983
ISSN 1130-2402 – eISSN 2340-0277
HC
His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/hc.20374
KnocKing on AMe icA’s doo .
basquE o EigN poLi iCs iN hE us du iNg
hE spaNish Ci iL wa aNd hE sECoNd wo Ld wa
(1936-1945)
LLAMANDO A LA PUERTA DE AMéRICA. LA PoLíTICA EXTERIoR
DEL GoBIERNo VASCo EN EL EXILIo DURANTE LA GUERRA CIVIL
ESPAñoLA y LA SEGUNDA GUERRA MUNDIAL (1936-1945)
Da id Mo a zu do*
PhD Mode n His o y
Isabel I Uni e si y, Bu gos, Spain
abs aC : This a icle analyzes he so-called A lan icis s a egy and how was pu in o p ac ice
by he Basque go e nmen -in-exile ough wo majo pe iods: on he one hand, he Basque go -
e nmen delega ion’s ac i i ies in New Yo k du ing he Spanish Ci il Wa ; i seeks o unde s and
i s o igin, composi ion, beha io and ela ionship wi h Ame ican ins i u ions–such as he Na ional
Ca holic Wel a e Con e ence and he S a e Depa men and i s di e en agencies. On he o he
hand, i s udies Basque lobbying ac i i ies du ing he Second Wo ld Wa . This was a key pe iod
since, as i will be shown in he o hcoming pages, du ing hose yea s he e was an e ec i e col-
labo a ion be ween Basque ins i u ions and ce ain pi o al Ame ican agencies, namely, he Coo di-
na o o In e -Ame ican A ai s, he O ice o Coo dina o o In o ma ion, he O ice o S a egic
Se ices and he Fede al Bu eau o In es iga ion.
KEYWORDS: Basque go e nmen in-exile; USA; Spanish Ci il Wa ; Wo ld Wa II; Spying.
esuMen: Es e a ículo analiza la denominada es a egia a lan is a y cómo ue pues a en p ác-
ica po el Gobie no Vasco en el exilio a a és de dos g andes e apas: po un lado, las ac i idades
de la delegación del Gobie no Vasco en Nue a yo k du an e la Gue a Ci il española, a endiendo
a su o igen, composición, ac uación y elación con ins i uciones no eame icanas como la Na io-
nal Ca holic Wel a e Con e ence (NCWC), el Depa amen o de Es ado y sus di e en es agencias. y,
po o o, se es udian las labo es de lobbying ascas du an e la Segunda Gue a Mundial. Un pe-
iodo cla e, pues, como se e á en las siguien es páginas, du an e aquellos años se p odujo una
colabo ación e ec i a en e las ins i uciones ascas y las agencias es adounidenses de la Coo dina-
o o In e -Ame ican A ai s (CIAA), la O ice o Coo dina o o In o ma ion (CoI), la O ice o
S a egic Se ices (oSS) y el Fede al Bu eau o In es iga ion (FBI).
PALABRAS CLAVE: Gobie no Vasco en el exilio; Es ados Unidos; Gue a Ci il; Segunda Gue a
Mundial; Espionaje.
* Co espondence o: Da id Mo a Zu do, Facul ad de Humanidades y CCSS, Depa amen o de His o ia y Geog a ía, calle
de Fe nán González, 76, 09003 Bu gos (Spain) – [email p o ec ed] – h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9578-8069
How o ci e: Mo a Zu do, Da id (2020). «Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish
Ci il Wa and he Second Wo ld Wa (1936-1945)»; His o ia Con empo ánea, 64, 983-1010. (h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/
hc.20374).
Recei ed: 10 No embe , 2018; Accep ed: 25 Janua y, 2019.
ISSN 1130-2402 - eISSN 2340-0277 / © 2020 UPV/EHU
This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e nacional License
984 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
1. in oduc ion
This a icle will econs uc he p ocess h ough which he A lan icis
s a egy was elabo a ed and pu in o p ac ice by he Basque go e nmen
du ing exile; in o he wo ds, how he la e sough a p e e en ial ela ion-
ship wi h he US go e nmen as a way o eco e ing i s so e eign y o e
Basque e i o y. To his end, i ga e special p o agonism o he ins i u-
ions o ep esen a ion o he Basque execu i e powe in o eign coun ies
wi h capaci y o poli ical in e locu ion, ha is, i s delega ions.
Thus, his a icle analyzes wo majo pe iods: on he one hand, he
Basque go e nmen delega ion’s ac i i ies in New Yo k du ing he Span-
ish Ci il Wa (he eon SCW); i seeks o unde s and i s o igin, composi-
ion, beha io and ela ionship wi h Ame ican ins i u ions–such as he
Na ional Ca holic Wel a e Con e ence (NCWC) and he S a e Depa men
and i s di e en agencies. On he o he hand, i s udies Basque lobbying
ac i i ies du ing he Second Wo ld Wa (WW2). This was a key pe iod
since, as i will be shown in he o hcoming pages, du ing hose yea s
he e was an e ec i e collabo a ion be ween Basque ins i u ions and ce -
ain pi o al Ame ican agencies, namely, he Coo dina o o In e -Ame i-
can A ai s (CIAA), he O ice o Coo dina o o In o ma ion (COI), he
O ice o S a egic Se ices (OSS) and he Fede al Bu eau o In es iga-
ion (FBI).
Mo eo e , his a icle analyzes how Basque poli ical leade s decided
o ge in ol ed in WW2, choosing USA as i s undamen al ally o ein-
s a e democ acy o e Basque e i o y. Finally, i also examines he ap-
p ochemen be ween Basques and Ame ican Ca holicism, and he p o-al-
lies ac i i ies —bo h o p opaganda and espionage— ca ied ou by he
Basque In elligence Se ice (he eon, BIS) in Ame ica (a collabo a ion
whose main pu pose was ha Uni ed S a es in e ened in Spain o depose
F anco and ees ablish democ acy).
2. he basque Lobbying ac i i ies du ing he sCw: be ween he
NCwC and he us depa men o s a e
Se e al mon hs a e he ou b eak o he SCW, in Oc obe 1936, and
an ensuing long s a u o y p ocess ini ia ed du ing he II Republic, he i s
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/hc.20374 985
Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
Au onomous Basque go e nmen was c ea ed1. Un il F anco’s a my ook
con ol o Bilbao, in June 1937, hei main poli ical p io i y was, logi-
cally, ocused on mili a y issues, al hough o eign a ai s we e also con-
side ed impo an 2. Hence, om Oc obe 1936 o June 1937, he Basque
go e nmen c ea ed se e al ins i u ions o pa a-diploma ic ep esen a ion
in Eu ope and Ame ica, he so-called delega ions, which emained ac i e
du ing almos all he pe iod in exile3. One o he mos emblema ic del-
ega ions was loca ed in New Yo k. This was c ea ed by An ón I ala and
Manuel and Ramón de la So a in 1938–a pa icula ly di icul pe iod o
hose who emained loyal o he Spanish Republic and we e ying o ob-
ain he suppo o he Ame ican gian .
A he end o ha yea , Ame ica was s ill su e ing he consequences
o he Wall S ee C ash o 1929, wi h e y high unemploymen a es
combined wi h inc easing social and labo ensions4. On he o he hand,
Spain was su e ing om a a icidal wa which con on ed a epublican
side —inc easingly mo e ac u ed— agains an insu gen side–inc eas-
ingly close o ic o y. The Spanish wa could de e mine he u u e o de-
moc acy; ha was how pa o he Ame ican socie y in e p e ed i , which
is why hey suppo ed he epublican go e nmen . Howe e , no e e-
ybody saw i his way. A signi ican sec o o Ame ican socie y, in lu-
enced by he p o-F anco p opaganda o he Hea s Co po a ion, belie ed
he Spanish con lic was ins ead a igh agains communism, a heism and
impie y, he e o e i was he du y o Ame ica no o in e ene in a o o
a epublican go e nmen which would e en ually help he Bolshe ik ex-
pansion in Eu ope5.
Such pola iza ion o opinions pu p esiden F anklin D. Roose el in a
dilemma: ei he suppo he emo al o he weapons emba go his go e n-
men had imposed on Spain in 1936, losing he so-needed Ca holic o e;
o be ha shly c i icized by hose who conside ed his mo e as unjus and
bene icial o he insu gen s6. Roose el had o decide be ween li ing he
emba go and jeopa dizing neu ali y, making ela ions mo e di icul , on
he one hand, wi h Be lin and Rome and, on he o he , wi h London, Pa is
1 g anja, 2003, p. 224; Núñez, 2006, p. 357.
2 Ugalde, 1996.
3 Ál a ez and Sanz, 2011, pp. 2-4.
4 Jenkins, 2002, p. 283.
5 DeConde and Bu ns, 2001.
6 Bosch, 2012, pp. 181-216; Thòmas, 2007, pp. 38-56.
986 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
and he isola ionis sec o s o his go e nmen , who a o ed non-in e en-
ion, o be p agma ic and op o a di e en ype o beha io 7. E iden ly,
he chose he la e ; he did no wan o ha e ins i u ions such as NCWC as
enemies, since hey ep esen ed he Ame ican cu ia and had a s ong in-
luence in Ame ican poli ics, a o ed neu ali y and could ha e a nega i e
e ec on his eelec ion.
This was, wi hou doub , a no ably discou aging scena io o he
commissione s o he Agui e go e nmen o y o p ospe wi hin New
Yo k’s poli ical and Ca holic ci cles. Bu he SCW had s ill no come o
an end and he Basque delega es had o keep hei hopes up. Thus, wi h
he help o Manuel Ynchaus i (a Basque-Ame ican landowne close o
Basque na ionalism), De La So a and I ala, hey se led in he Big Ap-
ple and ounded a Basque delega ion which es ablished as i s main objec-
i es o coun e ac p o-F anco p opaganda, o seek unding and, na u ally,
o y o con ince Ame icans o li he weapons emba go imposed on he
Spanish epublican go e nmen 8.
In o de o achie e hese pu poses, hey ied o ob ain he suppo om
Ame ican Ca holic public opinion, us ing hei suppo would enable hem
o ge close o Roose el ’s go e nmen , and o hus be able o p essu e him
and con ince him o e oke his suppo o he non-in e en ion policy in
he SCW and, consequen ly, li he emba go9. Since, acco ding o hem,
A ha poli ical momen and a e he Eu opean c isis (…), he only
one who could do some hing o Spanish Democ acy was Roose el . I
he a e o Spain’s wa is decided in Eu ope, I aly and ge many, wi h
England, can impose hei decision agains ou in e es s (…). The day
he law on he emba go comes o an end is coming close and Ca holics
(Jesui s) a e ge ing eady o s op i om being li ed10.
Thus, besides looking o unding, one o he i s ini ia i es hey ca -
ied ou was o p omo e a p opaganda campaign on he in e na ional Ca h-
olic communi y, he S a e Depa men and Ame ican public opinion. I s
objec i e was o show ha he alliance be ween he Spanish epublican
7 López zapico, 2008, p. 60; Alpe , 1996, pp. 12-20; Rey, 1997.
8 Bosch, 2013, pp. 167-187.
9 To o icagüena, 2003; Douglass and Bilbao, 1986, p. 341.
10 An ón I ala o José An onio Agui e, 10/5/1938, New Yo k. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain.
gE-0041-05.
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Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
go e nmen and he Basque go e nmen , in eg a ed and lead by Ca ho-
lics, was loyal o a democ a ically elec ed go e nmen .
A i s , hey ope a ed mo e cau iously; hey ocused on explo ing he
scene, sp eading copies o he Euzko Deya newspape as well as o he
p opaganda li e a u e, which condemned, among o he hings, he I alo-
ge man in e en ion in he wa , he ideological pe secu ion and he o i-
gins o he Basque na ional p oblem. Thus, hey imidly app oached he
Ame icans, wi hou demanding any commi men in exchange and, hence,
we e able o achie e he app o al om a la ge p opo ion o in luen ial
pe sonali ies on social, poli ical, economic and cul u al ields, which con-
sequen ly con ibu ed o inc easing o e all suppo o he Spanish Repub-
lic11. Soon he ea e , by o de o he Agui e go e nmen , he New Yo k
delega es began o o ganize mee ings wi h he Ame ican Ca holic and po-
li ical ep esen a i es, whe e hey appealed o he con ac s ha he Basque
diploma ic ep esen a i es in F ance had es ablished wi h he Eu opean
Ch is ian Democ a ic poli ical pa ies12.
The s a egy wo ked ou as in au umn 1938 mee ings we e al eady
unde way. One o he i s mee ings was wi h F ancis X. Talbo , a p o-
F anco Jesui p ies whom hey ied o con ince ha he Spanish wa
was no a c usade agains Ma xism, bu a igh be ween ascism and de-
moc acy. They showed him ha he only possible democ a ic app oach a
Ca holic could adop owa ds his wa was he Basque app oach, ha is,
one ha suppo s he legi ima ely elec ed go e nmen . No wi hs anding
all Basque e o s, he e was no much o be done due o Talbo ’s obs i-
na e and conse a i e disposi ion, who only ag eed o ecommend o he
edi o ial depa men o he Ca holic jou nal, Ame ica, ha i s op de am-
ing he Basque go e nmen 13.
They also con ac ed Hen y L. Binsse, di ec o o he Commonweal
jou nal, whose pe sonnel, ollowing Jacques Ma i ain’s hesis, had de-
cla ed i sel neu al, e en hough in p i a e many de ended he Basque
beha io du ing he wa agains he adi ional, au ho i a ian and mili a-
ized Ca holic insu gen s14. Despi e hei neu ali y, Binsse’s sympa hy
11 P opaganda ile o he Basque go e nmen Delega ion in New Yo k, 1938,
New Yo k. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain. gE-0041-05; San Sebas ián, 1991, p. 33.
12 Cal, 2012, pp. 203-204; A ie a, 2009, p. 202.
13 An ón I ala o José An onio Agui e, 9/21/1938, New Yo k. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain.
gE-0041-05.
14 zanca, 2009, p. 159.
988 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
owa ds he Basques was e iden ; he ad ised hem ha , in o de o ob ain
he suppo om he Ca holic hie a chy, be o e mee ing wi h he NCWC
ep esen a i es, hey should issue a s a emen o all Ame ican Ca holics
h ough e die ’s Comi é Na ional Ca holique d’accueil aux Basques15.
Following Binsse’s ad ice, he Basques con ac ed William Mon a on
om NCWC, who was known o condemning he communis pe secu ion
in epublican e i o y and o ansla ing o English he le e he Spanish
bishops w o e in 1937, whe e se e al aspec s o he wa we e dis o ed16.
The Basques knew ha Mon a on was a ca d hey could use in hei a-
o , bu hey we en’ awa e ha he did no ha e a la ge ma gin o ac ion
be o e he p o-F anco Michael J. Ready (sec e a y o he NCWC). In ac ,
he la e had c i icized Mon a on o publicly condemning he bomba d-
men s and he ou age du ing he wa , and o c i icizing he Ame ican
go e nmen . Mon a on was inally pushed aside a e Ready’s isi o
Spain, whe e he la e became con inced ha he had o suppo he insu -
gen s in o de o p o ec his coun y om communism17.
Despi e hei skep icism abou he mee ing wi h Mon a on, he
Basque delega es mo ed o wa d eques ing ull collabo a ion om he
NCWC in he con ex o an assis ance plan o Basque e ugees. To I a-
la’s su p ise, du ing he mee ing, Mon a on asked o explana ions e-
ga ding hei ela ionship wi h he Basque na ionalis José Luis de la
Lombana, who had pa icipa ed in ac i i ies o he communis associa ion
Washing on F iends o Spanish Democ acy, which suppo ed Juan Ne-
g ín’s epublican go e nmen 18. I ala’s emba assmen was no o ious; he
needed o dissocia e his go e nmen om any ype o ac ion he o me
could ha e unila e ally unde aken ha could a ec he le el o ca holic-
i y o he Basque go e nmen 19. Bu Mon a on was dis us ul and em-
po a ily shu he doo o he Basques om he NCWC, since, e en i hey
15 An ón I ala o José An onio Agui e, 9/28/1938, New Yo k. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain.
gE-0041-05.
16 gonzález, 2012, p. 321; On he collec i e le e o he Spanish bishops: Redondo,
1993, p. 310.
17 gonzález, 2012, pp. 329-330.
18 The Basque Delega ion o William Mon a on, 10/3/1938, Washing on DC; Ame-
ican Ca holic Uni e si y A chi e (ACUA), Na ional Ca holic Wel a e Con e ence
(NCWC), In e na ional A ai s, Spain 1938-1964, Basques, Box 51, Folde 11; Anasagas i
and E ko eka, 2013.
19 The Basque Delega ion o William Mon a on, 10/3/1938, Washing on DC. ACUA,
NCWC, Spain 1938-1964, Basques, Box 51, Folde 11.
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Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
had gi en p oo o hei Ca holicism and o he suppo hey had om Eu-
opean Ca holicism, hey we e s ill pa o he Spanish epublican go e n-
men which, o hem, pe secu ed, o u ed and execu ed housands o eli-
gious people20.
I was hen ha he Basque delega es began o pay g ea e a en-
ion o he Roose el Adminis a ion and i s S a e Depa men . Thanks o
Michael S aigh , membe o he US Depa men o In e io , Roose el ’s
speechw i e and Ramón de la So a’s21 pe sonal iend, hey con ac ed
Ha y H. McB ide, assis an o he Sec e a y o S a e, Cecil Wayne g ay;
Thomas Co co an, gene al sec e a y o he Democ a ic Pa y; and E ic C.
Wendelein and Jay Pie epon Mo a o he O ice o Eu opean A ai s22.
Du ing hese mee ings, he Basques weighed he p ominen ole hey
played in some o he La in Ame ican epublics, since many o hose ex-
iled had wo ked o he Basque go e nmen du ing he SCW, un il i
los i s e i o iali y, occupying some impo an go e nmen pos s23. The
a o emen ioned Ame ican poli ical o ice s we e pa icula ly in e es ed
in wha De La So a had o say abou he ole he Basque exiles could play
in La in Ame ica in bene i o he Ame ican go e nmen , con ibu ing o
he igh agains nazi, ascis and Japanese poli ical-cul u al pene a ion in
La in Ame ican epublics24. Du ing he 30’s, his h ea was pe cei ed as
a siege o Eu opean and Asian o ali a ianisms agains Ame ican democ-
acy and, in his sense, he US Fo eign Se ice agencies had ini ia ed a de-
ense de ice in case o a possible a ack on Ame ican e i o y, planning
he ins alla ion o mili a y bases in he mos ulne able s a egic poin s
o he A lan ic and Paci ic coas s25. Wi hin his s a egy, Basque exiles,
uni ed unde p esiden Agui e, could play an impo an ole hanks o
hei widesp ead p esence in La in Ame ica. As a coun e pa o his col-
labo a ion, which as will be seen la e became signi ican ly impo an du -
20 William Mon a on o Michael J. Ready, 10/5/1938, Washing on DC. ACUA,
NCWC, Spain 1938-1964, Basques, Box 51, Folde 11.
21 Mo a, 2016, p. 72.
22 Repo on he o ganiza ion o he US S a e Depa men , no da e, no place. I a gi.
Be ga a, Spain. gE-0041-05; Jiménez de Abe as u i, 1999, p. 473; San Sebas ián, 1991,
pp. 37-38 and 61.
23 Repo no. 132, 2/15/1939, no place. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain. gE-0041-05.
24 Weine , 2012, pp. 107 and 112.
25 Repo on he ounding o a mili a y collabo a ion in La in Ame ica, no da e, Was-
hing on DC. Rocke elle Founda ion A chi e (RFA), 4 NARA O-Washing on DC Files,
CIAA, Box 11, Folde 85.
990 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
ing WW2, he Basque delega ion eques ed he emo al o he weapons
emba go and he media ion o he S a e Depa men be o e F anco’s go -
e nmen in o de o ob ain he commu a ion o dea h sen ences imposed
on some Basque ci izens.
The delega ion epea ed his eques be o e di e en pe sonali ies on
mul iple occasions, as shown in he co espondence Ynchaus i main ained
wi h Mennen Williams, Co dell Hull and F ank Mu phy h oughou
193926. The Ame icans, howe e , almos always esponded nega i ely,
claiming hese we e no Ame ican ci izens and hei media ion would
comp omise US neu ali y in he wa 27. This ina en ion, ne e heless, did
no discou age he expec a ions o he Basque s a egy. They con inued
sending in o ma ion and keeping con ac wi h he S a e Depa men , since
a con inuous and egula co espondence, as hey belie ed, smoo hened
ela ions wi h he US.
Du ing his same pe iod, Agui e sough o in ensi y con ac s wi h
he S a e Depa men . The delega ion inc eased i s pe sonnel and be-
gan se e al p opagandis ic ac i i ies o os e Basque olklo e and spo
in he US28. Mo eo e , hey ca ied ou a p opaganda campaign in he
Wes , whe e hey es ablished good ela ions wi h he bishop o Reno,
Thomas K. go man. They did no ha e he same luck in Idaho, whe e
I ala and De La So a encoun e ed p o-F anco bishop Edwa d J. Kelly29.
Thus, he e hey ocused all hei e o s in p opaganda, boos ing Euzko
Deya and he es ablishmen o new Basque na ionalis se lemen s
which, on he one hand, would educe he adi ional Ca lis in luence
and, on he o he hand, could be used o employ pas o s in Cali o nia,
26 Mennen Williams o US S a e Depa men , 9/7/1939, Washing on DC. Na ional
A chi es and Reco ds Adminis a ion (NARA). Rg 59, S a e Depa men , box. 6415;
g.S. Messe smi h o F ank Mu phy, 11/4/1939, Washing on DC, NARA, Rg 59, S a e De-
pa men , Box. 6416, Leg. 852.00/9370.
27 In he Whi e House and he S a e Depa men he e we e excep ions ega ding he
Ame ican a i ude adop ed in he Spanish Ci il Wa . In ac , P esiden Roose el and his
wi e, Eleano , we e in a o o in e en ion and collabo a ion. Addi ionally, he ele ance
o he bombing o gue nica on Ame ican public opinion when aluing he con ending si-
des mus be men ioned, as a no able pa o Ame ican socie y, close o Ca holicism, was
e y c i ical o ancois s and mobilized agains i . To deepen hese opics, see Bosch,
2012, pp. 109-228; I ujo, 2017.
28 Ped o Basaldúa o An ón I ala, 9/12/1938, Pa ís. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain. gE-
0041-05; O daz, 1995, pp. 179-198.
29 Bie e and Bie e , 2005, p. 96.
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Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
Idaho and Ne ada30. Finally, hey planned he c ea ion o a sub-delega-
ion in Boise which, al hough s ill dependen on he New Yo k delega-
ion, would be in cha ge o ac i i ies in his a ea.
Mo eo e , Agui e asked he New Yo k delega ion o eini ia e con-
ac wi h he Ca holic media. He wan ed hem o mee wi h he main
communica ions media and he main Ca holic ins i u ions so hey could
edi ec hei opinions abou he Basques and, hence, use hei in luence
on p esiden Roose el . An ón I ala, he main p omo e o he p o-US
policy du ing hese yea s, suppo ed his s a egy. In ac , a he begin-
ning o 1939, he had al eady old he Basque go e nmen in Pa is abou
i s po en ial:
Ou powe is ex ensi e; I can ell you now, in a con iden ial and
e y disc ee one, ha in no ime no e en he Ca dinal in Bos on will
be able o oppose us and will ollow he same pa h as New Yo k.31
Wha is mo e, ha ing seen ha con ac s wi h he S a e Depa men did
no mo e as as as expec ed, I ala decided o esume he ‘Ca holic ca d’.
He was eeling op imis ic, since besides his poli ical con ac s, he had ob-
ained he sympa hy om he in luen ial p o-F anco ca dinal o New
Yo k, Pa ick Hayes, and was p oud ha his lobbying ac i i ies we e i-
nally s a ing o p oduce esul s32.
He esumed, consequen ly, con ac wi h Ame ican Ca holicism, lea -
ing aside all hose who we e p o-F anco and ocusing on sympa hize s
o he Basque go e nmen . He me wi h Ca dinal geo ge Mundelein, o
whom he explained ha he p oblem in Spain was simila o ha in Yu-
gosla ia, ha is, a S a e composed o di e en ede a e na ions ha , as
a consequence o he ise o uni a y na ionalism, had been subjuga ed.
He ied o awaken hei in e es in exiled Basque child en in F ance,
ying o con ince hem o collabo a e inancially wi h he sus ainabil-
i y o hese child en’s colonies. Mo eo e , he showed him Agui e’s ap-
p oach on he dange ous in luence o ‘ge man paganism’ on ca holicism
30 José An onio Agui e o Manuel de la So a, 1939, no place. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain.
gE-0041-05; On he shephe ds Sai ua, 2018, pp. 81-119.
31 An ón I ala o he Basque go e nmen , 1939, Pa ís. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain. gE-
0041-05.
32 P opaganda ile o he Basque go e nmen Delega ion in New Yo k, 1938, New
Yo k. I a gi. Be ga a, Spain. gE-0041-05.
998 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
Bu he US en y in he wa oze hese con ac s. The COI, which
cen alized Ame ican in elligence se ices wi h he pu pose o di ec ing
all in elligence ac i i ies in La in Ame ica, emo ed he BSC om he
La in Ame ican scene. The in luen ial p essu es o he di ec o o he FBI,
J. Edga Hoo e , we e also decisi e in his con ex ; dis us ul o o eign
espionage ac i i ies in Ame ica, he in ended o con ol and ollow closely
hese unde akings. Such p essu es led o one esul ; in Feb ua y 1942, he
Roose el Adminis a ion p omo ed a legisla i e e o m ha compelled
all o eign agen s who wan ed o ope a e in USA o be egis e ed in he
Jus ice Depa men . This law weakened he BSC and, hence, Ame icans
we e able o di ec all in elligence and coun e espionage ac i i ies in he
Wes e n hemisphe e56.
This cen aliza ion led o he ealignmen o he o ganiza ional s uc-
u es o Ame ican in o ma ion agencies, which opened hei doo s o
a close collabo a ion wi h he Basques. Thus, in sp ing 1942, he le-
hendaka i Agui e and Manuel De La So a me in New Yo k wi h he
COI, an agency which disappea ed in June ha yea and ha p eceded
he OSS, wi h which he Basques, as p e iously men ioned, had al eady
eached a p e-ag eemen o collabo a ion o coun e ac o ali a ian p op-
aganda om he Axis57. This p e-ag eemen had, mo eo e , es ablished
ha he BIS would coo dina e all o i s ac i i ies, and included eedom o
ac ion, sa e-passage and con iden ial communica ion sys ems wi h Ame -
ican enc yp ions. I would concen a e on p o-Allied p opaganda, on ob-
aining in o ma ion on p o-Axis ci cles, and on ca ying ou espionage
se ices in La in Ame ica.
No wi hs anding he p e-ag eemen wi h he OSS, by he ime summe
a i ed in 1942, he e was s ill no i m ag eemen . Some esea che s ha e
indica ed ha he ag eemen mus ha e been signed somewhe e along he
mon h o May 1942, bu he ecen ly declassi ied documen a ion does no
shed ligh on his issue58. In ac , i is possible ha i was no signed on
his da e since, obse ing he co espondence be ween William Dono an
and Co dell Hull as well as he in o ma ion ha appea s in he lehendaka-
i’s dia y, i can be e i ied ha his so-called ‘ag eemen ’ was a much
mo e complex p ocess which in ol ed mo e han a ew simple con e sa-
56 Weine , 2012, p. 152; Law, 1982, p. 367.
57 «Memo andum abou José An onio Agui e», NARA, Washing on DC, 6-5-1942,
Rg 226, OSS Files, En y 106, Box 32, Folde 151.
58 Mo a, 2016, p. 130-134. I ujo, 2012, p. 123. Mees e al., 2014, p. 452.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/hc.20374 999
Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
ions be ween Agui e and Dono an’s agency59. O he wise, i canno be
explained why on 3 July 1942 Dono an p essu ed he sec e a y o s a e
o suppo he coope a ion p ojec be ween he OSS and he BIS, wa ning
him ha «unless his unc ioning machine y can be se up, I ea we will
be unable o p o i by his e y ad an ageous oppo uni y»60.
In ac , Dono an’s nego ia ions ex ended o e ime due o he in e nal
ba ie s and c i icisms he encoun e ed. Hence, h oughou au umn 1942,
he concen a ed on con ac ing his mos di ec o ice s in o de o assess
he suppo he had o close a inal ag eemen wi h he Basques. On 24 No-
embe 1942, co onel Da id B uce, OSS chie o ope a ions in Eu ope,
communica ed o Dono an ha he agency should s udy whe he o com-
mi hemsel es o collabo a e wi h an o ganiza ion ha opposed he Span-
ish egime, ha no only had eques ed o enc yp ion codes o co e-
spondence sen o Spain and adio- ansmi e s o ca y ou join ac i i ies,
bu ha had also eques ed weapons and explosi es61.
As is e ealed on he a chi al sou ces, he OSS main ained i s ese -
a ions o he poin ha i only ag eed i would inalize a de ini e ag ee-
men in he u u e; he agency was no as en i ely con inced o commi -
ing i sel wi h he Basques as i had appea ed, which can be seen in he
ollowing pa ag aph:
The ques ion o ou (Washing on Headqua e s O.S.S.) making con-
ac s wi h sub e si e elemen s ha a e di ec ly opposed o he p esen
Spanish go e nmen is one o high policy. The e en s o he immedia e
u u e will, no doub , indica e whe he o no Spain will in some way
o ano he e mined o esis all ge man p essu e, including ha which
may be exe ed upon he o he use o ai -bases in Sou he n Spain, hen
i would be my pe sonal belie ha i would be a mis ake o jeopa dize
ou ela ions wi h Spain by a emp ing o en e join ope a ions wi h
e olu iona y o independen g oups such as ep esen ed by Agui e and
his Independen Basque ollowing62.
59 José An onio Agui e, «en ada del ie nes», Dia y 1941-1942, May 22, 1942.
60 William Dono an o US Sec e a y o he S a e, 7/3/1942, Washing on DC, Suppo
P o ided o Basque Mo emen and In elligence Se ice, OSS Files, FOIA 2013/12/18,
CIA-RDP13X00001R000100020009-3.
61 Oia zabal and Tabe nilla, 2017, p. 54.
62 Da id B uce o colonel Dono an, 11/24/1942, Washing on DC, Suppo P o i-
ded o Basque Mo emen and In elligence Se ice, OSS iles, FOIA 2013/09/16, CIA-
RDP13X00001R000100220005-5.
1000 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
The issue abou he ag eemen pe sis ed un il mid-1943, when i-
nally, Basques chose o collabo a e wi h he OSS and he FBI, despi e
being emp ed by subs an ial amoun s o money by he Uni ed S a es
A my g-2. By ha ime, he FBI no only con olled almos all espionage
ac i i ies in Ame ica, bu he OSS had mo eo e los powe , p es ige and
in luence63. In his con ex , Basque au ho i ies decided o wo k o Hoo-
e ’s agency in La in Ame ica, and o he OSS and he Ame ican a my
in Eu ope.
In La in Ame ica, he BIS limi ed i s con ac s o he FBI, in pa icu-
la o i s Legal A achès, ha is, he legal agg ega es o he ede al police
in Ame ican embassies, who we e he ones who ga e he Basques i s mis-
sions and ins uc ions64. Du ing he i s yea s o WW2, he BIS’ main
mission was o spy on p o-Axis o ganiza ions and o ca y ou coun e -
p opaganda ac i i ies, bu as se e al epo s om he FBI con i m, as he
wa p og essed, i also began o inc easingly look a communis ac i i-
ies, especially hose o Spanish poli ical exiles65. Thus, while he BIS ob-
ained in o ma ion on p o-Axis suppo e s, con olling Nazi mo emen s
and ope a ions, and examining he c ews o Spanish ships, i also in es i-
ga ed communis ac i i ies in Boli ia, U uguay, Pa aguay and Chile. The
BIS hus ollowed An ón I ala’s o de s, who was hen he main con ac
be ween he Basques and Ame ican in elligence agencies and who had
shown he Ame icans ha communism could, in he nea u u e, become
hei main p oblem in La in Ame ica,
Bo h such mo emen s, namely, Communis and Fascis , ha e o
hei immedia e aim he des uc ion o No h Ame ican in luence in
La in Ame ica and he ul ima e launching o e olu iona y go e nmen s
along he So ie lines.66
Thus, in summe 1943, as wo ies o an in asion om he Axis pow-
e s began o ade away, ge man espionage ceased o be Uni ed S a es’
only conce n. On he o he hand, he issue abou communism began o in-
63 Mo a, 2016, pp. 158-161.
64 Smi h, 2009, p. 103; Weine , 2012, pp. 161-162; Theoha is, 1999, p. 338.
65 Memo andum on he Basque o ganiza ion-La in Ame ican Ma e s, 3/14/1944,
New Yo k, FBI A chi e, Basque In elligence Se ice (BIS), Sec ion II.
66 Con iden ial in o man o J.E. Hoo e , 4/24/1944, Cuba, FBI A chi e, BIS, Sec-
ion II.
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Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
c ease which, acco ding o he FBI, could po en ially damage he image
o he US as sa egua d o democ acy ha he Roose el Adminis a ion
had buil bo h in Eu ope and La in Ame ica67. To s op his image om
being co oded, Hoo e p omo ed a poli ical lobby in Washing on o con-
ince he go e nmen ha he suppo S alin was ob aining in he Wes e n
wo ld was weakening democ acy68. Mo eo e , he belie ed ha he FBI
should p io i ize moni o ing communis ac i i ies in La in Ame ica be-
cause, as con i med by he BIS’ epo s, hese had al eady achie ed sig-
ni ican in luence in Mexico.
In his con ex , An ón I ala me wi h he FBI’s legal agg ega e in May
1944 in Mexico o ag ee on he de ails o he BIS’ collabo a ion. The
Ame ican agen eques ed 300 Basques who li ed in Mexico Ci y and
o he la ge ci ies o use as in o man s, ese ing he agency’s he igh
o nulli y he ag eemen in case he esul s we e deemed unsa is ac o y.
Such demands, oge he wi h he sca ce unding p o ided o hei ope a-
ions, in u ia ed I ala, who belie ed Ame icans unde alued he BIS’ abil-
i ies69. In ac , he no i ied he lehendaka i who u ged him no wi hs anding
o con inue wi h he p ojec , e en i he Basque go e nmen had o de ay
hei own ope a ions. Ne e heless, on No embe 1944, he FBI no ed
ha he BIS’ pe o mance was oo low and hey had o, he e o e, signi i-
can ly dec ease i s unding70.
Consequen ly, con ac s wi h he FBI we e pu on hold and I ala e-
signed om his posi ion as BIS coo dina o in La in Ame ica, mo ing o
F ance o inco po a e as he BIS connec ion in an OSS mission which in-
ended o c ea e an in o ma ion ne wo k be ween he Py enees, F ance
and Belgium a e he No mandy landings. Taking ad an age o his col-
labo a ion be ween he BIS and he OSS, he FBI ound jus i ica ion o
i s ac ions. Today we know, howe e , ha he di ec o o he FBI sus-
pec ed he BIS, as he would o any o ganiza ion ela ed wi h Dono an’s
OSS; Hoo e belie ed he OSS was in es ed wi h S alin’s agen s who, be-
sides de ea ing Hi le , also wan ed o ob ain in o ma ion on he in e nal
si ua ion o Uni ed S a es’ agencies71.
67 F iedman, 2003, p. 159. Yeadon and Hawkins, 2008, pp. 47 and 163-191.
68 Weine , 2012, p. 163.
69 Jiménez de Abe as u i, 1999, p. 478.
70 An ón I ala o José An onio Agui e, 11/14/1944, New Yo k, FBI A chi e, BIS,
Sec ion II, NND-267468, Leg. 64-23117.
71 Weine , 2012, p. 171.
1002 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
In any case, he OSS Eu opean mission which I ala inally joined con-
cen a ed on de eloping an in o ma ion sys em in F ance and Belgium
ha would ob ain wa in o ma ion in La in Ame ica independen ly o he
FBI, and on c ea ing a clandes ine mailing ne wo k ha would connec
Spain and Uni ed S a es h ough Po ugal72. Nei he he S a e Depa men
o he O ice o Eu opean A ai s app o ed his p ojec which was mean
o be led by I ala; howe e , his did no s op he OSS and he BIS om
wo king oge he in o he ope a ions, such as Ai edale, a sabo age mission
o igh agains he las Nazi s ongholds in he F ench Aqui aine egion73.
In his con ex , in summe 1944, he Allies libe a ed Pa is. Agui e
hough hey could hen begin o eap he bene i s his o ganiza ion had
ha es ed, ha is, he Allies’ mo al commi men o in e ene in Spain
o de ea F anco in o de o libe a e Eu ope om o ali a ian domina-
ion since, a e all, he Basques had helped hem in hei mili a y e -
o s. In ac , i could no be any o he way acco ding o he Basque p es-
iden a e Roose el endo sed he «people’s igh o sel -de e mina ion
doc ine»74.
Re u ning o Euskadi (Basque Coun y) seemed now plausible o
Agui e, who elied on ce ain in o ma ion o p i ilege om Spence Phe-
nix, an agen o he OSS in cha ge o Ibe ian Peninsula ma e s in Wash-
ing on DC. The la e , who conside ed F anco’s egime as uns able, had
poin ed ou o Dono an he need o suppo he Basques as soon as possi-
ble so hey could lead a clandes ine mo emen ha would ease he ansi-
ion o democ acy in Spain and, hus, a oid chaos, ci il wa and ana chy.
The Roose el Adminis a ion, he a gued, was esponsible o he u u e
o democ a ic mo emen s in Spain, wi h whom hey had aken on a com-
mi men , by means o which hey could no allow hem o pe ish unde
F anco’s o communism’s opp ession. Hence, he bes op ion was ha he
OSS in e ened in Spain o help es ablish a democ a ic go e nmen wi h
he assis ance o Agui e’s o ganiza ion, who had al eady begun con ac s
wi h he conse a i e poli ician, Miguel Mau a, o eo ganize and lead he
Spanish epublican go e nmen . Mo eo e , he insis ed, e en i he e we e
72 Spence Phenix o William J. Dono an, 11/25/1944, no place, Rg 226, OSS Files,
En y 210, Box 391, WN 7169.
73 William A. Kimbel o Spence Phenix, 9/27/1944, no place, NARA, Rg 226 OSS
iles, En y 210, Box 300, WN 12813, Leg. C12813/008; Mo a, 2017, pp. 145-162.
74 José An onio Agui e, «Misión de Amé ica», Euzko Deya (Mexico), Ma ch 1,
1944.
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Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
no gua an ees ha he e could be a peace ul poli ical ansi ion in Spain,
Phenix wa ned Dono an ha .
The consequences o a hands-o policy could be so disas ous no
only o Spain bu also o he cause o democ acy and libe y in o he
pa s o he wo ld, ha he seizing o e en a o lo n chance would seem
wo hwhile.75
Finally, e en i hey ag eed ha i was «Time o change in Spain»,
he S a e Depa men ad ised no o in e e e di ec ly in Spanish in e nal
poli ical ma e s as hey did no wan F ancois au ho i ies o suspec ha
he OSS aimed o in e ene Spain in o de o de ea F anco76.
Ne e heless, Phenix’s suppo o he Spanish democ a ic cause con-
i ms ha he g adualis s a egy p omo ed by he lehendaka i, ha is, he
one ha in ended o sea ch o a solu ion o he Spanish p oblem as a way
o e u ning he Basque go e nmen o i s peninsula e i o y, was well-
ecei ed by some ci cles wi hin Ame ican poli ical powe , inasmuch as
he Basque poli ical o ganiza ion in oduced i sel as an e ec i e poli ical
ins umen o help igh agains o ali a ianism, de ea F anco and es ab-
lish a new poli ical egimen con a y o ascism and communism77.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, seeking he p o ec ion om he Uni ed S a es was a
cons an o he Basque go e nmen du ing he Ci il Wa and WW2.
Main aining o icial and uno icial ela ions, bo h wi h Ame ican con-
g essmen and poli icians, as well as wi h agen s om he S a e Depa -
men and o he ela ed agencies, demons a es ha Basque leade s highly
alued he Ame ican poli ical scene as undamen al o achie e hei ob-
jec i es o eco e ing democ acy and Basque sel -go e nmen .
In his sense, in he deploymen o hei A lan icis s a egy, he New
Yo k delega ion o he Basque go e nmen elied on he collabo a ion
o he associa ions o Basque communi ies ha had emig a ed o Ame -
75 Spence Phenix o William Dono an, 12/16/1944, Washing on DC, NARA, Rg 59,
S a e Depa men , Box 5234, Leg. 852.00/12-1944.
76 Paul T. Culbe son o James C. Dunn, 12/28/1944, no place, NARA, Rg 59, S a e
Depa men , Box 5234, Leg. 852.00/12-1944.
77 Mees, 2006, p. 79.
1004 His o ia Con empo ánea, 2020, 64, 983-1010
Da id Mo a zu do
ica, many o which suppo ed Basque na ionalism. Ne e heless, he
Basque leade s in cha ge o he A lan icis poli ical s a egy did no use
hese Basque-Ame ican immig an g oups as hei suppo i e axis o hei
policies in he US, no did hey use hem as hei main ins umen o ex-
e p essu e on he poli ical scene. As a ma e o ac , hey p e e ed us-
ing he New Yo k delega ion and he indi idual con ac s wi h Ame ican
poli icians and Eu opean exiles. The ac ha his delega ion was loca ed
in New Yo k, as opposed o Cali o nia, Ne ada, Idaho o O egon, whe e
he e was a s onge p esence o Basque ci izens, is symp oma ic, indica -
ing ha Basque leade s p io i ized basing hei ins i u ions in s a egic ci -
ies, close o Ame ican poli ical powe .
Du ing hese yea s, he ela ionship be ween he Basque go e nmen
and USA was al oge he asymme ical. Whe eas Basques we e con inu-
ously showing in e es in his ela ionship, Ame icans oscilla ed, depend-
ing on he possible s a egic ad an ages hey could ob ain in he in e -
na ional con ex . Roose el ’s democ a p esidency (1933-1945), which
co e s he pe iod s udied in his a icle, was he mos signi ican o
Basque exiles; du ing his pe iod, i was plausible ha he US ook ac ion
agains F ancoism bo h in diploma ic and mili a y e ms, in he hea o he
measu es aken by he Allies agains he Axis and i s collabo a o s du -
ing WW278. In ac , he e was an e ec i e collabo a ion be ween Basques
and Ame icans h ough hei in elligence se ices. Ne e heless, he o e -
all one o i s policy was o ensu e i s economic and mili a y in e es s in
he Ibe ian Peninsula whils con inuing hei ela ion wi h he Basques, o
whom hey we e mos ly in e es ed in he in o ma ion he la e could p o-
ide abou he Axis and communism, bo h in Ame ica and wi hin Spain,
wi hou o e ing any so o poli ical compensa ion in exchange.
The A lan icis s a egy did no ha e a ully s uc u ed plan, bu in-
s ead hose in cha ge o he Basque go e nmen ’s o eign ac i i ies in
Uni ed S a es ied o make he mos o di e en oppo uni ies ha we e
p esen ed o hem depending o he in e na ional con ex o he ime.
Hence, he ela ion be ween he Basque go e nmen in exile wi h di e -
78 Th oughou he Cold Wa he e would be c i icism wi hin Basque na ionalism
owa ds ag eemen s and ela ions wi h he Ame icans; in o he wo ds, ha he e we e also
Basques who disag eed wi h he Basque go e nmen ’s policy, such as Manuel I ujo o Je-
sús Ma ía Leizaola. Ne e heless, he Agui e’s line emained un il his dea h in 1960. On
he change o he ela ionships: I ujo, 2012; Mo a, 2016; Azu mendi, 2013; De Recondo
and De Recondo, 2011.
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Knocking on Ame ica’s doo . Basque Fo eign Poli ics in he US du ing he Spanish Ci il...
en agencies o he US go e nmen , as well as wi h di e en lobbying
poli ical pla o ms, labo unions and o he o ganiza ions o his coun y,
we e subo dina ed om he s a o he s ong es ic ions imposed by he
changing in e na ional con ex . In his sense, he Basque go e nmen o -
e ed he US go e nmen a se ies o bene i s o show hemsel es as an a -
ac i e pa ne . On he one hand, i in oduced he BIS as a iendly o -
ganiza ion ha could collabo a e in p opaganda and espionage ac i i ies.
This was, wi hou doub , he main asse a small go e nmen in exile could
o e o he Ame ican gian , e en hough his did no imply hey would e-
cei e in exchange he ewa ds hey expec ed: he Ame ican in e en ion
in Spain, he es o a ion o democ acy and he possibili y o ob aining an
independen S a e. On he o he hand, he Basque go e nmen showed i -
sel willing o con ibu e o es ablish a mode a e —and non-communis —
democ a ic egime in Spain, some hing Uni ed S a es had always consid-
e ed when hinking abou a poli ical change om F anco’s dic a o ship. In
e ec , du ing he majo i y o his ch onology o ela ions, Basque poli i-
cians could no o e much mo e, and once WW2 was o e and he Cold
Wa had begun, hese o e s became insu icien .
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Al p e , Michael, «Del emba go a la neu alidad: Es ados Unidos y la gue a ci il
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