Woman and mother: double employment penalty?

Mas e in Economics: Empi ical Applica ions and Policies
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU
Mas e Thesis
Woman and mo he : double employmen penal y?
Od a Quesada Campos
Supe ised by Sa a de la Rica and Luc´ıa Go j´on (ISEAK)
July 30, 2020
Acknowledgmen s
He eby, I would like o hank o ISEAK Founda ion o gi ing me his excep ional oppo -
uni y o collabo a e wi h hem in his pape . Thei knowledge has en iched he analysis
beyond all hose nume ical esul s ob ained on his Mas e Thesis. They ansmi ed me
hei passion abou his opic so, I hope I can do he same wi h he eade s.
Thank you, Sa a and Luc´ıa, o all.
———————————–
Od a Quesada Campos
July 30, 2020
2
Lis o Figu es
1 E olu ion o gende gaps in employmen le els in Spain by age g oups . . . 8
2 Child en and weekly hou s wo ked by gende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Couple and labo si ua ion by gende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 Couple and weekly hou s wo ked by gende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5 Child en and labo si ua ion by gende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6 Reasons o holding a pa - ime job among couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7 Child en, wo k schedule and ype o con ac by gende . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8 Occupa ional sex seg ega ion, wo k schedule and gende . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9 Child en and labo si ua ion by gende - Second qua e o 2007 . . . . . . 32
10 Child en and labo si ua ion - Regional dispa i ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
11 Es ima ed p obabili y o being employed among pa en s - Di e ences be-
weenwomenandmen.............................. 37
A.1 Couple and ype o con ac by gende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A.2 Couple and labo si ua ion by gende - High educa ed indi iduals . . . . . 43
A.3 Child en and ype o con ac by gende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
A.4 Job seg ega ion by sec o s o ac i i y, wo k schedule and gende . . . . . . 44
A.5 Couple and labo si ua ion by gende - Second qua e o 2007 . . . . . . . 45
A.6 Child en and labo si ua ion - Regional dispa i ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A.7 A agon...................................... 46
A.8 As u ias ..................................... 46
A.9 Balea icIslands................................. 46
A.10Cana yIslands ................................. 46
A.11Can ab ia .................................... 46
A.12Cas illayLaMancha.............................. 46
A.13Cas ileandLe´on ................................ 47
A.14Ca alonia .................................... 47
A.15Valencia ..................................... 47
A.16Ex emadu a .................................. 47
A.17Galicia...................................... 47
A.18Mad id...................................... 47
A.19Mu cia...................................... 48
A.20Na a a ..................................... 48
A.21LaRioja..................................... 48
3
Lis o Tables
1 Classi ica ion o he indi iduals wi hin he a ge popula ion. . . . . . . . . 14
2 Ma ginal E ec s om es ima ing Equa ion (4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Ma ginal E ec s om es ima ing Equa ions (5), (7), (8), and (9) . . . . . . 28
4 Dis ibu ion o indi iduals among he second sub-sample - 2007 . . . . . . 31
5 Ma ginal E ec s om es ima ing Equa ions (5), (7), (8), and (9) o he
secondqua e o 2007 ............................. 33
6 Di e ences in educa ional a ainmen among hose couples wi h child en
employedinA agon. .............................. 38
A.2.1Resul s o p obi models - Fi s sub-sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A.2.2Resul s o p obi models - Second sub-sample - 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
A.2.3Resul s o p obi models - Second sub-sample - 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A.2.4Resul s o p obi models by egions - Second sub-sample - 2007 . . . . . . . 55
A.2.5Resul s o p obi models by egions - Second sub-sample - 2019 . . . . . . . 57
4
Con en s
1 In oduc ion 7
1.1 Resea ch hypo hesis and mo i a ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Mo he hood and labo ma ke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Li e a u e e iew 10
3 Da a and me hodology 12
3.1 Desc ip iono heda a............................. 12
3.1.1 Sub-sample 1: Singles and childless couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 Sub-sample 2: Couples wi h and wi hou child en . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Me hodology .................................. 15
4 Desc ip i e indings 18
5 Es ima ion esul s 25
6 Ex ensions 30
6.1 Tempo alpe spec i e.............................. 31
6.2 Regionalpe spec i e .............................. 34
7 Summa y and inal ema ks 38
A Appendices 43
A.1 O he desc ip i e g aphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A.2 O he able esul s ............................... 49
5

Abs ac
This pape analyzes how emales and males modi y hei labo si ua ion a e ha ing a
child o econcile wo k and amily li e in Spain. The analysis aims o examine whe he he
he e ogenei y in pa en s’ employmen is explained by gende di e ences o by di e ences
conce ning sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, educa ional and occupa ional a ainmen ,
among o he s. Using 2019 da a om he Spanish Labou Fo ce Su ey (SLFS), es ima ion
ocus on he di e ences by gende o ou di e en ou comes: being employed, being pa -
ime wo ke , ha ing a empo a y con ac , and wo king less han 35 hou s pe week. We
imp o e he na ional pe spec i e by applying he same app oach o he Spanish egions
and changing he empo al pe spec i e o a p e-c isis yea like 2007. Changes in he
employmen pa e ns ela ed o he a i al o child en a e only p esen on he emales’
labo supply, also an icipa ed by changes when hey ge in o a couple o ela ionships.
Keywo ds: emale employmen , gende gaps, gende inequali y, pa en hood.
6
1 In oduc ion
In he las decades, women ha e mo ed owa ds g ea e pa icipa ion in he labo
ma ke s. Thus he eminiza ion o he labo o ce is a s ylized ac ha cha ac e izes
all he OECD economies. Howe e , he e s ill exis di e ences among women and men
ela ed o lowe emale pa icipa ion a e1. The e a e some coun ies whe e his gap is
na owe , ge ing e y close o a one- o-one emale o male employmen a e, bu his
ype o gende inequali y pe sis s in mos coun ies.
Women pa icipa e mo e ac i ely in he labo ma ke due o changes in p e e ences,
inc easing oppo uni y cos s, and changes in socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics such as
highe educa ional a ainmen . Thus, he gende employmen gap has educed in a o o
women’s pa icipa ion. Howe e , mo e women a wo k do no necessa ily imply a mo e
egali a ian si ua ion in e ms o wages, hou s wo ked, and labo s abili y.
Ano he ac ela ed o he p ocess o emale inco po a ion o he labo ma ke is ha ,
while hei pa icipa ion a es inc ease, e ili y a es ha e declined in mos de eloped
coun ies [1]. In Spain, among o he Sou he n Eu opean coun ies, low pa icipa ion and
low e ili y a es coexis oge he in he economy, highligh ing ha iscal policies need o
be imp o ed o allow women o wo k and ha e child en. This nega i e ela ion be ween
e ili y and labo supply is a cause o conce n among hose Eu opean coun ies whe e
bo h a es a e lowe han he es , which is he case o Spain, I aly, and G eece. Since
wo king gene a ions inance wi h hei wo k he pensions bene i s o he p e ious ones, he
sus ainabili y o he pension sys em, which will co e hei s, depends on a new wo king
gene a ion: hei child en.
We ha e ocused he analysis on he di e ences in he labo ma ke si ua ion among
women and men. Howe e , we ha e also conside ed i he e exis di e ences among hem
depending on hei household si ua ion (i hey li e wi h hei pa en s, wi h la ma es o
hey li e wi h a couple) and on hei e ili y si ua ion (i hey ha e o no child en).
1.1 Resea ch hypo hesis and mo i a ion
This mas e hesis seeks o assess and quan i y he ac o s ha a e d i ing he ac ual
highly gende ed employmen pa e ns ha ha e been p o ed o be necessa y in o de
o de e mine empi ically social and labo ma ke policies. As we will ocus on he labo
ma ke ou comes o emales and males sepa a ely, we ha e se e al ques ions ha we would
like o answe along wi h his pape : how many indi iduals a e employed, wha ype o
jobs do hey ha e, do hese employmen pa e ns di e i hey a e emales and mo he s
1Es ima ed by he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILOSTAT da abase) as he pe cen age o
emale popula ion abo e 15 yea s old.
7
o males and a he s and, i i would be he case, he magni ude o such di e ences.
The aim o his mas e hesis is wo old: Fi s , we es whe he he e a e di e ences in
e ms o he labo si ua ion, ype o con ac , wo k schedules and, hou s wo ked be ween
emales and males in Spain, compa ing emales and males ha ha e no amily commi -
men s. Second, i hose di e ences exis , o wha ex en hey a e due o ma e ni y o
pa e ni y compe ing among couples wi h and wi hou child en. In his case, we will ana-
lyze i he adul s’ employmen pa e ns change wi h he a i al o child en and, hus, we
can e alua e i he adjus men is symme ic by gende .
Spain is one o he de eloped coun ies whe e he p ocess o emale inco po a ion in o
he labo ma ke has aken place mos ecen ly. This ising emale employmen a e has
a posi i e e ec educing he gende employmen gap2 ha is ema kably lowe in he
younges coho , e en hough i has no ye been elimina ed anywhe e, as we can obse e
in Figu e 1. We can see a dec easing endency yea s a e he economic c isis and
un il 2013 among he di e en age-g oups. This was mainly due o a dec ease in males’
employmen a e, gi en ha cons uc ion, which was he economic sec o ha des hi by
he G ea Recession, is conside ed as a male-domina ed indus y. In he case o Spain, he
inco po a ion o women in o he labo ma ke has ans o med he economy om a model
based on he seg ega ion o asks by gende owa ds a dual-income household model [8].
Indeed, his mass inco po a ion o women in o he wo k o ce inc eased he emale’s labo
o ce pa icipa ion a e up o 51.8% in 2019. Ne e heless, highe emale employmen
a es ha e been unable o emo e he ac ual gende gap in labo o ce pa icipa ion.
Figu e 1: E olu ion o gende gaps in employmen le els in Spain by age g oups
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
2009 20192010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
F om 16 o 24 yea s old F om 25 o 54 yea s old F om 55 o 64 yea s old
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
2Di e ence in employmen a es be ween men and women.
8
Besides o he gende di e ences in employmen , we also look o he exis ence o child
penal ies3, in e ms o he ype o con ac , wo k schedules and hou s wo ked, and i
childbi h s ill ends up paid by women.
1.2 Mo he hood and labo ma ke
Following childbi h, many amilies adop gende ed s a egies o concilia e amily and
wo k esponsibili ies [21]. I has been documen ed ha wi h he a i al o a child, mo he
and a he inc ease hei hou s wo ked (paid and unpaid4). Bu he ealloca ion o ime
is no iden ical among bo h pa en s as Rapopo e al. (2011) [23] and Riza i and So e
(2010) [24] poin ed ou . Men ypically inc ease he ime hey de o e o paid wo k, while
women dec ease hei paid wo king ime o e en exi he labo ma ke [4], which implies
an inc ease in he unpaid wo k. These di e ences in he supply o hou s o wo k can
be due o di e en p e e ences abou wo k and home (in e ms o di ision o household
wo k and child ca e ac i i ies). Ne e heless, i would be ha d o claim ha he Spanish
employmen gap is due o women’s p e e ences when gaps in o he Eu opean coun ies
a e so much lowe . Those dispa i ies in hou s wo ked among couples a e consis en wi h
he Spanish e idence, as we can obse e in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2: Child en and weekly hou s wo ked by gende
91
2
4
2
94
2
3
1
96
2
2
1
97
1
2
1
77
7
11
5
66
10
17
7
69
8
16
8
71
6
14
9
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
35 hou s o mo e 34-30 hou s 29-20 hou s Less han 20 hou s
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
I is s iking ha being a mo he is closely ela ed o a dec ease in he hou s wo ked,
3De ined by Kle en e al. (2018) as he pe cen age by which women all behind men due o child en.
4Anxo e al. (2011) de ined as ime de o ed o unpaid wo k, ull ange o ca e ac i i ies cho es ela ed
wi h household wo k.
9
F() = 1
√2πZ
−∞
e− 2
2d
Since bina y eg essions models a e no linea , we canno in e p e di ec ly he
coe icien s ob ained om he es ima ions because hey will no desc ibe he ela ion
be ween a a iable and he ou come p obabili y. We decide o show he esul s h ough
disc e e changes, which in ou case means how much changes he p edic ed p obabili y
by changes om 0 o 1 o dummy a iables, holding all he co a ia es cons an , which
can be also called ma ginal e ec s8, and ha is de ine as:
∆P (yi= 1|xi)
∆xk,i
=P (yi= 1|xi, xk,i = 1) −P (yi= 1|xi, xk,i = 0) (3)
Below, we p oceed o de ail he es ima ions:
•Being employed: We will es ima e his p obabili y sepa a ely o bo h sub-
samples. We included he e as employed all hose sel -employed, en ep eneu s and,
employees. We will con ol o gende , he in e ac ion o gende and couple, and also,
he i e a ion o gende and child en9, and he ec o o socio-demog aphic co a ia es
includes na ionali y, age g oup, le el o educa ion and, he egion o esidence.
P (Employedi= 1) = F(β0+β1F emalei+β2Couplei+β3Femalei·Couplei
+α0Socio-demog aphici)(4)
P (Employedi= 1) = F(β0+β1F emalei+β2Child eni+β3Femalei·Child eni
+α0Socio-demog aphici)(5)
We mus say some hing abou he a iables included in he equa ions. In pa icula , i
is e y likely ha he indi idual’s decision o pa icipa e in he labo ma ke is in luenced
by he indi idual’s p obabili y o being in he labo ma ke and by he o his pe sonal
cha ac e is ics. The se s o a iables included in he i s equa ion, which es ima es he
p obabili y o being employed, e lec indi idual cha ac e is ics such as age, na ionali y,
educa ional a ainmen , and in o ma ion conce ning child s a us.
Following Heckman [12], we will apply a wo-s ep es ima ion p ocedu e o con ol
o he non- andom p obabili y o wo king. We use his ype o double hu dle model
8We a e e e ing o ma ginal e ec o he disc e e change ins ead o he common use o pa ial
change.
9Couple means ha he indi iduals a e cohabi ing wi h he /his pa ne and child en means ha he
indi idual is mo he o a he . We will no ake in o accoun child en’s yea s old in hese eg essions
because we ha e es ic ed he age up o 30 yea s old.
16

because we assume ha some o he co a ia es ha a ec he p obabili y o wo king
unde he job a ibu es we wan o analyze could ha e also a ec ed he p obabili y o
being employed. Thus, we a e unning wo models o es ima e each labo ou pu . The
i s model co esponds o he i s s ep o Heckman and, i will be a choice o selec ion
model, es ima ed using Equa ion (2). This will ake in o accoun how indi iduals selec
(posi i ely o nega i ely) in o employmen , called sample selec ion. F om his es ima ion,
we will use he p edic ion o he p obabili y o being sala ied wo ke 10, which will be
inco po a ed in o he second model as an independen a iable.
P (Sala ied wo ke i= 1) = F(β0+β1F emalei+β2Child eni+β3Femalei·Child eni
+α0Socio-demog aphici)(6)
The second model will es ima e he p obabili y o wo king pa - ime, holding a empo-
a y con ac , and wo king less han 35 hou s pe week, including he p edic ed p obabili y
o being employed. Following his p ocedu e, we co ec he es ima ion o sample selec-
ion, based on Heckman’s wo-s ep consis en es ima o . This sample co ec ion akes
ca e o he ac ha wo king pa - ime o wi h a empo a y con ac , o example, di e s
ac oss educa ional and occupa ional g oups. Wi h he signi ican di e ences in employ-
men a es among educa ed indi iduals, he esul s o hose ou comes could be dis o ed
i we ha e no aken in o accoun he appa en he e ogenei y o he labo supply by gen-
de and by pe sonal s a us (unpa ne ed indi iduals e sus pa ne ed ones and, childless
indi iduals e sus hose wi h child en).
•Wo king wi h a empo a y con ac : We es ima e he likelihood o wo king
wi h a empo a y con ac only o he second sub-sample, di iding hem in wo
(Childless couples and couples wi h child en). This model is con olled by all he
cha ac e is ics men ioned abo e and also o some ela ed o hei job a ibu es
like occupa ional ca ego y, sec o o ac i i y, and he p obabili y o being a sala ied
wo ke .
P (Tempo a y con ac i= 1) = F(β0+β1F emalei+β2Child eni+
β3Femalei·Child eni+β4c
P (Sala ied wo ke i= 1) + α0Socio-demog aphici+
γ0Job a ibu esi)
(7)
•Wo king pa - ime: We es ima e he p obabili y o ha ing a pa - ime job as we
ha e jus done in Equa ion (7) bu , in his case, we also con ol o he ype o
10We do no include he es ima ed p obabili y o being employed due o he s uc u e o he SLFS
su ey. They ob ain he in o ma ion ela ed o wo k schedules, ype o con ac and, hou s wo ked om
sala ied wo ke s only.
17
con ac . We es ima e his labo ou come among couples o ob ain he ela ion o
ha ing child en and wo king pa - ime.
P (Wo king pa - imei= 1) = F(β0+β1F emalei+β2Child eni+
β3Femalei·Child eni+β4c
P (Sala ied wo ke i= 1) + β5Type o con ac i+
α0Socio-demog aphici+γ0Job a ibu esi)
(8)
•Wo king less han 35 hou s pe week: We choose o con ol o he same
cha ac e is ics ha we use o es ima e he p obabili y o wo king pa - ime, ocusing
on hose indi iduals wi hin Childless couples and couples wi h child en ca ego ies.
P (Wo king less han 35 hou s/weeki= 1) = F(β0+β1F emalei+β2Child eni+
β3Femalei·Child eni+β4c
P (Sala ied wo ke i= 1)+
β5Type o con ac i+α0Socio-demog aphici+γ0Job a ibu esi)
(9)
Rega ding he es ima ions o he p obabili y o ha ing a empo a y con ac , wo king
pa - ime, and wo king less han 35 weekly hou s, o he explana o y a iables a e also
included in he empi ical es ima ion, such ype o con ac , occupa ional le el, and sec-
o o ac i i y. Besides, some egional dummies ha e been included o cap u e loca ion
changes conce ning ou ou dependen a iables. Despi e hei low explana o y powe ,
hey ha e been included in he inal es ima ion.
4 Desc ip i e indings
This sec ion p esen s some o he main indings ha desc ibe he Spanish labo
ma ke si ua ion om a gende pe spec i e. As a Eu opean coun y, Spain pa icipa es
in he cu en con e gence o employmen a es be ween males and emales wi h he o he s
OECD membe s. Ne e heless, gende inequali y in e ms o he le el o employmen is
s ill p esen .
As we can obse e in Figu e 3, when indi iduals ha e no ye emancipa ed, hei
le el o employmen is low and highly ela ed o pa ial ime jobs which can esul due o
demand ma ke es ic ions ( o example, labo expe ience) o supply p e e ences, since
maybe young indi iduals wan o ea n less because hey ha e no expenses and hey p e e
ha ing ee ime. Women a e mo e associa ed wi h pa - ime jobs since he beginning o
hei labo ca ee s. Once emancipa ion occu s, and bo h indi iduals mo e owa ds mo e
economic independence, hey pa icipa e mo e in he labo ma ke . Un il cohabi a ion, we
canno obse e gende gaps in he employmen a es among indi iduals, al hough he e
18
a e gende di e ences ela ed o pa - ime jobs. On he con a y, women pa icipa e
mo e han men, and also hey show lowe le els o inac i i y wi h he absence o amily
commi men s.
Figu e 3: Couple and labo si ua ion by gende
54
12
23
11
66
8
16
10
82
5
8
5
84
6
7
2
44
23
23
9
63
18
13
7
72
15
9
4
69
15
10
6
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Singles
li ing wi h
hei
pa en s
Singles
li ing wi h
o he s
Singles
(One-pe son
amily)
Couples wi h
no child en
Singles
li ing wi h
hei
pa en s
Singles
li ing wi h
o he s
Singles
(One-pe son
amily)
Couples wi h
no child en
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (Second qua e , 2019) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
Anxo e al. (2011) [4] s a ed ha cohabi a ion o women o all ages means a hea y
bu den in e ms o unpaid wo k. Howe e , we canno ind such a nega i e ela ion be ween
cohabi a ion and employmen a es in ou a ge popula ion. In he case o women, hey
a e 3 pe cen age poin s (p.p.) less alloca ed on ull- ime jobs compa ed o hose emales
one-pe son amily, bu hey ha e he same pa icipa ion in pa - ime jobs. Fo males, he
ela ionship be ween cohabi a ion and employmen is no signi ican ly highe han ha
o single males.
I is impo an o ema k ha pa - ime wo k schedules a e a ma e o women,
whe he hey cohabi wi h hei pa ne o no . The e a e 12.8 poin s mo e emales han
males decla ing ha hey wo k pa - ime because hey do no ind a ull- ime wo k11.
They belong o ha 59.12% who wo k pa - ime in olun a y, o ced by he labo ma ke
condi ions. The second mos decla ed eason, among hose singles and childless couples,
is ollow eaching o aining cou ses. Also, pa - ime jobs a e mo e likely o be pe cei ed
as in olun a y by women in he Sou h han in no he n Eu ope [7].
Being a woman is also associa ed wi h a lowe le el o hou s wo ked12 compa ed o
11SLFS su ey asks all hose indi iduals who wo k wi hin a pa - ime wo k scheme he easons o
ha ing ha ype o wo king day.
12We ha e used as hou s wo ked all hose hou s epo ed by employees ha SLFS e e ences as
hou s wo ked by con ac . We will no be aking in o accoun all hose hou s wo ked by sel -employed,
en ep eneu s, e c.
19
males wi h he same household si ua ion. As we can obse e in Figu e 4, among hose
Singles (One-pe son amily), only 78% o hose emale employees wo k mo e han 35
hou s/week whe eas in he case o males hey each a 92%. Thus, we ha e p o ed he
exis ence o a gende gap in weekly hou s wo ked close o 14 p.p. ha keeps almos
unchanged when hey a e childless couples.
Figu e 4: Couple and weekly hou s wo ked by gende
79
4
10
7
87
3
6
4
92
2
4
2
91
2
4
2
61
5
19
15
73
6
14
7
78
7
11
4
77
7
11
5
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Singles
li ing wi h
hei
pa en s
Singles
li ing wi h
o he s
Singles
(One-pe son
amily)
Couples wi h
no child en
Singles
li ing wi h
hei
pa en s
Singles
li ing wi h
o he s
Singles
(One-pe son
amily)
Couples wi h
no child en
Males Females
35 hou s o mo e 34-30 hou s 29-20 hou s Less han 20 hou s
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
Tha penal y will be an obs acle in he emales’ labo li e because hey will ha e o
wo k agains hose di e ences when, pe haps, hey decide o ha e a child, which i will
be pe se a penal y in hei ca ee s. This gap in hou s wo ked will be closely ela ed o
he pe sis ence o he gende pay gap.
We ha e al eady analyzed which a e he main di e ences by gende depending on
hei household si ua ion, om hose who a e no al eady emancipa ed o hose ha
a e cohabi ing wi h hei pa ne s. Howe e , we can also analyze wha happens wi h
hose who ha e decided o ha e child en. Is he e any di e ence in hei labo si ua ion
compa ing o hose who ha e no ? Fu he mo e, do he e exis gende gap among hose
ha a e al eady pa en s?
As we ha e men ioned, pa en hood does ha e e ec s on employmen le els. In he
same manne , i is also p o ed by ea ly li e a u e ha mo he s adjus mo e hei labo
supply han hei male coun e pa s. In his pa o he sec ion, we analyze he di e ences
among hose pa ne ed cohabi an indi iduals depending on hei e ili y s a us (childless
indi iduals o pa en s), again om a gende poin o iew.
When bo h indi iduals cohabi oge he , women pa icipa e 6 poin s less han men,
20
Figu e 5: Child en and labo si ua ion by gende
84
6
7
2
86
4
8
2
87
3
7
3
81
2
7
9
69
15
10
6
48
19
12
22
53
18
12
17
48
15
10
27
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
as shown in he igu e abo e. When hey a e also pa en s, he gende employmen gap
becomes mo e ex ensi e, om 6 o 23 poin s. In he case o males, ha ing child en has no
ela ion ei he wi h d ops in he labo ma ke pa icipa ion o lowe employmen a es.
Howe e , becoming pa en s means ha he ime mus be sha ed among one ac i i y
mo e, in his case, ela ed o unpaid wo k. Fo women, we also ha e o ake in o accoun
a c ucial momen ha pauses hei labo ca ee s i hey we e wo ke s: he childbi h. The
nega i e ela ion be ween e ili y and emales labo supply was heo e ically es ablished
by Becke and Lewis (1973) [6] and empi ically documen ed by Mince (1985) [18], among
o he au ho s. Ou esul s a e also consis en wi h he li e a u e, and we ind his nega i e
ela ion on he SLFS da a o 2019, as we can see in Figu e 4. Those women wi h
child en pa icipa e 17 poin s less han hose childless so, his suppo s he exis ence o a
mo he hood penal y13 in e ms o employmen le el compa ing o hose childless women.
Pa - ime schedules a e p e alen among hose women wi h child en as an ins umen o
concilia e amily and wo k. F om 67% o mo he s who pa icipa e in he labo ma ke ,
only 72% will do i h ough a ull- ime schedule. This co ela ion has been changing o e
ime, and changes in social no ms ela ed o wo king mo he s and agains he s e eo ype
o s ay a home mums ha e imp o ed i .
Al hough he decision o ha e child en is assumed o be equally dis ibu ed among
pa en s, he decision o econcilia ion is no . Family commi men s a e he main ac o by
13Te m coined by sociologis s who a gued ha mo he s a e penalized, sys ema ically, in pay, pe cei ed
compe ence and, bene i s ela i e o childless women in hei wo kplace.
21

which women a e o e - ep esen ed in pa - ime jobs and educe wo king hou s. Figu e 6
indica es ha 42% o women a e in olun a y pa - ime wo ke s, and 36% ha e decla ed
ha hey a e no wo king ull- ime because o ca ing ac i i ies14.
Figu e 6: Reasons o holding a pa - ime job among couples
8.1%
2.3%
20%
62%
7.5%
36%
9.3%
42%
12%
Male Female
Family commi men s T aining and eaching ac i i ies O he easons
Did no ind a ull- ime job No wan ing a ull- ime job
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
Also, wi h he a i al o child en, many o hem lea e hei jobs, becoming inac i e
popula ion. Rela ed o his, we ha e o ema k ha he inac i i y le el o hose women
wi h child en is much highe compa ed wi h he es o he ca ego ies. As child en become
eenage s, women inc ease hei pa icipa ion le el, ying o eco e all he p opo ion
ha hey ha e jus los . This is a challenging p ocess, and only 5 p.p. o women go back
o employmen compa ed o hose who ha e younge kids. This coho ’s age explains he
le el o inac i i y o women wi h child en olde han 15 yea s old. The median women o
his coho we e bo n in he yea 1967, whe e disc imina ing gende no ms and cul u e
assumed as incompa ible he ole o mo he and wo ke .
When he indi iduals a e nei he cohabi ing no ha ing child en, he di e ences in
e ms o employmen le el a e negligible. We ha e shown in Figu e 3 ha Singles li ing
wi h hei pa en s, wi h o he s o a One-pe son amily a e no ela ed o a lowe le el
o employmen whe he hey a e emales o males, bu pa ial- ime jobs and empo a y
con ac s a e a ma e o women, wi h di e ences ha a e a ound 10 poin s wi h espec
14This includes ca ing sick, disabled, elde ly child en and/o adul s
22
o males. Among unpa ne ed indi iduals, 5.7% o employed males a e wo king pa - ime
while he same si ua ion o emales inc eases up o 17.2%.
Figu e 7: Child en, wo k schedule and ype o con ac by gende
74
3
19
4
75
2
20
3
81
1
16
2
84
1
14
1
57
10
25
9
56
19
15
10
58
19
15
9
63
19
12
6
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Inde ini e - Full- ime Inde ini e - Pa - ime Tempo a y - Full- ime Tempo a y - Pa - ime
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
Ha ing child en is nega i ely ela ed o he le el o empo a y and pa - ime con ac s
ha males held, so we canno obse e any adjus men in hei labo supply when hey
become a he s. The e o e, women a e mo e exposed han men o job insecu i y since he
beginning o hei labo ca ee s, as we can obse e in Figu e 7, wi h p esence in pa -
ime jobs h ough bo h, inde ini e and empo a y con ac s. The ype o con ac is one
o he signi ican ac o s ha de e mine job quali y [8]. Some au ho s ha e sugges ed ha
pa - ime and empo a y wo k se es as a ansi ion ou mechanism om unemploymen
o a egula job in he u u e. Ne e heless, in Spain, empo a y employmen seems no
o be so ’ empo a y’, ep esen ing an obs acle o each pe manen jobs, lea ing wo ke s
wi h low p ospec s o imp o emen in hei ca ee pa hs [22]. Tempo a y con ac s mean
unce ain y o wo ke s, and his labo ince i ude is mo e ela ed o young people and
wi h women.
Looking deepe in o hese di e ences ha seem o be a ached o women, we ind
ha i could be ela ed o occupa ional gende -based seg ega ion. All he occupa ions a e
p esen ed in Figu e 8, deseg ega ed in 9 high-le el agg ega ions15. We can iden i y hose
gende ed occupa ions, which a e he ones ha mos people ela e o emales o males.
15I ha e been made by agg ega ion o he co esponding 1-digi occupa ions, based on he classi ica ion
o occupa ions, CNO11. We ha e also used o suppo he S anda d Occupa ional Classi ica ion and
Coding S uc u e done by he U.S. Bu eau o Labo S a is ics. See mo e de ails: h ps://www.bls.go /
soc/soc_2010_class_and_coding_s uc u e.pd
23
Figu e 8: Occupa ional sex seg ega ion, wo k schedule and gende
1 7 4 88
1 9 2 88
2 10 4 85
3 28 1 68
7 27 4 61
23 27 5 45
9 46 3 42
12 52 3 33
22 42 5 31
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Ag icul u e and manu ac u ing
skilled wo ke s
P o ec ion and secu i y
se ices wo ke s
Machine ope a o s
Di ec o s and managemen
Suppo p o esionals
Elemen a y occupa ions
Scien i ic, in elec ual
echnicians and p o esionals
Accoun ing, adminis a i e,
and o ice employees
Cus ome in e ac ion and o he
se ice-o ien ed occupa ions
Female Pa - ime Female Full- ime Male Pa - ime Male Full- ime
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
Analyzing all indi iduals who belong o he a ge popula ion om bo h sub-samples,
we can clea ly obse e an asymme y in he dis ibu ion by occupa ions ha a e conce ned
wi h sex seg ega ion. We deno e by ”gende -domina ed” occupa ions, ollowing Anke
(1998) [2], as hose occupa ions we e, a leas , 80% o wo ke s a e ei he women o men.
Ano he way o de e mine hem is o include all hose occupa ions whe e emales’ p esence
is lowe han hei pa icipa ion in he labo o ce. 47% o he wo ke s in ou sample and
a ge popula ion a e emales. So, i can be he case ha , in a hypo he ical si ua ion wi h
no occupa ional seg ega ion, we migh expec abou 47% o wo ke s in e e y occupa ion
o be women16.
I can be de e mined as male-domina ed occupa ion ag icul u e and manu ac u ing
skilled wo ke s, p o ec ion and secu i y se ices, and machine ope a o s. In he same
way, we can say ha cus ome in e ac ion and o he se ice-o ien ed occupa ions and
accoun ing, adminis a i e and o ice employees a e emale-domina ed occupa ions. We
can also dis inguish gende inequali y in he dis ibu ion o wo ke s by sec o o ac i i y,
also called sec o ial gende seg ega ion (see Figu e A.4). This shows us ha we mus
ake in o accoun he ac ual di e ences by gende in he Spanish labo ma ke , o be able
o ob ain consis en esul s. This ac is c ucial o being ela ed o he emales’ ca ee
and p omo ion pa h, also called pipeline p oblems17. Wol inge , Manson, and Goulden
16See mo e de ails: h ps://inequali y.s an o d.edu/si es/de aul / iles/Pa hways_SOTU_
2018_occupa ional-seg ega ion.pd
17The pipeline heo y sugges s ha inc easing he numbe o women in male-domina ed ields should
lead o mo e equali y in he labo ma ke .
24
(2007) [16] ound ha ma iage and child en ad e sely a ec he likelihood ha women
ob ain enu e- ack posi ions in Academia. Ne e heless, his also happens in o he sec o s
whe e p omo ion is needed o ob ain be e job condi ions h ough inc emen s in sala y,
pa icipa ing in aining p og ams, inc easing heal h insu ance co e age, e c. This has
no hing o do wi h educa ional he e ogenei y since i has been es ed ha women ha e
highe le els o educa ion han hei male coun e pa s.
Al hough public sec o jobs help women’s employabili y, i inc eases a he same ime
he le el o occupa ional sex seg ega ion [17]. In Spain, jobs in he public sec o a e well
emune a ed, and hey o e he possibili y o educe wo king hou s. One d awback o
his could be he unde - ep esen a ion o women in o he sec o s. On he o he side,
al hough he expansion o he se ice sec o has bene i ed women by p o iding inc eased
job oppo uni ies [13], i is a sec o wi h a high incidence o job insecu i y in Spain
(pa - ime wo k schedules and high le el o empo a y con ac s).
An impo an ema k is ha wo k schedules a e highly ela ed o he ype o sec o
in which he indi idual wo ks. We canno decla e any causal ela ionship bu , which is
a ac is ha pa - ime schedules do no appea on male-domina ed indus ies, whe he
hey a e highly ela ed o hose emale-domina ed. Fu he mo e, as Anke e al. (2003)
[3] s a es, occupa ional sex seg ega ion ha ms he e iciency and lexibili y o he labo
ma ke s so, i s consequences go u he he gende inequali y in he labo ma ke s.
5 Es ima ion esul s
Be o e p esen ing he esul s o he es ima ions ha we ha e p oposed in Sec ion
3, we will cla i y wha we can ind in hose es ima ions and how we will analyze hose
esul s. Fi s , o es ima e he ela ionship be ween cohabi a ion and he p obabili y
o being employed, we wo k wi h he i s sub-sample o singles and childless couples.
This allows us o add ess he impo ance o he couple in he labo si ua ion and i s
di e ences by gende . Secondly, o es ima e he associa ion be ween ha ing child en and
he p obabili y o being employed, ha ing a empo a y con ac , wo king pa - ime and
wo king less han 35 hou s pe week, we use he second sub-sample o couples, wi h and
wi hou child en. In his case, we can measu e he gende di e ences wi hin couples, i
he e exis any, in e ms o employmen . Wi h hese es ima ions, we can cap u e how
ha ing child en can be nega i ely o posi i ely ela ed o he pa en s’ labo si ua ion.
Fo an easie in e p e a ion o he coe icien s om he p obi model, ma ginal e ec s
a e epo ed. Fi s , we analyze i he e is any di e ence among hose indi iduals wi hou
amily commi men s (in e ms o childbea ing and nu u e) o es ou i s hypo hesis
ela ed o cohabi ing and being employed by gende . Is cohabi a ion associa ed wi h
25
Figu e 9: Child en and labo si ua ion by gende - Second qua e o 2007
91
2
4
2
92
2
3
3
92
1
3
4
84
1
3
12
72
11
7
10
40
18
7
35
45
17
7
31
38
12
5
44
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
We can di e en ia e be ween hese le els o inac i i y wo ela ions. On he one hand,
ha ing child en was ela ed o highe inac i i y due o no ms, cul u e, o s e eo ypes,
conside ing ha ha inac i i y did no i wi h he economic boom o 2007, whe e e y
high employmen a es cha ac e ized males and childless emales’ labo supply. On he
o he hand, age is an impo an ac o in he le el o inac i i y. The a e age age o hose
women wi h child en olde han 15 yea s old is 43 yea s old. As hey we e bo n du ing
he 1960s, hey could adop he ole o s ay a home mums. They p esen ed 17 poin s
mo e o inac i i y han hose mo he s in 2019.
We es ima e hose gende di e ences on he access o employmen using Equa ion 5
wi h he da a om he second qua e o 2007. In he same way, we apply he wo-s ep
p ocedu e ha we ha e shown in Sec ion 3.2 o quan i y hose penal ies in e ms o
holding a empo a y con ac , wo king pa - ime, and wo king less han 35 weekly hou s.
We con ol o he same numbe o co a ia es21 o ob ain he di e ences in employmen
le els and labo condi ions among couples, om a gende pe spec i e.
The esul s o hose es ima ions a e displayed in Table 5. Column [1] e eals ha
ha ing child en in 2007 is nega i ely associa ed wi h he p obabili y o being employed
bu only in women’s cases. This means ha in a amily wi h child en, he woman was
less likely o be employed in 2007, compa ed o hei spouses o pa ne s, han hey we e
in 2019.
21Socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics, job a ibu es, p obabili y o being sala ied wo ke , and ype
o con ac depending on he es ima ed model.
32

Table 5: Ma ginal E ec s om es ima ing Equa ions (5), (7), (8), and (9) o he second
qua e o 2007
Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9
Employed Tempo a y Pa - ime Less han 35
hou s/week
Female ( e . Male) -0.177*** 0.0498*** 0.0440*** 0.0499***
(0.000645) (0.000811) (0.000483) (0.000571)
Child en ( e . Wi hou child en) 0.00458*** -0.0627*** -0.00885*** 0.00691***
(0.000582) (0.000577) (0.000399) (0.000439)
Female and child en ( e . Male wi hou child en) -0.169*** -0.0371*** 0.0463*** 0.0252***
(0.000747) (0.00109) (0.000770) (0.000808)
Immig an ( e .na i e) -0.0711*** 0.207*** -0.0130*** -0.0101***
(0.000388) (0.000591) (0.000197) (0.000290)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old 0.0505*** 0.250*** 0.0290*** 0.0368***
(0.000379) (0.000839) (0.000432) (0.000522)
30-45 yea s old 0.0784*** 0.126*** 0.0261*** 0.0297***
(0.000262) (0.000466) (0.000250) (0.000304)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.134*** 0.0112*** -0.00953*** -0.0168***
(0.000345) (0.000714) (0.000350) (0.000434)
Te cia y 0.124*** 0.0341*** 0.0168*** 0.0591***
(0.000235) (0.000738) (0.000426) (0.000574)
Tempo a y job ( e . Inde ini e) 0.0612*** 0.0717***
(0.000235) (0.000286)
Occupa ions ( e . Pink colla )
Whi e colla -0.109*** -0.0452*** -0.0674***
(0.000765) (0.000157) (0.000230)
Blue colla 0.102*** -0.0520*** -0.0712***
(0.000518) (0.000209) (0.000276)
G ey colla -0.151*** -0.0297*** -0.0513***
(0.000634) (0.000398) (0.000446)
Gold colla -0.0619*** -0.0258*** -0.0212***
(0.000451) (0.000169) (0.000245)
Sec o o ac i i y ( e . P ima y)
Se ices -0.144*** 0.00988*** 0.0112***
(0.000837) (0.000499) (0.000694)
Indus y -0.158*** -0.0238*** -0.0429***
(0.000589) (0.000376) (0.000510)
Cons uc ion 0.0797*** -0.0353*** -0.0548***
(0.00102) (0.000317) (0.000441)
Public Sec o (Educa ion, Heal h, e c) -0.0414*** -0.0273*** -0.00699***
(0.000871) (0.000380) (0.000673)
P obabili y o being sala ied wo ke -0.457*** -0.152*** 0.0715***
(0.00392) (0.00198) (0.00100)
Obse a ions 14,561,199 8,821,228 8,821,228 8,416,548
No e: Regions o esidence dummies a e also included o con ol he es ima ion bu hey a e no epo ed o he sake o simplici y.
Weigh ed obse a ions. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
In pa icula , hey had 16.9 p.p. less p obabili y o wo king han he pa ne when bo h
sha e he same socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics and amily commi men s. This ala ming
33
si ua ion e lec s ha a e 12 yea s, women only ha e cu o 7 poin s o child penal y
on emales’ pa icipa ion. In 2019, women we e 11.4 poin s less likely o be employed
han hei couples when bo h indi iduals ha e child en, con olling o indi idual, socio-
demog aphic, and job cha ac e is ics.
In e ms o ha ing pa - ime jobs and hou s wo ked, child penal ies we e al eady on
he Spanish labo ma ke , which wo sened o e ime. While in 2007 women wi h child en
we e 4.6 p.p. mo e likely o ha e a pa - ime job han hei couples, in 2019 his inc eases
4 poin s mo e, which can be ob ained by compa ing he coe icien o Child en in column
[3] om Table 3 and Table 5 (in bo h cases, he coe icien is s a is ically di e en om
ze o). Ano he s iking esul was ound looking in o he e olu ion o he hou s wo ked.
Women had lowe pe o mance in e ms o hou s de o ed o paid wo k han hei pa ne s
when bo h ha e amily commi men s. In 2007, emales we e 2.5 p.p. mo e likely o wo k
less han 35 hou s pe week, which inc eased 5 poin s in 2019.
The e o e, he main conclusion eached conce ning hose di e ences be ween males’
and emales’ labo si ua ion o e ime is ha , a e 12 yea s, gende gaps pe sis in he
Spanish labo ma ke . Besides, we obse e ha he gende gap is lowe in e ms o access
o employmen and mo e ela ed o no ms and cul u e, whe eas di e ences by gende in
he pa icipa ion on pa - ime jobs and hou s wo ked a e lowe and mo e associa ed wi h
he economic cycle.
6.2 Regional pe spec i e
We u n now o he gende employmen gap discussed in he p e ious sec ions, bu his
ime we will compa e o e he Spanish egions. This can be an indica o o he ela i e
pe o mance o women in he di e en egional labo ma ke s. We add ess his issue om
a s a ic o e iew ac oss hem, and hen we will analyze how he si ua ion has changed in
he las 12 yea s, compa ing he egional esul s ob ained in 2007 wi h hose in 2019.
The e a e subs an ial di e ences ac oss egions, as i is shown in Figu e 10. I has
been analyzed he spa ial dis ibu ion o he unemploymen le els, egional dispa i ies,
and pe sis ence.
To in es iga e his issue u he om a gende pe spec i e, we will p esen he labo
ma ke si ua ion o wo di e en egions22: Andalusia and Basque Coun y. E en hough
bo h economies a e e y di e en in e ms o unemploymen a es, he gende gap in he
employmen le els is s ill p esen in each o hem. This e eals ha women wi h child en
a e associa ed wi h lowe ing employmen a es han hose childless, whe he hey alloca e
22We ha e analyzed in he same way he o he 15 Au onomous Communi ies, and we ha e excluded
he 2 Au onomous Ci ies o Ceu a and Melilla, o no ha ing enough obse a ions. See mo e de ails:
Appendix A.1 -Figu es A.7 o Figu e A.21.
34
in a high-pe o mance egional economy, which is he case o he Basque Coun y, o in a
low one like Andalusia. Mo eo e , males’ labo si ua ion is ela ed o an imp o emen in
hei occupa ional le els when hey become a he s.
The case o Andalusia is somewha su p ising, as we can obse e in Figu e 10a.
Al hough he Spanish economy was booming, in Andalusia, women’s labo si ua ion was
cha ac e ized by e y high le els o inac i i y and unemploymen . This can suppo he
impo ance o social no ms, adi ional oles, and s e eo ypes ela ed o he inac i i y
le el among women.
Figu e 10: Child en and labo si ua ion - Regional dispa i ies
80
8
8
4
81
5
11
3
82
3
11
4
76
3
9
12
64
16
12
8
40
20
17
24
42
19
20
20
35
11
16
38
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
(a) Andalusia
78
13
7
1
89
5
6
1
93
2
3
1
85
2
4
9
66
21
5
8
50
26
4
20
57
24
5
14
56
17
6
21
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
(b) Basque Coun y
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
As O bals (2010) [20] s a es, in he la e 1970s, he daily eali y o women in Andalusia
was i e wi h illi e acy and unemploymen and was cen e ed on hei ma iages. The
35
a e age emale’s age ep esen ed in Figu e 10a is 43 yea s old, which means ha hei
labo o ce pa icipa ion can be closely ela ed o hei mo he ’s oles [11].
Undoub edly, he e exis s gende employmen gap ac oss all he egions, and pa -
ime is highly ela ed o women, as we can obse e in Figu es A.7 un il Figu e A.21.
Howe e , we can see clea ly some di e en pa e ns in, o example, he case o Na a e23.
The mo he hood penal y, which is he di e ence in he employmen le els o childless
women compa ed o mo he s, is mo e p onounced due o he s a ing poin o he childless
women: all hose women in he Na a e’s sub-sample a e employed, which e eals ha
ha ing child en is posi i ely associa ed o inac i i y and unemploymen . This is also
impo an in e ms o wo king pa - ime. Only 13% o childless women we e wo king
pa - ime whe eas, a e ha ing child en, his numbe doubles.
To unde s and he o ces ha lie behind hose egional dispa i ies, we quan i y child
penal ies in he access o employmen by gende among couples o each o he Span-
ish Au onomous Communi ies, applying he same me hodology, and con olling o he
same co a ia es24 (See Sec ion 3.2). Fo simplici y, we p esen he main esul s o he
es ima ions in a g aph o be e compa e he esul s ob ained o he wo yea s o in e es .
We selec he coe icien s ha ep esen he di e ence o he ela ionship be ween
ha ing child en and he access o he employmen o mo he s wi h he same ela ion
o hei spouses o pa ne s in e ms o p obabili ies among egions, and we plo hem
in Figu e 11. When his coe icien is nega i e, and bo h indi iduals o he couple a e
also pa en s, he p obabili y o being employed o he woman is lowe compa ed o hose
o he husband o pa ne , when hey sha e simila socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics as
na ionali y, age, and educa ional a ainmen .
In gene al, i is s iking ha gende di e ences ha e declined due o he p obabili y o
being employed among pa en s o e ime and egions. I we ocus, o example, in he case
o Basque Coun y, we ob ain ha women a e less likely o be employed compa ed wi h
hei spouses o pa ne when bo h a e pa en s, and hese gende di e ences we e highe
in 2007. Only Can ab ia and Na a e p esen s equal oppo uni ies o accessing he labo
ma ke among couples, whe he he indi idual is mo he o a he . Those coe icien s
we e no s a is ically di e en om ze o, which means ha ha ing child en is no ela ed
o di e ences in employmen le els by gende .
Focusing on he case o Andalusia, di e ences among couples depending on he gende
inc eased in 12 yea s. Mo he s a e 5 poin s less likely o be employed han hey we e
in 2007, compa ed o a he s among couples wi h child en. Wo h men ioning is he
23See Figu e A.20
24In each eg ession, we con ol by socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics and job a ibu es, excep
o no in oducing egional dummies.
36
posi i e ela ion be ween mo he hood and he access o employmen ha we can obse e
in A agon and La Rioja o he las yea , 2019. In bo h, women had highe p obabili ies
o ha ing a job han hei pa ne s, compa ing among a sample o couples.
Figu e 11: Es ima ed p obabili y o being employed among pa en s - Di e ences be ween
women and men.
-24
-11
-22
-11
-19
-6.8
-17
-7.7
-16
-7.7
-15
-20
-15
-2.6
-14-14
-12-11 -12
9.7
-12
-5.5
-12
10
-10
-14
-9.9
-7.9
-3.8
2.7
-3.4
0 0 0
-25p.p.
-20p.p.
-13.5p.p.2
-10p.p.
-6.5p.p.1
0p.p.
5p.p.
10p.p.
Valencia
Ca alonia
Mu cia
Basque Coun y
Galicia
Andalusia
Cana y Islands
Cas ile and León
Mad id
A agon
Ex emadu a
La Rioja
Cas illa-La Mancha
Balea ic Islands
As u ias
Na a e
Can ab ia
1 Na ional A e age - 2019
2 Na ional A e age - 2007
2007 2019
Sou ce: Spanish Labo Fo ce Su ey (SLFS) - Own elabo a ion in S a a 14.0
We explo e which can be he unde lying easons o his o occu in one o he h ee
egions whe e he e is no child penal y ela ed o he employmen le el. One o he easons
could be he exis ence o gende di e ences in he educa ional a ainmen 25. We p esen
in Table 6 all hose indi iduals ha a e li ing wi h hei pa ne s and child en in A agon
o he wo yea s o in e es . I is e y s iking ha he dis ibu ion o mo he s ha a e
employed a e 9 p.p. mo e loca ed in e ia y educa ion han hei spouses o pa ne s, as
we can see in column [3] om Table 6.
These di e ences become highe when we analyze he same a ge indi idual in A agon
o 2019: woman and mo he li ing wi h he husband o pa ne and wi h he child o
child en. They a e 6 poin s mo e educa ed han hose mo he s in 12 yea s be o e and
15 poin s mo e han hei couples in 2019. To sum up, one o he explana ions we ind
esides on hose educa ional le el dispa i ies. Those mo he s a e mo e educa ed (highe
p esence on e ia y educa ion) han hei husbands o pa ne s, and educa ion inc eases
25O he possible explana ions could be he lack o obse a ions and he p esence o mul icollinea i y.
Howe e , we a e no able o di e en ia e be ween hese h ee.
37

Table 6: Di e ences in educa ional a ainmen among hose couples wi h child en em-
ployed in A agon.
2007 2019
Males Females Gende
di e ences
Males Females Gende
di e ences
Low educa ed 15.4% 9.7% 5.7 p.p. 3.3% 1.9% 1.3 p.p.
Medium educa ed 63.0% 59.6% 3.4 p.p. 73.8% 60.2% 13.6 p.p.
High educa ed 21.6% 30.7% -9.1 p.p. 23.0% 37.9% -14.9 p.p.
hei oppo uni y cos s, so i hey look ac i ely o a job, hey ind mo e chances han
hei couples.
7 Summa y and inal ema ks
This pape is mo i a ed by he exis ence o di e ences in he employmen a es
be ween men and women. We es he exis ence o gende gaps in di e en labo ou comes
among singles and couples. Al hough men and women sha e he same cha ac e is ics, we
ind ha hey ob ain di e en ou comes, which is a signal o gende disc imina ion on
he Spanish labo ma ke . Those di e ences a e highe i he woman is also a mo he
so, while women y o close he employmen gap, hey ha e o deal wi h he cos o
mo he hood in hei labo ca ee s. I we analyze a couple wi h child en, he mo he
has lowe p obabili ies o being employed han he a he , when bo h ha e simila socio-
demog aphic cha ac e is ics like na ionali y, age, educa ion, and egion o esidence. As
we ha e men ioned h oughou his pape , his is due o di e ences in he ime de o ed
o unpaid wo k, whe e we can include hose ac i i ies ela ed o a amily commi men ,
child ca e, and household asks.
Howe e , he en y o employmen is no he only labo ma ke ou come ha we ha e
analyzed and whe e women a e unde - ep esen ed. As we ha e men ioned in his s udy,
one key ac o con ibu ing o a b oade o a na owe gende pay gap is he exis ence o
di e ences in he emales’ and males’ hou s wo ked. We ha e seen ha women a e mo e
likely o pa icipa e in employmen h ough less s able labo condi ions, which means ha
hey a e mo e p esen on pa - ime and empo a y con ac s and ha e a highe likelihood
o being on ha uns able labo si ua ion.
Wi h his pape , we con ibu e o unde s anding he di e ences be ween emales’ labo
si ua ion in Spain compa ed o hei pa ne s’ ones, subjec o hei own cha ac e is ics.
Also, desc ip i e analysis has shown signi ican dispa i ies depending on an indi idual’s
li e cycle s age, gende , and he o his amily commi men s. Ou esul s suppo he
exis ence o wo penal ies in he labo ma ke , in e ms o employmen le els and labo
38
condi ions: being a woman and being a mo he . We quan i y hem, aking in o accoun he
numbe o co a ia es o con ol o and changing he empo al and e i o ial pe spec i e.
Despi e conside able gende con e gence, subs an ial gende inequali y emains in Spain,
o e ime and egions. Males ha e mo e signi ican chances o en e ing he labo ma ke
han hei pa ne s when bo h ha e simila cha ac e is ics.
Spain mus boos sus ainabili y o he pension sys em. Inc easing he emale’s pa -
icipa ion in he labo ma ke and ans o ming how his inc ease is nega i ely ela ed o
e ili y a es can be he solu ion o i s imp o emen . The means o his is ela ed o
s imula e emale employmen h ough mo he iendly policies. I is widely known ha
ex ending he leng h o educa ion and childca e se ices p o ided by he go e nmen al
ins i u ions o child en be ween 0 and 3 yea s old con ibu es o closing gende gaps and
inc easing e ili y a es. Rega ding his, we ha e ound on he esul s o he yea 2007
ha whe he he economy is expanding, gende gaps a e s ill on he able. A he same
ime, pa - ime jobs we e mo e ela ed o women, al hough hey sha ed cha ac e is ics
wi h hei spouses o pa ne s. We canno decla e any causal ela ionship be ween being a
mo he and wo king pa - ime, bu di e ences in hei p e e ences canno only explain he
p opo ion o hose women. Demand-side es ic ions and in olun a y pa - ime wo k can
be he unde lying easons, as we ha e men ioned in his pape . Imp o e gende equali y
h ough non-gende ed no ms and oles, e adica ion o s e eo ypes, educa ion, and cul u e
can be he igh solu ion o eaching i and main ain i in he long un because o he
exis ence o he in e -gene a ional ansmission o child penal ies. So, inc easing males’
ime de o ed o household asks and childca e can boos emales’ pa icipa ion in he
labo ma ke and make i pe sis o e ime.
E en hough ou indings con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o Spain’s employmen
si ua ion om a gende pe spec i e, i is no wi hou limi a ions. On he one hand,
al hough we ha e wa es o ep esen a i e indi iduals o he Spanish popula ion, we do
no ha e panel da a ha allows us o analyze he dynamics wi hin he labo ma ke ,
ollowing indi iduals o e hei li e cycle, gi ing us mo e p ecise in o ma ion abou hei
labo ansi ions. On he o he hand, he lack o wages in he SLFS da a do no allow us
o es ima e he inequali y in ea nings and he ac o s d i ing i in Spain. Also, i would
be in e es ing o ha e enough in o ma ion abou same-sex couples o de e mine i gende
oles ha e a mo e signi ican impac on he ela ion be ween child en and employmen .
Las bu no leas , we p opose u he esea ch on he inclusion o he elde ly ca e
ac i i ies on ime de o ed o unpaid wo k. As gende di e ences can come om a di e en
dis ibu ion o ime de o ed o unpaid wo k among couples, i would be in e es ing o
include hose ca ing ac i i ies like elde ly ca e o he ones jus analyzed he e as child ca e.
39
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40
[13] ILO.Wo ld employmen epo 2001: li e a wo k in he in o ma ion economy.
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion - Gene a, 2001.
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ulle , J.
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[17] Melkas, H., and Anke , R. Occupa ional seg ega ion by sex in no dic coun ies:
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[24] Riza i, S. S., and So e , C. Household di ision o labo : Is he e any escape
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sociologica 48, 1 (2005), 41–62.
41
87
4
4
5
85
5
5
4
88
2
7
4
80
2
8
10
64
13
15
8
43
15
11
30
47
20
11
23
44
16
11
29
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
Figu e A.19: Mu cia
88
11
1
89
6
5
1
86
3
6
5
86
2
1
11
87
13
51
25
6
19
46
29
12
13
55
21
1
23
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
Figu e A.20: Na a a
93
5
1
89
2
8
1
88
5
4
3
87
0
4
9
80
9
7
4
43
30
8
19
50
30
6
14
53
22
7
18
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Couple wi h
no child en
Wi h
child en
younge han
5 yea s old
Wi h
child en
be ween 5
yea s old
and 15 yea s
old
Wi h
child en
olde han
15 yea s old
Males Females
Employed - Full- ime Employed - Pa - ime Unemployed Inac i e
Figu e A.21: La Rioja
48

A.2 O he able esul s
Table A.2.1: Resul s o p obi models - Fi s sub-sample
Model 1
Employed
Female ( e . Male) -0.00683***
(0.000577)
Couple ( e . Single) 0.0572***
(0.000507)
Female and couple ( e . Male and single) -0.0891***
(0.000938)
Immig an ( e .na i e) -0.0583***
(0.000527)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old -0.0862***
(0.000988)
30-45 yea s old 0.0143***
(0.000392)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.113***
(0.00111)
Te cia y 0.0791***
(0.000379)
Regions ( e . Andalucia)
A agon 0.0599***
(0.000799)
As u ias 0.0375***
(0.00114)
Balea ic Islands 0.0499***
(0.000858)
Cana y Islands 0.0115***
(0.000818)
Can ab ia 0.0545***
(0.00132)
Cas illa y La Mancha 0.0419***
(0.000803)
Cas illa y Le´on 0.0441***
(0.000752)
Ca alonia 0.0446***
(0.000523)
Valencia 0.0272***
(0.000636)
Ex emadu a -0.0252***
(0.00147)
Galicia 0.0313***
(0.000788)
Mad id 0.0608***
(0.000505)
Mu cia 0.0324***
(0.000948)
Na a a 0.0909***
(0.000853)
Basque Coun y 0.0470***
Con inued on he nex page. . .
49
Model 1
Employed
(0.000755)
La Rioja 0.0700***
(0.00137)
Ceu a and Melilla 0.0316***
(0.00300)
Obse a ions 3,346,713
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
50
Table A.2.2: Resul s o p obi models - Second sub-sample - 2019
Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Employed Tempo a y Pa - ime Less han 35
hou s/week
Female ( e . Male) -0.105*** 0.0680*** 0.0604*** 0.0639***
(0.000666) (0.000748) (0.000575) (0.000647)
Child en ( e . Wi hou child en) 0.000341 -0.0243*** -0.0512*** -0.0469***
(0.000548) (0.000554) (0.000550) (0.000585)
Female and child en ( e . Male wi hou child en) -0.114*** -0.0820*** 0.0860*** 0.0713***
(0.000737) (0.000841) (0.000775) (0.000828)
Immig an ( e .na i e) -0.131*** 0.0545*** -0.00409*** -0.0209***
(0.000382) (0.000777) (0.000511) (0.000534)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old -0.0224*** 0.242*** 0.0389*** 0.0575***
(0.000527) (0.000877) (0.000549) (0.000653)
30-45 yea s old 0.0665*** 0.112*** 0.0412*** 0.0617***
(0.000239) (0.000421) (0.000327) (0.000364)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.169*** -0.00442*** -0.0407*** -0.0656***
(0.000535) (0.000951) (0.000495) (0.000506)
Te cia y 0.133*** 0.0131*** 0.00982*** 0.0420***
(0.000214) (0.000727) (0.000574) (0.000673)
Tempo a y job ( e . Inde ini e) 0.0831*** 0.0877***
(0.000300) (0.000335)
Occupa ions ( e . Pink colla )
Whi e colla -0.0604*** -0.0648*** -0.0907***
(0.000733) (0.000326) (0.000347)
Blue colla 0.125*** 0.0172*** 0.0152***
(0.000425) (0.000266) (0.000311)
G ey colla -0.115*** -0.0524*** -0.0559***
(0.000524) (0.000484) (0.000586)
Gold colla -0.0209*** -0.0284*** -0.0379***
(0.000423) (0.000262) (0.000305)
Sec o o ac i i y ( e . P ima y)
Se ices -0.170*** 0.112*** 0.129***
(0.000703) (0.000680) (0.000791)
Indus y -0.171*** -0.00665*** -0.00977***
(0.000410) (0.000673) (0.000793)
Cons uc ion -0.0274*** 0.0516*** 0.0413***
(0.000749) (0.00105) (0.00112)
Public Sec o (Educa ion, Heal h, e c) -0.0282*** 0.0774*** 0.112***
(0.000736) (0.000872) (0.00103)
P obabili y o being sala ied wo ke -0.375*** -0.236*** 0.0316***
(0.00413) (0.00309) (0.00102)
Regions ( e . Andalusia)
A agon 0.104*** -0.0492*** 0.0239*** -0.00764***
(0.000433) -0.000841 -0.000894 -0.000876
As u ias 0.0311*** -0.0374*** 3.03E-05 -0.0330***
(0.000756) -0.000942 -0.000776 -0.000708
Balea ic Islands 0.0931*** -0.0436*** -0.0358*** -0.0598***
(0.000466) -0.000856 -0.000544 -0.000398
Cana y Islands 0.0192*** -0.0477*** -0.0472*** 0.0509***
(0.000503) -0.000605 -0.000328 -0.00136
Can ab ia 0.0694*** -0.0321*** 0.0280*** 0.0142***
(0.000772) -0.00117 -0.00113 -0.000666
Cas illa y La Mancha 0.0418*** -0.0644*** 0.0106*** 0.0486***
Con inued on he nex page. . .
51
Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Employed Tempo a y Pa - ime Less han 35
hou s/week
(0.000464) -0.000575 -0.000577 -0.000818
Cas ile and Le´on 0.0729*** -0.0439*** 0.0402*** 0.0325***
(0.000418) -0.000674 -0.000733 -0.000663
Ca alonia 0.100*** -0.0746*** 0.0137*** 0.0245***
(0.000272) -0.00056 -0.000567 -0.000573
Valencia 0.0628*** -0.0244*** 0.0214*** 0.0288***
(0.000326) -0.000559 -0.00051 -0.000904
Ex emadu a 0.0104*** -0.0448*** 0.0302*** 0.0167***
(0.000682) -0.000796 -0.000813 -0.000704
Galicia 0.0750*** -0.0281*** 0.0131*** 0.00208***
(0.000400) -0.000686 -0.000615 -0.000574
Mad id 0.0844*** -0.0896*** -0.00673*** 0.00028
(0.000295) -0.000514 -0.000489 -0.000721
Mu cia 0.0500*** -0.0366*** 0.000331 0.104***
(0.000508) -0.000722 -0.000616 -0.00153
Na a a 0.102*** -0.0169*** 0.0870*** 0.0806***
(0.000593) -0.00119 -0.0014 -0.000994
Basque Coun y 0.0948*** -0.00443*** 0.0613*** 0.130***
(0.000391) -0.000841 -0.000892 -0.00213
La Rioja 0.104*** -0.0289*** 0.0804*** -0.0416***
(0.000802) -0.00152 -0.00181 -0.00154
Ceu a and Melilla -0.0323*** -0.0121*** -0.0346*** -0.412***
(0.00181) -0.00225 -0.00131 -0.00346
Obse a ions 13,482,918 8,825,174 8,825,174 8,652,114
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
52
Table A.2.3: Resul s o p obi models - Second sub-sample - 2007
Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9
Employed Tempo a y Pa - ime Less han 35
hou s/week
Female ( e . Male) -0.177*** 0.0498*** 0.0440*** 0.0499***
(0.000645) (0.000811) (0.000483) (0.000571)
Child en ( e . Wi hou child en) 0.00458*** -0.0627*** -0.00885*** 0.00691***
(0.000582) (0.000577) (0.000399) (0.000439)
Female and child en ( e . Male wi hou child en) -0.169*** -0.0371*** 0.0463*** 0.0252***
(0.000747) (0.00109) (0.000770) (0.000808)
Immig an ( e .na i e) -0.0711*** 0.207*** -0.0130*** -0.0101***
(0.000388) (0.000591) (0.000197) (0.000290)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old 0.0505*** 0.250*** 0.0290*** 0.0368***
(0.000379) (0.000839) (0.000432) (0.000522)
30-45 yea s old 0.0784*** 0.126*** 0.0261*** 0.0297***
(0.000262) (0.000466) (0.000250) (0.000304)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.134*** 0.0112*** -0.00953*** -0.0168***
(0.000345) (0.000714) (0.000350) (0.000434)
Te cia y 0.124*** 0.0341*** 0.0168*** 0.0591***
(0.000235) (0.000738) (0.000426) (0.000574)
Tempo a y job ( e . Inde ini e) 0.0612*** 0.0717***
(0.000235) (0.000286)
Occupa ions ( e . Pink colla )
Whi e colla -0.109*** -0.0452*** -0.0674***
(0.000765) (0.000157) (0.000230)
Blue colla 0.102*** -0.0520*** -0.0712***
(0.000518) (0.000209) (0.000276)
G ey colla -0.151*** -0.0297*** -0.0513***
(0.000634) (0.000398) (0.000446)
Gold colla -0.0619*** -0.0258*** -0.0212***
(0.000451) (0.000169) (0.000245)
Sec o o ac i i y ( e . P ima y)
Se ices -0.144*** 0.00988*** 0.0112***
(0.000837) (0.000499) (0.000694)
Indus y -0.158*** -0.0238*** -0.0429***
(0.000589) (0.000376) (0.000510)
Cons uc ion 0.0797*** -0.0353*** -0.0548***
(0.00102) (0.000317) (0.000441)
Public Sec o (Educa ion, Heal h, e c) -0.0414*** -0.0273*** -0.00699***
(0.000871) (0.000380) (0.000673)
P obabili y o being sala ied wo ke -0.457*** -0.152*** 0.0715***
(0.00392) (0.00198) (0.00100)
Regions ( e . Andalucia)
A agon 0.109*** -0.0780*** 0.0504*** 0.00384***
(0.000451) (0.000786) (0.000865) (0.000707)
As u ias -0.00134* -0.0911*** -0.00345*** 0.0125***
(0.000752) (0.000760) (0.000504) (0.000765)
Balea ic Islands 0.106*** -0.0844*** 0.00536*** -0.0222***
(0.000475) (0.000777) (0.000592) (0.000433)
Cana y Islands 0.0512*** -0.0434*** -0.00891*** -0.00709***
(0.000488) (0.000684) (0.000358) (0.000849)
Can ab ia 0.0401*** -0.0812*** -0.00385*** 0.0260***
(0.000878) (0.00103) (0.000660) (0.000624)
Cas illa y La Mancha 0.0372*** -0.0669*** 0.0179*** 0.0249***
Con inued on he nex page. . .
53

Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9
Employed Tempo a y Pa - ime Less han 35
hou s/week
(0.000496) (0.000618) (0.000494) (0.000581)
Cas illa y Le´on 0.0476*** -0.0941*** 0.0327*** 0.0316***
(0.000456) (0.000542) (0.000528) (0.000525)
Ca alonia 0.102*** -0.121*** 0.0338*** 0.0389***
(0.000283) (0.000495) (0.000486) (0.000503)
Valencia 0.0605*** -0.0715*** 0.0374*** 0.0276***
(0.000342) (0.000487) (0.000441) (0.000818)
Ex emadu a -0.00367*** -0.0155*** 0.0242*** 0.0347***
(0.000731) (0.000946) (0.000668) (0.000610)
Galicia 0.0706*** -0.0567*** 0.00992*** 0.0105***
(0.000408) (0.000611) (0.000431) (0.000450)
Mad id 0.0798*** -0.107*** 0.0232*** 0.0280***
(0.000316) (0.000479) (0.000424) (0.000730)
Mu cia 0.0532*** -0.0357*** 0.0140*** 0.0928***
(0.000541) (0.000784) (0.000551) (0.00139)
Na a a 0.0944*** -0.0589*** 0.0922*** 0.0845***
(0.000685) (0.00110) (0.00132) (0.000810)
Basque Coun y 0.0702*** -0.0626*** 0.0635*** 0.0719***
(0.000446) (0.000665) (0.000696) (0.00171)
La Rioja 0.0730*** -0.111*** 0.0644*** 0.00923***
(0.000986) (0.00113) (0.00149) (0.00194)
Ceu a and Melilla -0.0910*** -0.0794*** 0.0315*** -0.264***
(0.00227) (0.00213) (0.00190) (0.00236)
Obse a ions 14,561,199 8,821,228 8,821,228 8,416,548
S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
54
Table A.2.4: Resul s o p obi models by egions - Second sub-sample - 2007
Andalusia A agon As u ias Balea ic
Islands
Cana y
Islands
Can ab ia Cas illa-La
Mancha
Cas ile
and Le´on
Ca alonia
Female ( e . Male) -0.285*** -0.123*** -0.264*** -0.148*** -0.196*** -0.352*** -0.277*** -0.304*** -0.0661***
(0.00170) (0.00371) (0.00522) (0.00306) (0.00344) (0.00595) (0.00288) (0.00366) (0.00128)
Child en ( e . Wi hou child en) -0.00266* -0.0427*** -0.158*** 0.0352*** 0.000621 -0.00531 -0.00514* -0.0595*** 0.0720***
(0.00157) (0.00273) (0.00358) (0.00305) (0.00300) (0.00592) (0.00272) (0.00306) (0.00131)
Female and child en ( e . Male wi hou
child en)
-0.151*** -0.119*** -0.0375*** -0.0995*** -0.149*** 0.00297 -0.102*** -0.136*** -0.221***
(0.00197) (0.00438) (0.00597) (0.00369) (0.00390) (0.00702) (0.00339) (0.00430) (0.00158)
Immig an ( e .Na i e) -0.00112 0.00194 0.0656*** -0.0939*** 0.0370*** -0.0845*** -0.0855*** -0.0994*** -0.119***
(0.00112) (0.00162) (0.00363) (0.00172) (0.00153) (0.00507) (0.00224) (0.00203) (0.000810)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old 0.0700*** 0.0108*** 0.0423*** 0.0530*** 0.0911*** 0.109*** 0.0754*** 0.0296*** 0.0550***
(0.00101) (0.00214) (0.00325) (0.00191) (0.00168) (0.00302) (0.00175) (0.00208) (0.000732)
30-45 yea s old 0.102*** 0.0846*** 0.122*** 0.0118*** 0.100*** 0.0748*** 0.0425*** 0.0575*** 0.0849***
(0.000697) (0.00127) (0.00191) (0.00157) (0.00137) (0.00239) (0.00116) (0.00135) (0.000591)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.155*** -0.113*** -0.179*** -0.151*** -0.142*** -0.110*** -0.143*** -0.125*** -0.0919***
(0.000788) (0.00190) (0.00260) (0.00224) (0.00160) (0.00352) (0.00154) (0.00154) (0.000756)
Te cia y 0.188*** 0.0869*** 0.149*** 0.0175*** 0.0815*** 0.167*** 0.140*** 0.196*** 0.107***
(0.000638) (0.00106) (0.00191) (0.00179) (0.00143) (0.00198) (0.00100) (0.00102) (0.000482)
Obse a ions 2,710,909 404,590 308,815 351,820 591,928 173,731 750,222 652,994 2,411,603
55
Valencia Ex emadu a Galicia Mad id Mu cia Na a e Basque
Coun y
La Rioja
Female ( e . Male) -0.125*** -0.282*** -0.126*** -0.166*** -0.219*** -0.267*** -0.135*** -0.249***
(0.00187) (0.00599) (0.00299) (0.00162) (0.00421) (0.00541) (0.00269) (0.00827)
Child en ( e . Wi hou child en) 0.0150*** -0.113*** -0.00521** -0.0349*** 0.0175*** -0.0259*** 0.00714*** 0.0134
(0.00171) (0.00418) (0.00254) (0.00132) (0.00395) (0.00478) (0.00243) (0.00845)
Female and child en ( e . Male wi hou
child en)
-0.241*** -0.118*** -0.160*** -0.121*** -0.192*** -0.0340*** -0.168*** -0.117***
(0.00218) (0.00674) (0.00334) (0.00191) (0.00479) (0.00606) (0.00320) (0.00973)
Immig an ( e .Na i e) -0.108*** -0.259*** -0.163*** -0.0380*** -0.00192 -0.0195*** -0.115*** -0.0833***
(0.00102) (0.00517) (0.00282) (0.000838) (0.00179) (0.00278) (0.00258) (0.00409)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old 0.0670*** -0.0421*** 0.0415*** 0.0254*** 0.0245*** 0.0115*** 0.0310*** 0.0842***
(0.00108) (0.00364) (0.00177) (0.00104) (0.00216) (0.00323) (0.00200) (0.00364)
30-45 yea s old 0.0780*** 0.0884*** 0.0665*** 0.0620*** 0.101*** 0.0616*** 0.0832*** 0.0862***
(0.000779) (0.00185) (0.00106) (0.000642) (0.00155) (0.00193) (0.00112) (0.00314)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.143*** -0.164*** -0.113*** -0.125*** -0.157*** -0.0873*** -0.124*** -0.165***
(0.00112) (0.00247) (0.00146) (0.00100) (0.00191) (0.00291) (0.00177) (0.00408)
Te cia y 0.110*** 0.253*** 0.121*** 0.0865*** 0.159*** 0.0861*** 0.0717*** 0.0867***
(0.000737) (0.00143) (0.000994) (0.000561) (0.00127) (0.00157) (0.00104) (0.00282)
Obse a ions 1,630,878 340,735 812,166 1,945,723 461,666 188,052 677,448 103,723
56
Table A.2.5: Resul s o p obi models by egions - Second sub-sample - 2019
Andalusia A agon As u ias Balea ic
Islands
Cana y
Islands
Can ab ia Cas illa-La
Mancha
Cas ile
and Le´on
Ca alonia
Female ( e . Male) -0.285*** -0.123*** -0.264*** -0.148*** -0.196*** -0.352*** -0.352*** -0.304*** -0.0661***
(0.00170) (0.00371) (0.00522) (0.00306) (0.00344) (0.00595) (0.00595) (0.00366) (0.00128)
Child en ( e . Wi hou child en) -0.00266* -0.0427*** -0.158*** 0.0352*** 0.000621 -0.00531 -0.00531 -0.0595*** 0.0720***
(0.00157) (0.00273) (0.00358) (0.00305) (0.00300) (0.00592) (0.00592) (0.00306) (0.00131)
Female and child en ( e . Male wi hou
child en)
-0.151*** -0.119*** -0.0375*** -0.0995*** -0.149*** 0.00297 0.00297 -0.136*** -0.221***
(0.00197) (0.00438) (0.00597) (0.00369) (0.00390) (0.00702) (0.00702) (0.00430) (0.00158)
Immig an ( e .Na i e) -0.00112 0.00194 0.0656*** -0.0939*** 0.0370*** -0.0845*** -0.0845*** -0.0994*** -0.119***
(0.00112) (0.00162) (0.00363) (0.00172) (0.00153) (0.00507) (0.00507) (0.00203) (0.000810)
Age ( e . 46-60 yea s old)
Less han 29 yea s old 0.0700*** 0.0108*** 0.0423*** 0.0530*** 0.0911*** 0.109*** 0.109*** 0.0296*** 0.0550***
(0.00101) (0.00214) (0.00325) (0.00191) (0.00168) (0.00302) (0.00302) (0.00208) (0.000732)
30-45 yea s old 0.102*** 0.0846*** 0.122*** 0.0118*** 0.100*** 0.0748*** 0.0748*** 0.0575*** 0.0849***
(0.000697) (0.00127) (0.00191) (0.00157) (0.00137) (0.00239) (0.00239) (0.00135) (0.000591)
Educa ion ( e . Seconda y educa ion)
Lowe han seconda y -0.155*** -0.113*** -0.179*** -0.151*** -0.142*** -0.110*** -0.110*** -0.125*** -0.0919***
(0.000788) (0.00190) (0.00260) (0.00224) (0.00160) (0.00352) (0.00352) (0.00154) (0.000756)
Te cia y 0.188*** 0.0869*** 0.149*** 0.0175*** 0.0815*** 0.167*** 0.167*** 0.196*** 0.107***
(0.000638) (0.00106) (0.00191) (0.00179) (0.00143) (0.00198) (0.00198) (0.00102) (0.000482)
Obse a ions 2,710,909 404,590 308,815 351,820 591,928 173,731 173,731 652,994 2,411,603
57