Employment and the risk of domestic violence

UNIVERSITY OF THE BASQUE COUNTRY
UPV/EHU
MASTER THESIS
Employmen and he isk o
domes ic iolence
Au ho :
Da id Gas o
Supe iso :
A an za Ugidos Olazabal
A hesis submi ed in ul illmen o he equi emen s o he deg ee o
Mas e in Economics: Empi ical Applica ions and Policies
Sep embe 25, 2022
i
Abs ac
Da id Gas o
Employmen and he isk o
domes ic iolence
In his mas e ’s hesis we s udy he e ec on he isk o in ima e pa ne iolence
(IPV) o women o he emplyomen s a us o he sel , he pa ne and income o-
ge he wi h a se o exogenous sociodemog aphic ac o s. In doing so we accoun o
he possible endogenei y o he employmen s a uses as well as he incomne. We use
he mos ecen da a a ailable which o igina es om he Violence Agains Women
su ey (VAW) in Spain om 2019. We apply h ee di e en es ima ion me hods o
s udy hei di e ences and in o de o be able o compa e ou esul s o p e ious s ud-
ies which used he same app oaches. The es ima ion me hods a e a linea uni a ia e
p obabili y model which we use in o de o examine he esul s wi hou aking possi-
ble endogeni y in o accoun , a linea wo-s age leas squa es p obabili y model and a
non-linea mul i a ia e p obabili y model. Whe e he la e wo models accoun o
endogenei y. Ou main indings wi h espec o he employmen s a uses a e ha only
he pa ne s employmen s a us plays a majo ole on educing he isk o IPV o he
woman and only when he woman is also employed and only on he non-physical
IPV ype. Fu he mo e, he lowes isk o non-physical IPV appea s when bo h pa -
ne s a e employed. Addi ionally we ind ha especially he educa ion o a woman
and he pa ne plays a majo ole in educing he isk o bo h ypes o IPV when
success ully inished college.
Keywo ds: in ima e pa ne iolence, gende based iolence, domes ic iolence, em-
ploymen , mul i a ia e p obi , m p obi , 2SLS, wo-s age leas squa es, endogenei y
ii
Acknowledgemen s
Fi s o all I would like o hank my supe iso A an za Ugidos Olabazal o he
consis en suppo and guidance du ing he unning o his hesis. I would also like
o acknowledge all my o he p o esso s o he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y o
encou aging me along he whole way and o gi ing me his esea ch oppo uni y.
iii
Con en s
Abs ac i
Acknowledgemen s ii
1 In oduc ion 1
2 Li e a u e Re iew 3
3 Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 10
4 Me hodology 18
5 Resul s 22
6 Conclusions 31
A Appendix 33
Bibliog aphy 37
i
Lis o Tables
3.1 Household’s income in e als . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Agein e als ............................. 12
3.3 Ca ego ies o se ious abuse in he Spanish VAW su eys . . . . . . 13
3.4 IPVbyType.............................. 13
3.5 IPV ypebyRegion.......................... 14
3.6 Summa y s a is ics o woman’s, pa ne s’ and household cha ac e -
is icsbyIPVs a us .......................... 16
3.7 Summa y s a is ics o pa ne s’ employmen and IPV s a us . . . . 17
5.1 Es ima es o isk o Physical IPV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 C oss-equa ion co ela ions coe icien s o IPV Physical ( om m p o-
bi es ima ion)............................. 27
5.3 Es ima es o isk o Non-Physical IPV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 C oss-equa ion co ela ions coe icien s o IPV Non-Physical ( om
m p obi es ima ion) ......................... 29
5.5 Es ima ed ma ginal e ec s o woman and pa ne employmen on
IPV on he basis o he 2SLS eg ession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.6 Es ima ed ma ginal e ec s o household cha ac e is ics on IPV on
basis o he 2SLS eg ession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A.1 Es ima es o isk o Physical IPV - including in e ac ion o woman’s
and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
A.2 Con inuing: Es ima es o isk o Physical IPV - including in e ac-
ion o woman’s and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college . . . . . . . . 34
A.3 Es ima es o isk o Non-Physical IPV - including in e ac ion o
woman’s and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college . . . . . . . . . . . 35
A.4 Con inuing: Es ima es o isk o Non-Physical IPV - including in-
e ac ion o woman’s and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college . . . . . 36

Lis o Abb e ia ions
IPV In ima e Pa ne Violence
VAW Violence Agains Women
HBS Household Budge Su ey
HH HouseHold
EAPS Economically Ac i e Popula ion Su ey
2SLS 2 S age Leas Squa es
1
Chap e 1
In oduc ion
Violence agains women (VAW) is a p oduc o gende based inequali ies and has
been associa ed wi h di e en ac o s such as e.g. employmen ins abili y (Showal e ,
Yoon, and Logan, 2021). Hence, VAW is no only o g ea poli ical in e es bu also
o economic in e es all a ound he globe. Lo s o s udies a e de o ed o examine
de e minan s which a ec whe he a woman expe iences iolence conduc ed by he
pa ne o no and many s udies ocus on he impac o a woman’s employmen s a us
on he isk o expe iencing he so called in ima e pa ne iolence (IPV) (Allen e al.,
2019; Goodey, 2017; Capaldi, 2012). S ill he indings in he li e a u e di e o a
g ea ex en , hey a e inconsis en and some imes e en con adic o y. This e y ac
makes i desi able ake he s udies u he , using he mos ecen da a a ailable o
Spain, om 2019.
In his mas e ’s hesis we wan o examine he e ec o he woman’s employ-
men s a us, he pa ne ’s employmen s a us as well as a se o sociodemog aphic
a iables on he isk o IPV. We dis inguish wo ypes o IPV, such a e non-physical
IPV and physical IPV. IPV e e s o beha iou by an in ima e pa ne o ex-pa ne
ha causes physical o non-physical ha m - whe e physical ha m also includes sexual
abuse and non-physical ha m includes con olling beha iou (Wo ld Heal h O gani-
za ion, 2019). Fu he mo e we apply h ee di e en es ima ion p ocedu es such a e
a wo-s age leas squa es linea p obabili y model, a non-linea mul i a ia e p obi
model and a linea uni a ia e p obi model. In applying hose we wan o s udy he
di e ences be ween he me hods and, u he mo e, we aim a es ablishing conclu-
sions abou he impo ance o aking he possible endogenei y o he employmen
s a uses o he woman and he pa ne as well as he income in o accoun .
Fo his pu pose he e a e wo e y ecen s udies - beside o he s - which we
mainly ollow due o he ac ha we ca y ou he same es ima ion app oaches as
hem and compa e he esul s be ween each o he . The i s o men ion is he wo k
om Lenze and Klasen, 2017, who ca ied ou hei esea ch wi h da a om Jo -
dan and published hei wo k in 2017. They used a wo-s age leas squa e linea
p obabili y app oach in o de o accoun o he possible endogenei y o woman’s
Chap e 1. In oduc ion 2
employmen . A e accoun ing o a possible endogenei y bias, hey came o he
conclusion ha he e is no signi ican e idence o an e ec o woman’s labo o ce
pa icipa ion on domes ic iolence. The second pape we mainly ollow is he s udy
om Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017. This s udy is ca ied ou wi h pa ly he
same da a as we use o his e y mas e ’s hesis. They use da a om he Spanish
VAW su ey om he yea s 1999, 2002 and 2006 while we use da a om he same
su ey bu om he su ey yea 2019. They s udied he ela ionship be ween, no
only, he woman’s employmen s a us, bu also he pa ne ’s employmen s a us and
income on he isk o IPV. They use a mul i a ia e p obi model in o de o accoun
o he possible endogenei y o bo h o he employmen s a uses and income.
The mas e ’s hesis is o ganized as ollows. In sec ion 2 we epo p e iews s ud-
ies and li e a u e ega ding he examina ion o IPV and employmen s a uses. The
unde lying da a base o ou analysis, he sample c ea ion and he co esponding de-
sc ip i e s a is ics a e desc ibed in sec ion 3. The heo e ical aspec s o he di e en
es ima ion models used a e p esen ed in sec ion 4. In sec ion 5, we discuss he esul s
be o e we inally p esen he main conclusions in sec ion 6.
3
Chap e 2
Li e a u e Re iew
In his pa o he mas e ’s hesis we i s ly discuss he ele an esea ch ha ook
place be o e he wo ks o Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, and Lenze and Klasen,
2017. In he second pa o his chap e we will no only look close in o he wo main
pape s men ioned abo e, bu also ocus on he esea ch ha has come o ligh a e -
wa ds, un il he w i ing o his mas e ’s hesis.
In ima e pa ne iolence (IPV) ini ially has been a opic o c iminology and so-
ciology whe e i is known o mainly se e wo pu poses: Exp essi e pu poses and
ins umen al pu poses. Exp essi e he e means ha some men de i e a di ec bene i
om iolence while ins umen al e e s o he case when he pa ne is inc easing
his u ili y indi ec ly, by he con ol o he woman’s beha iou (Alonso-Bo ego and
Ca asco, 2017). One o he olde pape s - and one o he i s s udies o p o ide
nega i e empi ical e idence on he ela ionship be ween IPV and he emale em-
ploymen s a us - is he wo k o Gelles, 1976. Gelles used he sociological absolu e
esou ce heo y o explain why wi es s ay wi h hei pa ne s despi e being abused by
hem. He iden i ies h ee ac o s which mainly in luence he ac ions o abused wi es.
Fi s ly, he less iolence is exe ed and he less equen i is, he mo e likely i is ha
he woman will s ay wi h he husband, secondly; i a woman was s uck by he pa -
en s when she was a child, i is mo e likely o he o s ay wi h he abusi e husband
- he mo e abuse expe ienced he mo e likely i is. Thi dly; he mo e esou ces and
he mo e powe a wi e has in he ela ionship o he husband, he less likely she is o
s ay wi h him. He also concludes ha IPV migh be a p oblem o poo households
hence iden i ying households income as possibly in luenced by an endogenous bias.
A abou he same ime and u he , al uis ic models claimed by Becke , 1965
and Becke , 1973 we e p edominan . He e we ind he assump ions o be ha in a
ma iage each pe son ies o do as well as possible and ha he "ma iage ma ke " is
in equilib ium. Wi h he aid o se e al addi ional simpli ying assump ions, a numbe
o signi ican implica ions abou beha io in his ma ke ha e been de i ed. He ound
ha he gain o a man and woman om ma ying compa ed o emaining single is
10
Chap e 3
Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics
In he i s pa o his chap e o he mas e ’s hesis we will desc ibe he da a we
wo ked wi h, he da a sou ces and he su ey om which mos o ou da a basis o ig-
ina es. The second pa o his chap e deno es he desc ip i e s a is ics analysis.
The main da a sou ce o his mas e ’s hesis is he c oss-sec ional su eys on i-
olence agains women (VAW) in Spain om 2019. This su ey is no only he mos
ele an s a is ical ope a ion ca ied ou in Spain on his ype o iolence bu also
he only o icial s a is ic o measu e he p e alence o iolence agains women. The
su ey has been ca ied ou app oxima ely e e y 4 yea s since 1999 and is included
in he Na ional S a is ical Plan Agains Domes ic Violence. The Go e nmen Dele-
ga ion agains Gende Violence has been in cha ge o p epa ing he las h ee edi ions
om 2011 o 2019. In o al, he 2019 Mac o-su ey is he six h o be ca ied ou in
Spain. I s main objec i e is o ind ou he pe cen age o women aged 16 and o e
esiding in Spain who ha e su e ed o cu en ly a e su e ing some ype o iolence
only because hey a e women (Minis y o Equali y, 2020).
This su ey has al eady se ed se e al o he esea che s and au ho s as he da a
basis o hei wo k in p e ious yea s such as Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017,
B assiolo, 2016 and Tu -P a s, 2016. The su ey we e p omo ed by he Fi s Na ional
Ac ion Plan agains Domes ic Violence es ablished in 1998, which led o subsequen
legisla i e p oposals ha esul ed in he i s cons i u ional law agains gende -based
iolence in 2004 . This law no only p o ided o ha she penal ies o pe pe a o s,
bu also unded public assis ance se ices and shel e s o ba e ed women, p omo ed
aining p og ammes o heal h p o essionals and judges, and public educa ion and
media campaigns o aise awa eness o iolence agains women. Following he adop-
ion o he law, he numbe o complain s inc eased, as did he numbe o eme gency
calls and he numbe o women con ac ing he special elephone se ice o ic ims
o abuse (Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017). The gende iolence su eys a e
la ge, na ionally and egionally ep esen a i e samples o women li ing in Spain, in
his case o he yea 2019. The su eys we e conduc ed by elephone wi h women

Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 11
aged 16 o olde 1.
The second da a sou ce ha eeds in o his wo k is he household budge su ey
(HBS) publicly a ailable a he websi e om he na ional ins i u e o s a is ics in
Spain (Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics, 2019). In pa icula we selec ed da a om
he hi d qua e in 2019 since his is he same ime pe iod in which he 2019 VAW-
su ey was ca ied ou as well. The HBS se es ou pu pose o ecei e in o ma ion
on he ype and pu pose o consump ion expendi u e, as well as on a numbe o
cha ac e is ics ela ing o he li ing condi ions o households and he exac amoun
o o al household ne mon hly income. Fo us, he ne incomes a e pa icula ly
in e es ing in o de o be able o calcula e he mean income o Spain in his pe iod
and hen o be able o c ea e he a iable "low income/poo household", as Alosno-
Bo egeo e al. ha e also done.
No e ha al hough we do he same as Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, we
ha e o ake he changed in e als in o accoun and adjus he c ea ion o he a i-
ables acco dingly o he new in e als p o ided by he VAW su ey 2019. While
Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, de ined la ge municipali ies as hose wi h a
leas 200.000 inhabi an s o mo e, we a e acing gi en in e als ( om he changed
VAW su ey in 2019) in ano he p ede ined ange (e.g. om 50.001 o 100.0000
inhabi an s, om 100.001 o 400.00 inhabi an s e c.) and he e o e de ine a la ge
municipali y as hose who ha e 100.000 o mo e inhabi an s. Fu he mo e, no e ha ,
Alonso-Bo ego e al. ha e conside ed households o be a "low income/poo house-
hold" i hei income is a leas one s anda d de ia ion less han he na ional wide
a e age (Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017). Howe e in ou case - due o ou
da a basis and he changed su ey, he VAW s a is ics - we ha e di e en p ede ined
income in e als ha we use in o de o c ea e his a iable, see able 3.1.
Based on he HBS da a, we ha e calcula ed he na ional a e age o household
income, which equals C 2,205.313, and he s anda d de ia ion, which equals C
1,386.94. This shows ha , acco ding o he de ini ion o Alonso-Bo ego e al.
households wi h an income o C 818,373 (2,205.313-1,386.94 = 818.373) o less
a e classi ied as poo households. In ou case, we se he h eshold wi h he hi d
in e al, i.e. we classi y households up o an income o 900 C as poo households
because we do no ha e ha p ecise in o ma ion as Alonso-Bo ego e al. had abou
he households incomes.
1In 2015, he Mac o su ey ques ionnai e was signi ican ly modi ied in ela ion o p e ious edi-
ions (1999, 2002, 2006, 2011). Wi h his changes, which mainly ook as a e e ence he Guidelines
o he P oduc ion o S a is ics on Violence agains Women p epa ed by he Uni ed Na ions S a is ics
Di ision, he aim was o measu e mo e igo ously he eali y o iolence agains women in Spain.
Wi h he 2019 Mac o-su ey on Violence agains Women, his p ocess o imp o ing he quali y o he
su ey has con inued (Pé ez-Sánchez, Dá ila-Cá denes, and Gómez-Déniz, 2022). One example o a
change would be he age o he in e iewed women changed om 18 o 16.
Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 12
TABLE 3.1: Household’s income in e als
In e al HH’s mon hly ne income in C
1 none o less han 300.00
2 om 301.00 o 600.00
3 om 601.00 o 900.00
4 om 901.00 o 1,200.00
5 om 1,201.00 o 1,800.00
6 om 1,801.00 o 2,400.00
7 om 2,401.00 o 3,000.00
8 om 3,001.00 o 4,500.00
9 4,501.00 o mo e
Sou ce: Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
The hi d and inal sou ce o da a o his hesis is he Economically Ac i e Pop-
ula ion Su ey (EAPS) - also publicly a ailable o e he websi e o m he Spanish
Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics - om which we e ie e, a e sho calcula ions, he
employmen and unemploymen a es o 2019 by gende , egion and age-in e al.
He e we ha e o no e ha , again, we a e acing di e en da a han Alonso-Bo ego
and Ca asco, 2017 and hence we need o use di e en age-in e als since he unem-
ploymen and employmen a es a e only p o ided in he in e als displayed in able
3.2.
TABLE 3.2: Age in e als
In e al in e al in ages
1 om 16 o 19
2 om 20 o 24
3 om 25 o 54
4 55 o olde
Sou ce: Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
We es ic ou sample o woman olde han 242. The di e ence in sample sizes
o he wo k o Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, is mainly due o he ac ha
we only use da a om one su ey yea , whe eas Alonso-Bo ego e al. use se e al
su ey yea s as a da a basis. Thus ou inal sample consis s o 1,716 obse a ions.
2We canno collapse he age in e als " om 16 o 19" and " om 20 o 24" in o new o o he o
he gi en in e als because we a e acing p ede ined in e als o he employmen and unemploymen
a e a iables which would no ma ch hese adjus ed age in e als
Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 13
We cons uc ed he IPV indica o a iables o compa ison pu poses in he same
way as in p e ious s udies (e.g. Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, e c.). Table 3.3.
displays he lis o main beha iou s on which he cons uc ion o hese indica o s is
based. As can be seen, he IPV indica o s ake accoun o ei he physical o non-
physical abuse. Whe eas non-physical abuse e e s o abuse no including physical
iolence, physical abuse e e s o he opposi e, including sexual iolence.
TABLE 3.3: Ca ego ies o se ious abuse in he Spanish VAW su eys
Beha io Physical Non-Physical
Abuse Abuse
S opped om seeing ela i es, iends and neighbo s ×
P e en ed om ai sha e o household money ×
Insul ed o h ea ened you ×
P e en ed om deciding by you sel ×
Fo ced o ha e sexual in e cou se ×
Dep i ed o you necessi ies ×
Sca ed you some imes ×
Pushed you o hi you ×
Sco ned abou you capaci y ×
C i icized o he hings you do ×
Despised o you belie s ×
Dis ega ded o you wo k ×
Dis espec ed in on o you child en ×
Table 3.4 shows he equencies and pe cen ages o he esponden s o 2019 by
ype o IPV. F om ou sample, almos hal - 47.65 pe cen - o he women espon-
den s epo ha ing expe ienced some ype o abuse. Fu he mo e, om hose who
expe ienced some ype o abuse, almos hal o hem, p ecisely 47.06 pe cen e-
po o ha e been ic imized by non-physical iolence which accoun s o he la ges
p opo ion he e, while physical iolence accoun s o 22.15 pe cen age poin s.
TABLE 3.4: IPV by Type
IPV Type Obs. F equency Pe cen age
Physical 1,716 264 22.15
Non-Physical 1,716 561 47.06
Any 1,716 568 47.65
No Abuse 1,716 624 52.35
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
In Table 3.5 we epo he equencies o IPV ypes by egion. He e we ind ha
he IPV ype "Any" anges om 1.58 pe cen in he egion La Rioja up o 11.62
Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 14
pe cen in he communi y o Valencia, which p o ides e idence o s a is ically sig-
ni ican di e ences ac oss egions. The same ealiza ion holds o physical IPV,
anging om 0.76 pe cen age poin s in Na a a o 12.88 pe cen in Ca aluña. Fo
non-physical IPV which anges om 1.60 pe cen in Na a a and La Rioja o 11.41
pe cen in he communi y o Valencia. The di e ence be ween egions wi h espec
o he a iable "No Abuse", also shows a simila ex en o luc ua ion wi h a ange
om 0.96 pe cen in Melilla up o 10.10 pe cen in Andalucía.
TABLE 3.5: IPV ype by Region
Region Obs No Abuse Physical Non-Physical Any
Andalucía 104 10.10 8.33 7.31 7.22
A agón 38 3.37 2.65 3.03 2.99
As u ias 48 4.33 2.65 3.74 3.70
Balea es 55 5.77 4.55 3.39 3.35
Cana ias 75 6.25 6.44 6.42 6.34
Can ab ia 47 4.81 3.03 3.03 2.99
Cas illa-La Mancha 57 5.29 4.17 4.28 4.23
Cas illa y León 48 4.49 4.17 3.57 3.52
Ca aluña 98 5.93 12.88 10.87 10.74
Comuni a Valencia 112 7.37 11.74 11.41 11.62
Ex emadu a 59 4.65 5.30 5.35 5.28
Galicia 83 5.93 9.47 7.84 8.10
Mad id 116 9.29 8.33 10.16 10.21
Mu cia 57 5.45 5.68 3.92 4.05
Na a a 29 3.04 0.76 1.60 1.76
País Vasco 79 6.89 4.17 6.42 6.34
La Rioja 24 2.40 1.14 1.60 1.58
Ceu a 43 3.69 3.41 3.57 3.52
Melilla 20 0.96 1.14 2.50 2.46
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
The main summa y s a is ics by IPV s a us a e shown in Table 3.6. These s a is-
ics show ha he cha ac e is ics o women, pa ne s and households di e acco ding
o he p esence o abuse, wi h he s onges di e ences o physical abuse. Mos
women who ha e been abused a e ound in he 25-54 age segmen wi h huge di -
e ences o he olde segmen . Also he mean di e ence be ween non-physical and
physical abuse is signi ican on he 10% le el. When i comes o he educa ion le el
o women, we ind di e en esul s o p e ious s udies bu also ha e o keep in mind
ha we do use di e en , mo e p ecise, le els o educa ion. We ind ha he highe
he educa ion le el o a woman is, he highe he numbe s o no abused women. Bu ,
we also ind ha women ha e su e ed mo e physical as well as non-physical abuse
when hey only ha e comple ed seconda y educa ion in compa ison o when hey
Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 15
ha e inished college o a oca ional aining. He e we ha e o be ca e ul because
inishing a oca ional aining migh indica e ha he woman is employed and he
esul is mo e likely due o he employmen s a us han due o he inaliza ion o he
oca ional aining. Howe e , we will gain u he pa icula insigh in he pa o he
model es ima ion o his e y hesis. Impo an o poin ou pa icula ly is ha he
woman’s educa ion le el "college" shows signi ican mean di e ences e en on he
1% le el o physical abuse.
When i comes o he pa ne s age and educa ion we ind simila endencies. Mos
women who su e ed abuse a e ound o be in he segmen o 25 o 54 yea s. In e es -
ingly we ind mo e abused women when a woman’s pa ne has inished seconda y
educa ion in compa ison o when he pa ne inished college. A woman’s college
deg ee also does seem o show ha women in his sample we e less abused. No e
ha he mean di e ences o he educa ion le el "college" a e signi ican a he 1%
o all ypes o abuse.
Fo hose woman who a e mo e educa ed han he pa ne we ind he means o
be e y close o each o he wi h espec o he IPV ype. Fu he mo e we ind he
mean di e ences o be signi ican only o he physical IPV ype.
The e a e e y sligh ly di e ences in he household size be ween abused and
non-abused women. The ma ial s a us di e s only o a sligh ly la ge ex en when
i comes o physical abused women, while he mean di e ences a e signi ican a all
le els o all ypes o IPV. When i comes o he income o an household we ind
ha in a e age income households a e he mos epo ed cases o non-physical and
physical iolence wi h signi ican mean di e ences o all ypes o IPV a he 10%
le el and in pa icula , o physical abuse, e en on he 1 % le el.
In able 3.7 we display he pu e p e alence o IPV depending on he employmen
s a us o he woman o he pa ne espec i ely. We ind ha he e a e no signi ican
di e ences in he likelihood o being abused ega dless o whe he he woman is
employed o no . In he wo k om Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, his was a
signi ican di e ence wi h woman who a e no employed being mo e likely o be a
ic im o IPV. Fu he mo e only small di e ences appea in he likeliness o being
abused when bo h - he woman and he pa ne - a e employed. Compa ed o he
p e ious ealiza ions, he occu ence o IPV is he smalles when bo h pa ne s a e
no employed (Any iolence = 0.44). When we ake a mo e de ailed look a he
in e ac ion o he employmen s a us o bo h, we ind only small di e ences o he
cases when he woman is no employed and he pa ne is employed (e.g. physical =
0.23) and when bo h a e no employed (e.g. Physical = 0.20). The e idence o when
he woman is employed and he pa ne is no shows ha i is mo e likely (compa ed
o he p e ious wo cases) o he woman o be abused (e.g. physical = 0.33).

Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 16
TABLE 3.6: Summa y s a is ics o woman’s, pa ne s’ and household
cha ac e is ics by IPV s a us
IPV Type
No Abuse Physical Non-Phys. Any
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Woman age
25-54 yea s 0.8 (0.40) 0.86* (0.34) 0.84* (0.37) 0.84 (0.37)
55 o mo e 0.19 (0.39) 0.13* (0.34) 0.15 (0.36) 0.15 (0.36)
Woman educa ion
P ima y o less 0.08 (0.27) 0.12* (0.33) 0.1 (0.3) 0.1 (0.3)
Voc. T ain. 0.24 (0.43) 0.24 (0.43) 0.24 (0.43) 0.24 (0.43)
Seconda y 0.34 (0.47) 0.41* (0.49) 0.38 (0.48) 0.37 (0.48)
College 0.34 (0.47) 0.22*** (0.42) 0.29* (0.45) 0.29* (0.45)
Pa ne age
25-54 yea s 0.74 (0.44) 0.81* (0.39) 0.8* (0.40) 0.79* (0.41)
55 o mo e 0.25 (0.44) 0.19* (0.39) 0.20* (0.40) 0.21* (0.40)
Pa ne educ.
P ima y o less 0.10 (0.30) 0.14 (0.34) 0.11 (0.32) 0.11 (0.32)
Voc. T ain. 0.22 (0.42) 0.21 (0.41) 0.24 (0.43) 0.24 (0.42)
Seconda y 0.37 (0.48) 0.5 (0.50)*** 0.42* (0.49) 0.42* (0.49)
College 0.31 (0.46) 0.16 (0.36)*** 0.23*** (0.42) 0.23*** (0.42)
Woman mo e educa ed 0.31 (0.46) 0.36 (0.48)* 0.34 (0.47) 0.34 (0.47)
Household size 3.44 (1.02) 3.48 (1.19) 3.45 (1.12) 3.45 (1.12)
Ma ied (y/n) 0.76 (0.43) 0.54 (0.5)*** 0.63 (0.48)*** 0.63 (0.48)***
Household income
Below a e age 0.10 (0.30) 0.13 (0.33) 0.11 (0.31) 0.11 (0.31)
A e age 0.67 (0.47) 0.76 (0.43)* 0.72* (0.45) 0.72* (0.45)
Abo e a e age 0.23 (0.42) 0.12 (0.32)*** 0.17* (0.37) 0.17* (0.38)
La ge Municipali y 0.36 (0.48) 0.33 (0.47) 0.36 (0.48) 0.36 (0.48)
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Chap e 3. Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics 17
TABLE 3.7: Summa y s a is ics o pa ne s’ employmen and IPV
s a us
IPV Type
No Abuse Physical Non-Phys. Any
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Woman empl. 0.66 (0.2) 0.65 (0.3) 0.65 (0.2) 0.65 (0.2)
Pa ne empl. 0.82 (0.2) 0.79 (0.3) 0.82 (0.2) 0.82 (0.2)
Bo h empl. 0.60 (0.2) 0.55 (0.3) 0.57 (0.2) 0.57 (0.2)
Woman no empl., 0.5 (0.5) 0.23 (0.42) 0.5 (0.5) 0.5 (0.5)
Pa ne empl.
Woman empl., 0.46 (0.5) 0.33 (0.47) 0.53 (0.5) 0.54 (0.5)
Pa ne no empl.
Bo h no empl. 0.56 (0.5) 0.20 (0.40) 0.43 (0.5) 0.44 (0.5)
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
Summa izing he desc ip i e s a is ics analysis we ind ha depending on he
occu ence o abuse he sociodemog aphic a ibu es di e o qui e a big ex en . D a-
ma ically we ind ha almos hal o he esponden s expe ienced some kind o phys-
ical o non-physical abuse wi h non-physical abuse being he bigge sha e. Fu he -
mo e we ound huge di e ences on he occu ence o IPV depending on he egion
we e he women li e. In he egions o Ca aluña, Valencia and Mad id mos inci-
dence ha e been epo ed and he egions o Na a a and La Rioja epo ed he leas .
The mos cases o abused women a e ound in he age g oup o 24 yea s old up o
54 yea s, which applies o bo h he age o he woman and he age o he pa ne s.
The same endencies apply o he le el o educa ion, o he women and also o
he pa ne . When no inished college mo e abuse is ound o be p esen . In acco -
dance wi h Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, we ind ha he e a e only small
di e ences in he p esence o abuse whe he woman is wo king o no bu less abuse
depending on he employmen s a us o he pa ne , inding less abuse, when he pa -
ne is employed. Also we ind ha when he woman is employed and he pa ne is
no , abuse seems o be mo e likely o appea and he leas appea ance o abuse is
ound in ela ionships whe e bo h pa ne s a e employed.
18
Chap e 4
Me hodology
In his chap e o he mas e ’s hesis, we desc ibe he empi ical model unde lying he
analysis ha we used o es ima e he isk o he occu ence o po en ial de e minan s
depending on di e en a iables, aking in o accoun endogenei y and compa ing ou
esul s wi h p e ious s udies, in pa icula wi h he wo k o Alonso-Bo ego and Ca -
asco, 2017 and Lenze and Klasen, 2017.
To achie e esul s ha a e as compa able as possible o hose o Alonso-Bo ego
and Ca asco, 2017 and Lenze and Klasen, 2017, we examine he e ec o employ-
men s a us o emales and hei pa ne s on he p obabili y o emale abuse, in a
linea p obabili y model es ima ing i in a wo-s age leas squa es app oach (2SLS)
o he compa ison wi h Lenze and Klasen, 2017 and a nonlinea model es ima ion
using a simul aneous mul i a ia e p obi app oach like Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco,
2017, used. The la e is a nonlinea disc e e model whe e IPV∗
iis he la en p ocess
ha s ee s IPV which is iden i ied by he ollowing beha io al model:
IPV∗
i=α0+α1 i+α2pi+α3( i×pi)+X′
iδ+ i≡W′
iβ+ i(1)
whe e Xideno es a se o exogenous a iables. The dummy a iables o women’s
and he pa ne ’s employmen a e deno ed by iand pi espec i ely. The in e ac ion
be ween he emale’s and he pa ne ’s employmen is he e o e cha ac e ized by
( i×pi). We ind ou sel es obse ing he bina y a iable, IPVi, ha indica es i
women iexpe iences IPV o no . Taking on he alue 1 o he case ha she does and
0 o he wise 1. We ep esen his a iable wi h an indica o unc ion as ollows:
IPVi=1(IPV∗
i>0) =
1(α0+α1 i+α2pi+α3 i×pi+X′
iδ+ i≥0)(2)
1Also known as dummy endogenous a iable model (Amemiya e al., 1985)
Chap e 4. Me hodology 19
This model (2) becomes a s anda d p obi model i i|Xi, i,pi∼N(0,1)which we
also es ima e o compa ison easons. The woman’s and he pa ne ’s empploymen
s a us may no be exogenous and be ela ed o he IPV s a us h ough unobse ed
ac o s. In ou case we accoun o endogenei y by es ima ing a mul i a ia e p o-
bi model. The i s s ep is o de ine educed o m equa ions o emale and male
employmen :
i=1( ∗
i>0) = 1(Z′
1iλ1+εi1>0)(3)
pi=1(p∗
i>0) = 1(Z′
2iλ1+εi2>0)(4)
He e Z1iand Z2ia e se s o exogenous a iables, ha include XiFu he mo e we
assume ha i,εi1,εi2a e join ly no mally dis ibu ed wi h ze o mean ec o and
co a iance ma ix.
Ω=


1ρ ε1ρ ε2
1ρε1ε2
1


(5)
Fo he case ha ρ ε1=ρ ε2=ρε1ε2=0 we a e no o ced o es ima e he equa-
ions simul aneously bu can indeed ob ain consis en pa ame e s by es ima ing each
equa ion sepa a ely (Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017). We use he mos popula
simula ion me hod (simula ion by maximum likelihood - SML) by Geweke, Haji as-
siliou and Keane (GHK) o es ima e ou mul i a ia e p obi model, which is based on
he exp ession o he mul i a ia e no mal dis ibu ion as he p oduc o sequen ially
condi ioned uni a ia e no mal dis ibu ions (Bö sch-Supan and Haji assiliou, 1993).
Since we ace a model in which we ha e an addi ional possible endogenous dummy
a iable (beeing a poo household o no ) we add his a iable o ou educed o m
model so ha ou mul i a ia e p obi model akes he co ela ion be ween he e o
e ms o he ou auxilia equa ions ( o IPV, woman’s employmen s a us, pa ne ’s
employmen s a us and poo houshold) in o accoun .
Howe e , since we un he mul i a ia e p obi eg ession i s and hen ealize
ha we only ind e idence o he endogenei y (see Chap e 5) o he pa n e ’s em-
ploymen s a us o IPV physical and only o low income/poo households o he
non-physical IPV we will ca y ou ou es ima ions o he auxilia equa ions o c e-
a e he ins umen s as well as he inal es ima ion o he in s age 1 p edic ed alues
and he ou come IPV i e a i ely ins ead o simul aneously, by using a 2-S age Leas
Squa es (2SLS) model. The co esponding e idence can be ound in Tables 5.2 &
and 5.42. The p- alues o he co ela ion o he e o s a e only lowe han 0.1 o
2We will ake a close look a his in chap e 5
Chap e 5. Resul s 26
TABLE 5.1: Es ima es o isk o Physical IPV
P obi 2SLS m p obi
IPV IPV IPV
VARIABLES Physical Physical Physical
Woman employed 0.24 0.61 0.09
(0.17) (0.5) (0.26)
Pa ne employed -0.15 0.06 0.13
(0.14) (0.22) (0.20)
Women empl. ×Pa ne empl. -0.30 -0.23 -0.251
(0.19) (0.38) (0.19)
Household size 0.005 0.01 -0.0044
(0.04) (0.01) (0.04)
Woman Age 25-54 0.13 -0.11 0.13
(0.29) (0.16) (0.29)
Woman Age 55+ -0.19 -0.05 -0.08
(0.3) (0.12) (0.31)
Woman: Seconda y 0.01 -0.01 0.01
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Woman: College -0.23* -0.08* -0.23*
(0.1) (0.04) (0.1)
Pa ne : Seconda y 0.06 0.004 0.06
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Pa ne : College -0.23* -0.06* -0.26*
(0.11) (0.03) (0.11)
ln(p o ince GDP pe capi a) 0.03 -0.01 -0.05
(0.19) (0.08) (0.2)
P o . popula ion densi y -0.00003 -0.00001 -0.00003
(0.00004) (0.00001) (0.00003)
Woman mo e educa ed 0.07 0.02 0.071
(0.09) (0.03) (0.09)
Low income household 0.04 0.55* -0.26
(0.14) (0.32) (0.26)
La ge Municipali y -0.02 -0.01 -0.02
(0.07) (0.02) (0.07)
RNo Med 0.05 0.004 0.04
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Obse a ions 1,716 1,716 1,716
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Chap e 5. Resul s 27
TABLE 5.2: C oss-equa ion co ela ions coe icien s o IPV Physical
( om m p obi es ima ion)
Woman Pa ne Low
VARIABLES empl. empl income
IPV Physical 0.05 -0.19* 0.18
(0.11) (0.10) (0.12)
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Chap e 5. Resul s 28
TABLE 5.3: Es ima es o isk o Non-Physical IPV
P obi 2SLS m p obi
IPV IPV IPV
VARIABLES Non-Physical Non-Physical Non-Physical
Woman employed 0.24 1.25* 0.02
(0.16) (0.57) (0.27)
Pa ne employed 0.04 0.58* 0.26
(0.12) (0.27) (0.2)
Women empl. ×Pa ne empl. -0.33* -1.09* -0.28
(0.17) (0.45) (0.17)
Household size -0.01 0.002 -0.02
(0.03) (0.01) (0.03)
Woman Age 25-54 0.01 -0.16 0.01
(0.25) (0.18) (0.26)
Woman Age 55+ -0.18 -0.03 -0.11
(0.27) (0.14) (0.27)
Woman: Seconda y 0.06 0.02 0.067
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Woman: College -0.18* -0.09* -0.18*
(0.09) (0.04) (0.09)
Pa ne : Seconda y -0.1 -0.06* -0.1
(0.07 ) (0.03) (0.08)
Pa ne : College -0.14 -0.08* -0.17*
(0.1) (0.04) (0.1)
ln(p o ince GDP pe capi a) 0.23 0.03 0.12
(0.17 ) (0.11) (0.18)
P o . popula ion densi y 0.00006* 0.00002 0.00006*
(0.00003) (0.00001) (0.00003)
Woman mo e educa ed 0.1 0.04 0.09
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Low income household 0.08 0.16 -0.58*
(0.12) (0.38) (0.26)
La ge Municipali y 0.05 0.02 0.05
(0.07) (0.03) (0.07)
RNo Med 0.03 -0.0039 0.02
(0.07) (0.03) (0.07)
Obse a ions 1,716 1,716 1,716
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Chap e 5. Resul s 29
TABLE 5.4: C oss-equa ion co ela ions coe icien s o IPV Non-
Physical ( om m p obi es ima ion)
Woman Pa ne Low
VARIABLES empl. empl income
IPV Non-Physical 0.11 -0.17 0.36*
(0.12) (0.11) (0.14)
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
TABLE 5.5: Es ima ed ma ginal e ec s o woman and pa ne em-
ploymen on IPV on he basis o he 2SLS eg ession
E ec o woman employmen IPV IPV
Physical Non-Physical
Pa ne no employed 0.51 0.42*
(0.39) (0.64)
Pa ne employed 0.4 0.54*
(0.71) (0.84)
E ec o pa ne employmen
Woman no employed 0.11 0.31*
(0.33) (0.27)
Woman employed -0.64 -0.27*
(0.47) (0.72)
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
Ma ginal e ec s e alua ed o 2019, using he sample mean alues a ha yea .
S anda d e o s in pa en heses (using Del a me hod)
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Chap e 5. Resul s 30
TABLE 5.6: Es ima ed ma ginal e ec s o household cha ac e is ics
on IPV on basis o he 2SLS eg ession
IPV IPV
Va iable Physical Non-Physical
Household size 0.00 0.001
(0.00) (0.01)
Woman Age 25-54 -0.05 -0.1
(0.08) (0.08)
Woman Age 55+ -0.02 -0.002
(0.06) (0.05)
Woman: Seconda y -0.01 0.01
(0.01) (0.01)
Woman: College -0.04* -0.03*
(0.002) (0.04)
Pa ne : Seconda y 0.01 -0.03*
(0.02) (0.01)
Pa ne College -0.02* -0.04*
(0.01) (0.002)
ln(p o ince GDP pe capi a) -0.001 0.001
(0.007) (0.01)
P o . popula ion densi y -0.00 0.00
(0.00) (0.00)
Woman mo e educa ed 0.04 0.02
(0.01) (0.02)
Low income household 0.08* 0.06
(0.03) (0.04)
La ge Municipali y -0.04 0.01
(0.02) (0.01)
RNo Med 0.0002 -0.004
(0.001) (0.002)
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
Ma ginal e ec s e alua ed o 2019, using he sample mean alues a ha yea .
S anda d e o s in pa en heses (using Del a me hod)
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
31
Chap e 6
Conclusions
In his mas e ’s hesis we used da a om di e en sou ces bu mainly om he io-
lence agains women (VAW) su ey in Spain om 2019 (mo e de ails can be ound in
chap e 3) in o de o examine he e ec o woman’s and he pa ne ’s employmen
s a us on he isk o expe iencing IPV. Fo his pu pose we dis inguished be ween
wo IPV ypes, physical and non-physical. We ook accoun o he sepa a e e ec s
o he wo di e en employmen s a uses ( o he woman and he pa ne ) as well as
o he in e ac ion be ween bo h o hem. Addi ionally we condi ioned ou analysis
on income and a se o co a ia es. We used h ee di e en es ima ion app oaches,
such as an uni a ia e p obi eg ession, a wo-s age leas squa e linea p obabili y e-
g ession and a mul i a ia e p obi eg ession. While he uni a ia e p obi eg ession
does no ake he po en ial endogenei y o he a iables woman’s employmen s a us,
pa ne ’s employmen s a us and poo /low income households in o accoun , he o he
wo eg ession s a egies do.
In he case o physical IPV he esul s o he di e en analysis app oaches aking
accoun o endogenei y and he app oach which is no aking accoun o i ( he uni-
a ia e p obi analysis) a e qui e simila . As you can see la e , wo o he signi ican
a iables which lowe he isk o expe iencing IPV physical can also be ound o
lowe he isk o expe iencing non-physical IPV. Those a iables a e ha ing a col-
lege deg ee and ha ing a pa ne who inished college. The 2SLS app oach p o ides
u he e idence such is, ha li ing in a low income/poo household inc eases he
isk o physical IPV. Fu he mo e he esul s in his mas e ’s hesis unde line he im-
po ance o aking accoun o endogenei y when i comes o non-physical IPV. While
in bo h o he app oaches which ake accoun o endogenei y he esul s show ha o
IPV non-physical, inishing college and ha ing a pa ne who inished college sig-
ni ican ly dec eases he isk, he uni a a e p obi app oach p o ides no e idence ha
ha ing a pa ne who inished college educes he isk o expe iencing non-physical
IPV. Also aking he esul s o he ma ginal e ec s in o accoun , we ind ha inishing
college and ha ing a pa ne who inished college unde lining he indings om he
es ima ion esul s and, u he mo e, ha he employmen s a us o he pa ne plays

Chap e 6. Conclusions 32
a majo ole only i he woman is employed oo and in his case lowe ing he isk o
non-physical IPV. Fo physical IPV we did no ind any e idence wi h espec o he
employmen s a uses.
The main ealiza ion he e o e a e ha only he pa ne s employmen s a us plays
a majo ole in educing he isk o IPV and only when he woman is also employed
and only on he non-physical IPV ype. This ealiza ion di e s om hose om
Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017 ealiza ions in he way ha hey ound he same
in luence bu also in luencing he physical IPV. This esul s ma ches wi h he eal-
iza ions o Kaukinen, 2004 who ound ha he isk o abuse a he depends on he
employmen s a us o he pa ne han on he employmen s a us o he woman he -
sel . Ou esul s ma ch he esul s om Alonso-Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017 in he
poin ha he lowes isk o non-physical IPV appea s when bo h pa ne s in a e-
la ionship a e employed. Ou esul s do no ma ch wi h he esul s om Lenze and
Klasen, 2017 since we ound signi ican e idence o he pa ne ’s employmen s a-
us, i he woman also is employed and hey did no ind any signi ican e idence a e
accoun ing o endogenei y. Fu he mo e we ound ha especially he educa ion o
a woman and he pa ne plays a majo ole in educing he isk o bo h ypes o
IPV when success ully inished college. In iguingly, when compa ing hese esul s
wi h he esul s om Pé ez-Sánchez, Dá ila-Cá denes, and Gómez-Déniz, 2022, (see
Chap e 2 o mo e de ails) we ealize ha hey ound a dec easing e ec o sexual
IPV only when he pa ne is cu en ly s udying and u he mo e ha he educa ion
le el o he woman is no ele an o any ype o IPV.
Re lec ing on ou wo k we ha e o no e ha ou sample is ela i ely small when
compa ing he sample size o 1,716 om ou wo k o he sample size o e.g. Alonso-
Bo ego and Ca asco, 2017, wi h mo e han 30.000 obse a ions and we only con-
side ed da a om one yea . Hence, in o de o ge e en mo e p ecise esul s i would
be desi able o ex en he unde lying da a se wi h da a om p e ious yea s. Wi h
special espec o he 2SLS app oach one could migh ob ain be e esul s when
inding be e ins umen s.
33
Appendix A
Appendix
TABLE A.1: Es ima es o isk o Physical IPV - including in e ac ion
o woman’s and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college
P obi 2SLS m p obi
IPV IPV IPV
VARIABLES Physical Physical Physical
Woman employed 0.24 0.62 0.08
(0.17) (0.5) (0.26)
Pa ne employed -0.15 0.05 0.13
(0.14) (0.22) (0.20)
Women empl. ×Pa ne empl. -0.3 -0.23 -0.25
(0.19) (0.38) (0.19)
Household size 0.01 0.01 -0.003
(0.04) (0.014) (0.04)
Woman Age 25-54 0.13 -0.11 0.13
(0.29) (0.16) (0.29)
Woman Age 55+ -0.19 -0.05 -0.08
(0.3) (0.12) (0.31)
Woman: Seconda y -0.002 -0.01 0.0004
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Woman: College -0.15 -0.06 -0.15
(0.12) (0.05) (0.12)
Obse a ions 1,716 1,716 1,716
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Appendix A. Appendix 34
TABLE A.2: Con inuing: Es ima es o isk o Physical IPV - includ-
ing in e ac ion o woman’s and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college
P obi 2SLS m p obi
IPV IPV IPV
VARIABLES Physical Physical Physical
Pa ne : Seconda y 0.07 0.01 0.07
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Pa ne : College -0.15 -0.05 -0.18
(0.13) (0.04) (0.13)
Women college ×Pa ne college -0.22 -0.05 -0.20
(0.19) (0.05) (0.19)
ln(p o ince GDP pe capi a) 0.02 -0.01 -0.06
(0.19) (0.08) (0.2)
P o . popula ion densi y -0.00003 -0.00001 -0.00003
(0.00003) (0.00001) (0.00003)
Woman mo e educa ed 0.03 0.01 0.04
(0.1) (0.03) (0.1)
Low income household 0.05 0.58* -0.25
(0.14) (0.32) (0.27)
La ge Municipali y -0.018 -0.01 -0.02
(0.07) (0.02) (0.07)
RNo Med 0.05 0.003 0.04
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Obse a ions 1,716 1,716 1,716
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Appendix A. Appendix 35
TABLE A.3: Es ima es o isk o Non-Physical IPV - including in-
e ac ion o woman’s and pa ne ’s educa ion le el: college
P obi 2SLS m p obi
IPV IPV IPV
VARIABLES Non-Physical Non-Physical Non-Physical
Woman employed 0.24 1.27* 0.01
(0.16) (0.57) (0.27)
Pa ne employed 0.04 0.57* 0.25
(0.12) (0.27) (0.2)
Women empl. ×Pa ne empl. -0.33* -1.09* -0.28
(0.17) (0.46) (0.17)
Household size -0.01 0.003 -0.02
(0.03) (0.01) (0.03)
Woman Age 25-54 0.01 -0.16 0.01
(0.25) (0.18) (0.26)
Woman Age 55+ -0.18 -0.03 -0.11
(0.27) (0.14) (0.27)
Woman: Seconda y 0.05 0.01 0.05
(0.08) (0.03) (0.08)
Woman: College -0.08 -0.06 -0.09
(0.11) (0.05) (0.11)
Obse a ions 1,716 1,716 1,716
Sou ce: Own calcula ions om Spanish VAW Su ey 2019
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1