). On he o he hand, in all
cases, excep o pa icipa ion in eligious bodies, pe cep ion o in eg a ion is g ea e
among hose who say hey pa icipa e in compa ison wi h hose who say hey do no
pa icipa e. Mo eo e , he e olu ion since 2010 e eals an o e all inc ease in he
pe cep ion o in eg a ion among hose who pa icipa e as well as among hose who
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
278
do no . This inc ease is g ea e among hose who pa icipa e in immig an suppo
o ganisa ions (+ 0.38), in in o mal immig an o ganisa ions (+0.31) o in cul u al
and/o educa ional g oups (+0.21). On he o he hand, people pa icipa ing in eli-
gious bodies lowe hei pe cep ion o in eg a ion by 0.17 poin s. In he o he cases,
he weigh ed a e age inc eases o dec eases, hough a a lesse in ensi y.
These da a deno e ha he pe cep ion o in eg a ion is g ea e among hose who
ake pa in elec o al p ocesses and in poli ical and social o ganisa ions and sligh ly
less among hose pa icipa ing in he associa i e ne wo k. In solely desc ip i e
e ms, hese da a appea o sugges ha poli ical in eg a ion based on poli ical pa -
icipa ion may ha e a g ea e impac on he pe cep ion o in eg a ion, compa ed
wi h social pa icipa ion in he communi y ab ic. Poli ical pa icipa ion implies
aking pa o in luencing he decision-making p ocess o he hos socie y, and,
he e o e, i implies a g ea e commi men o he public sphe e in which one eels
in eg a ed. In his espec , i is plausible o hink ha he leng h o s ay and a ach-
men also a ec his dynamic and esul in a g ea e pe cep ion o in eg a ion, in
such a way ha hose who ha e esided o longe pa icipa e o a g ea e deg ee in
poli ical pa ies and ade unions and hose who ha e li ed a sho e ime, on he
o he hand, a e mo e in ol ed in eligious and in o mal immig an associa ions. A
he same ime, iden i ica ion wi h he poli ical sys em and a sound legal si ua ion a e
aspec s unde lying hese dynamics and acili a e a g ea e pe cep ion o in eg a ion.
6 Conclusions
The analysis o poli ical and social pa icipa ion o he popula ion o o eign o igin
in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y has allowed us o speci i-
cally iden i y he sphe es in which said pa icipa ion is ca ied ou , he di e ences
ha exis be ween he p o iles o he people pa icipa ing and hei ela ion wi h
subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion. In summa y, we can conclude ha , on he one
hand, he popula ion o o eign o igin pa icipa e socially and poli ically o a simila
deg ee as he o e all popula ion (excep in he case o elec o al pa icipa ion), as i
could no ha e been o he wise based on he exis ing egula ions. Wha ’s mo e he
p o iles o he people o o eign o igin a y depending on he ype o pa icipa ion.
And, las o all, we can app ecia e a g ea e pe cep ion o subjec i e in eg a ion
among he immig an s who pa icipa e.
Poli ical and social pa icipa ion happens in an unequal way. In he case o pa -
icipa ion in he associa i e ne wo k, i occu s mainly in cul u al and/o educa ional
and spo s associa ions and, o a lesse ex en , in in o mal immig an g oups and
eligious bodies. As o spaces o social ela ion, we can app ecia e g ea e pa ici-
pa ion o a gene al and highly di e se na u e in he associa i e ne wo k, which
could imply a posi i e e ec on he ne wo k o ela ions and social capi al o he
people pa icipa ing in hese associa ions. This a gumen is u he s eng hened by
he da a on he subjec i e pe cep ion o in eg a ion. The people o o eign o igin
aking pa in educa ional, cul u al o spo s associa ions ha e a g ea e subjec i e
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
279
pe cep ion o in eg a ion han hose pa icipa ing in in o mal immig an g oups o
eligious bodies.
As o pa icipa ion in poli ical and social o ganisa ions, he esul s indica e ha
immig an s end o pa icipa e o a g ea e ex en in o ganisa ions whose mission is
he de ence o hei igh s and in e es s, whe eas hey a e less in ol ed in o ganisa-
ions o a mo e gene al na u e. Thus, pa icipa ion is g ea e in immig an suppo
o ganisa ions and ade unions and less in neighbou s’ associa ions and poli ical
pa ies. In his case, he e is no co ela ion be ween his di e en ia ion and he pe -
cep ion o in eg a ion. Wi h ega d o pa icipa ion in elec ions, in line wi h wha
was yielded by o he s udies, he deg ee o pa icipa ion is low among he people o
o eign o igin wi h Spanish na ionali y, indica ing a g ea e capaci y o de end hei
in e es s in he poli ical agenda o he ins i u ions.
On he o he hand, he analysis o he p o iles e eals di e ences and simila i ies
in demog aphics, socio-economics, mig a ion and ci izenship acco ding o he ype
o pa icipa ion. Gene ally speaking, wo ypes o p o iles can be di e en ia ed: on
he one hand, ha o hose who a e in ol ed in immig an o ganisa ions and, on he
o he , ha o he es o he o ganisa ions analysed. In he case o immig an o
immig an suppo o ganisa ions, he p o ile is associa ed o a g ea e ex en wi h
immig an s a a mo e ecen mig a o y s age, wi h hose o A ican o igin ha ing
speci ic impo ance, wi h a p eca ious legal si ua ion and in inancial di icul ies. In
he case o he es o he o ganisa ions, hough he e a e di e ences, he p o ile is
based mainly on immig an s who a e ully se led, wi h a high educa ional le el, a
sound legal si ua ion, wi h ewe inancial di icul ies and whe e he pe cen age o
La in Ame ican o igin is signi ican . In conclusion, we can see ha pa icipa ion in
immig an o immig an suppo o ganisa ions is associa ed wi h a p o ile o an
immig an in need and wi h some so o assis ance and suppo , whe eas in he case
o he es o o ganisa ions, pa icipan s a e es ablished immig an s wi h a be e
socio-economic si ua ion. Wi h ega d o elec o al pa icipa ion, he p o ile is like-
wise associa ed wi h an es ablished immig an in a be e socio-economic posi ion.
Coming back o he idea wi h which we began his wo k, pa icipa ion is a un-
damen al democ a ic elemen in socie y and i s poli ical sys em. Mo eo e , in he
case o immig an s, i is an impo an ac o in hei in eg a ion p ocess. In his
wo k, we ha e been able o co obo a e his ela ion be ween pa icipa ion and in e-
g a ion. In addi ion, he ela ion be ween he mig a o y p ocess and pa icipa ion
has helped show ha he ype o pa icipa ion can a y depending on he mig a o y
s age and can e ol e om a ype o pa icipa ion di ec ed a ques ions ela ed o
needs and he p o ec ion o igh s o ano he o a mo e gene al na u e which is asso-
cia ed wi h g ea e social and poli ical in eg a ion. In his espec , hese esul s high-
ligh he need o g an special impo ance o pa icipa ion policies in he amewo k
o in eg a ion policies ha ake in o accoun he di e en dimensions o pa icipa-
ion and poli ical in eg a ion.
Las o all, om he poin o iew o he social cohesion o an e hnocul u ally
di e se socie y such as he Basque one, i is impo an ha he speci ic in e es s o
he people o o eign o igin ha e a place and occupy i in he decision-making space
in he poli ical agenda. Immig a ion laws; he legal p oblems associa ed wi h
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
280
ci izenship; disc imina ion based on ace, o igin o eligion; ins i u ional o labou
disc imina ion; language lea ning; and he e ec s o social inequali y a ec ing
hem pa icula ly a e some o hei many speci ic p oblems and in e es s because o
hei condi ion as immig an s o pe sons o o eign descen .
Re e ences
Adamson, G. (2007). Immig an s and poli ical pa icipa ion– Backg ound, heo y, and empi ical
sugges ions. FRA Pape s. h ps:// a.eu opa.eu/en/publica ion/2009/immig an s- and- poli ical-
pa icipa ion- backg ound- heo y- and- empi ical- sugges ions. Accessed 27 No embe 2020.
Ahokas, L. (2010). P omo ing immig an s’ democ a ic pa icipa ion and in eg a ion. EPACE
Theme Publica ion.
Ami , K., & Riss, I. (2014). The subjec i e well-being o immig an s: P e- and pos -mig a ion.
Social Indica o s Resea ch, 119, 247–264. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11205- 013- 0492- 7
Apa icio, R., & To nós, A. (2010). Las asociaciones de inmig an es en España. Una isión de
conjun o. Minis e io de T abajo e Inmig ación.
De Lucas, J. (2007). In eg ación polí ica, pa icipación y ciudadanía: un balance. En elequia, 4,
271–282.
En zinge , H. (1999). Immig an s’ poli ical and social pa icipa ion in he in eg a ion p ocess. In
Poli ical and social pa icipa ion o immig an s h ough consul a i e bodies, Di ec o a e o
Social and Economic A ai s Council o Eu ope Publishing (pp. 9–40). Council o Eu ope
Publishing.
Fe nadez, B., & Cano, E. (2018). Capi al social y edes polí icas de las asociaciones de inmig an es
en Galicia. Pape s, 103(4), 625–649. h ps://doi.o g/10.5565/ e /pape s.2509
Godenau, D., Rinken, S., Ma ínez de Liza ondo, A., & Mo eno, G. (2014). La in eg ación de los
inmig an es en España: una p opues a de medición a escala egional. Minis e io de Empleo
y Segu idad Social.
González, A. (2011). Cul u a polí ica y pa icipación en España. S udia poli icae, 24, 5–24.
González, Y. (2014). Los p ocesos de in eg ación de pe sonas inmig an es: lími es y nue as apo -
aciones pa a un es udio más in eg al. A henea Digi al, 14(1), 195–220.
González Fe e , A., & Lau a, M. (2013). Do ci izenship egimes shape poli ical inco po a ion?
E idence o m ou Eu opean ci ies. Eu opean Poli ical Science, 12(4), 455–566.
Kymlicka, W. (1995). Mul icul u al ci izenship: A Libe al heo y o mino i y igh s.
Cla endom P ess.
Lacomba, J., & Aboussi, M. (2017). La inmig ación y su con ibución a la sociedad ci il española
y el desa ollo. Tiempo de Paz, 127, 106–118.
Ma iniello, M. (2005). Poli ical pa icipa ion, mobilisa ion and ep esen a ion o immig an s and
hei o sp ing in Eu ope. Willy B and Se ies o Wo king Pape s in In e na ional Mig a ion
and E hnic Rela ions, School o In e na ional Mig a ion and E hnic Rela ions. h p://muep.
mau.se/handle/2043/1495. Accessed 27 No embe 2020.
Moya, J.M. (2005). Immig an s and associa ions: A Globa l and HIs o ical pe spec i es. Jou nal
o E hnic and Mig a ion S udies, 31(5), 833–864.
Odmalm, P. (2005). Mig a ion policies and poli ical pa icipa ion. Inclusion o in usion in
Wes e n Eu ope? Palg a e Macmillan.
OSCE. (2017). Mig an poli ical pa icipa ion: A e iew o policies and in eg a ion esul s in
he OSCE egion. Resea ch Pape . h ps://www.osce.o g/ iles/ /documen s/2/c/367936.pd .
Accessed 27 No embe 2020.
Pé ez-Ca amés, A. (2018). La pa icipación polí ica de las comunidades mig an es en España.
Nue os y iejos dilemas. Pape s, 103–104, 483–492.
Rex, J., Joly, D., & Wilpe , C. (1987). Immig an associa ions in Eu ope. Alde sho .
A. Fullaondo and G. Mo eno
281
Ruedin, D. (2016). The poli ical pa icipa ion o immig an s. h ps://pape s.ss n.com/sol3/pape s.
c m?abs ac _id=2713468. Accessed 27 No embe 2020.
Soysal, Y. (1999). Pa icipa ion o immig an s in Eu opean public sphe es: Models and e lec ions.
In Poli ical and social pa icipa ion o immig an s h ough consul a i e bodies, Di ec o a e
o Social and Economic A ai s Council o Eu ope Publishing (pp.65–76). Council o Eu ope
Publishing.
Subi a s, J. (2004). (Di .). Pob eza y exclusión social. Un análisis de la ealidad española y eu o-
pea. Fundación La Caixa.
Schuck, P.H. (2018). Ci izens, S ange s and In –Be weens. Rou ledge.
Ma inez, J. (2018). ¿Qué signi ica pa icipa ? Re lexiones sob e la cons ucción de las imágenes
de la pa icipación. Pape s, 102(3), 367–393. h ps://doi.o g/10.5565/ e /pape s.2319
Vecina, C. (2010). Tejido asocia i o, con i encia in e cul u al y desa ollo comuni a io.
Mig aciones, 28, 227–243.
Ve meulen, F. (2010). O ganisa ional pa e ns: Su inamese and Tu quish associa ions in Ams e dan,
1960–1990. Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a ion S udies, 5(5), 951–973.
Zapa a, R., Gab ielli, L., Sanchez, E., & Jaulin, T. (2013). The poli ical pa icipa ion o immi-
g an s in hos coun ies: An in e p e a i e amewo k om he pe spec i e o o igin coun ies
and socie ies. Technical Repo , Mig a ion Policy Cen e, INTERACT, 2013/07. h ps://cad-
mus.eui.eu/handle/1814/29565. Accessed 27 No embe 2020.
Open Access This chap e is licensed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-
NonComme cial- NoDe i a i es 4.0 In e na ional License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/
by- nc- nd/4.0/), which pe mi s any noncomme cial use, sha ing, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in
any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he
sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons license and indica e i you modi ied he licensed
ma e ial. You do no ha e pe mission unde his license o sha e adap ed ma e ial de i ed om his
chap e o pa s o i .
The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his chap e a e included in he chap e 's C ea i e
Commons license, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I ma e ial is no
included in he chap e 's C ea i e Commons license and you in ended use is no pe mi ed by
s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om
he copy igh holde .
Pa icipa ion, Immig a ion and Subjec i e Pe cep ion o In eg a ion in he Au onomous…
