Ci a ion: Soubele -Fagoaga, I.;
A noso-Ma inez,M.;Elgo iaga-As ondoa,
E.; Ma ínez-Mo eno, E. Telewo k
and Face- o-Face Wo k du ing
COVID-19 Con inemen : The
P edic i e Fac o s o Wo k-Rela ed
S ess om a Holis ic Poin o View.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,
19, 3837. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ije ph19073837
Academic Edi o : Paul B. Tchounwou
Recei ed: 30 Janua y 2022
Accep ed: 20 Ma ch 2022
Published: 23 Ma ch 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
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Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Telewo k and Face- o-Face Wo k du ing COVID-19
Con inemen : The P edic i e Fac o s o Wo k-Rela ed S ess
om a Holis ic Poin o View
Iduzki Soubele -Fagoaga *, Mai ane A noso-Ma inez, Edu ne Elgo iaga-As ondoa
and Edu ne Ma ínez-Mo eno
Depa men o Social Psychology, Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y,
20018 Donos ia-San Sebas ián, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (M.A.-M.); [email p o ec ed] (E.E.-A.);
[email p o ec ed] (E.M.-M.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
This a icle explo es he socio-labo condi ions in which people wo ked du ing con ine-
men , analyzing he p edic o s o wo k- ela ed s ess, acco ding o wo k modali y ( ace- o- ace o
elewo king), om a holis ic and quan i a i e (n= 328) poin o iew. To iden i y p edic o s o
s ess, co ela ional analyses and mul iple hie a chical eg essions we e conduc ed wi h indi idual,
o ganiza ional, and socie al a iables. Fu he mo e, o analyze he possible modula ing ole o gende ,
ca egi ing, and he le el o esponsibili y in o ganiza ions in he ela ionship be ween p edic o
a iables and wo k s ess, he mac o p ocess o Hayes was used. Ou esul s show ha wo k– amily
con lic and umina i e hough s p edic s ess in bo h modali ies. In elewo king modali y, he
hou s dedica ed o wo k p edic ed s ess, and in ace- o- ace modali y, sa e y measu es and pe cei ed
economic h ea ( enden ially). Being in cha ge o pe sons mode a ed he ela ionship be ween umi-
na i e hough s and economic h ea , and s ess in ace- o- ace. Resul s a e discussed by iden i ying
good p ac ices ha can imp o e wo kplace isk p e en ion s a egies.
Keywo ds: con inemen ; wo k- ela ed s ess; elewo king; ace- o- ace
1. In oduc ion
Du ing he con inemen pe iod, he wo k ac i i y o millions o people was p ecipi-
ously ans o med [
1
]. Whe eas some ac i i ies had o be canceled due o he es ic ions
imposed, o he s mo ed hei jobs o hei homes, wi h ace- o- ace ac i i y only con inued
in cases whe e i was deemed essen ial. Speci ically, in Spain, 66% o he people who
con inued hei p o essional ac i i y du ing con inemen con inued o go o hei wo k-
place, whe eas 34% elewo ked [
2
]. This ep esen ed a signi ican inc ease and quali a i e
change in his wo k modali y because be o e he pandemic, only 4.8% elewo ked [
3
], and
i seems ha elewo king was ela ed o he p o essional g oup o he s a us o he job.
Thus, people wi h posi ions o g ea e esponsibili y we e mo e likely o adop his wo k
modali y (60.6%), ollowed by 21.4% o people wi h in e media e posi ions, and only 18%
o key wo ke s [
4
]. Simila ly, al hough elewo k inc eased du ing con inemen , da a show
ha people wi h highe occupa ional s a us had g ea e access o his ype o wo k [5].
Resea ch in he con ex o COVID-19 has gene a ed many s udies ocused on he socio-
labo condi ions expe ienced du ing con inemen . Mos o hese s udies ha e analyzed
ac o s ha in luenced he occu ence o s ess o psychological dis ess o
wo ke s [6–9]
.
Whe eas some ha e ocused on elewo k [
6
–
8
,
10
,
11
], o he s ha e ocused on ace- o- ace
wo k, pa icula ly on he socio-labo si ua ion o social-heal h pe sonnel [
9
,
12
–
14
]. How-
e e , ewe s udies ha e explo ed bo h wo k modali ies oge he ( o ou knowledge,
h ee: [
15
–
17
]). Fu he mo e, none o hese ha e analyzed ac o s ela ed o he occu -
ence o s ess om a holis ic s andpoin . This pe spec i e allows unde s anding he ex en
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph19073837 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 2 o 17
o he concep o s ess in i s en i e y and complexi y [
18
]. In his ega d, his s udy explo es,
om an in eg a ed poin o iew, he explana o y ac o s o wo k- ela ed s ess and i s
mode a ing a iables o bo h ace- o- ace and elewo ke s. F om an applied pe spec i e,
we ha e ied o ex ac lessons ha , in he u u e, could help o ganiza ions o p e en
occupa ional isks, and p o ec he heal h o hei employees.
2. Concep ualiza ion o S ess and I s P edic o s
S ess has been de ined as “a pa icula ela ionship be ween he indi idual and he
en i onmen ha is e alua ed by he indi idual as h ea ening o o e whelming his o
he esou ces and endange ing his o he well-being” [
19
] (p. 43). In a wo k con ex ,
s ess has epe cussions a indi idual and o ganiza ional le els [
20
], issues ha , du ing
he pandemic—and in a con ex o ien ed owa ds main aining economic ac i i y abo e
all hings —we e paid less a en ion han in imes o no mali y. In pa icula , people who
con inued o wo k du ing con inemen (bo h elewo ke s and hose who wo ked ou side
he heal hca e se ing), showed high le els o dis ess (on a scale o 4
≥
3), bu also epo ed
eeling mo e s essed han in he con ex o no mali y [
16
]. Rega ding he in luence o
wo k modali y, he esul s ound o da e a e inconclusi e. Hamouche [
21
] ound ha
elewo king was a cause o s ess du ing con inemen ; Rod íguez e al. (2020) [
17
] ound
lowe s ess le els among people who combined elewo king wi h ace- o- ace wo k, and
ound no signi ican di e ences be ween he s ess le el o elewo ke s and hose who
wo ked ace- o- ace. On he o he hand, Escude o-Cas illo and collabo a o s [
15
] showed
ha a e con inemen , he pe cei ed well-being o elewo ke s was lowe han ha o
people who wo ked ace- o- ace.
To unde s and he causes o s ess, his s udy s a ed om a holis ic concep ualiza ion
p oposed by Du án [
22
], whe e s ess in he wo kplace a ises om he con luence o
ex a-o ganiza ional, o ganiza ional, and indi idual ac o s.
Ex a-o ganiza ional ac o s include he e ec s o economic clima e, p ocesses o
p eca iousness, and job ins abili y [
23
]. In pa icula , in he con ex o COVID-19, he occu -
ence o s ess has been ela ed o he economic unce ain y esul ing om he pandemic
and con inemen [
24
,
25
]. In his ega d, Rod íguez e al. [
17
] showed ha s ess was highe
among unemployed people han hose who con inued wi h hei wo k.
In addi ion, i should be conside ed ha job insecu i y and he economic h ea a e
compounded by a iables such as ca e esponsibili ies, gende , and he posi ion ha
employees ha e in he o ganiza ion. I has been ound ha du ing con inemen , he
economic h ea was a g ea e conce n o amilies wi h dependen mino s [
26
]. Conce ning
gende , al hough he e a e ela i ely ew gende di e ences in unemploymen and he
pe cei ed h ea o unemploymen [
27
], women con inue o be exposed o mo e p eca ious
wo king condi ions [
27
,
28
]. This si ua ion o g ea e ulne abili y leads us o expec ha
women will su e mo e om he consequences o he c isis caused by he pandemic [
27
].
Ou side he pandemic con ex , and in e e ence o he in luence o occupa ional posi ion,
So a e al. [
23
] showed ha he pe cep ion o ea o dismissal is highe among people wi h
lowe - anking posi ions. In he con ex o he pandemic, he s ess caused by he economic
h ea was highe among people wi h low and middle incomes [24].
This ex a-o ganiza ional dimension also includes wo k– amily con lic [
29
,
30
]. Ne e-
meye and collabo a o s [
29
] de ined his con lic as ha which a ises when wo k obliga-
ions ha e epe cussions o amily ca e. The p essu es a ising om employmen h ough
di e en sou ces gene a e di icul ies in mee ing amily esponsibili ies, causing s ess
among wo ke s [
30
]. In he con ex o con inemen , wi h he closu e o schools and wi hou
addi ional esou ces o he ca e o dependen s, econcilia ion ook on signi ican ele ance
among hose who con inued o ca y ou hei p o essional du ies [
31
]. Mos amilies had
inc eased demands o child and adolescen ca e, and due o he exis ing imbalance in ca e
esponsibili ies, his bu den ell mainly on women [32].
Rega ding he in luence o wo k modali y, he li e a u e on he ela ionship be ween
elewo k, wo k– amily con lic , and s ess is no en i ely conclusi e, and i appea s ha
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 3 o 17
elewo k is bo h he cause and he solu ion o educing he ension be ween wo k and
ca e domains [
33
]. On he one hand, elewo k allows o be e ime managemen o wo k,
amily ca e, and leisu e [
34
], since lexibili y in o ganizing he wo king day is posi i ely
alued [35,36]
. Some s udies ha e poin ed ou ha people who elewo k egula ly su e
om low wo k– amily con lic [
37
,
38
]. O he s udies, howe e , ha e unde lined he di i-
cul ies c ea ed by he pe meabili y be ween he wo k– amily domain [
34
,
38
]. Conce ning
he con inemen , al hough some s udies (e.g., [
11
,
39
]) ha e shown he bene i s o wo king
om home econciling wo k wi h amily li e, mos o hem ha e highligh ed he di icul ies
gene a ed by his. In e ms o bene i s, Toscano and Zappalà’s [
40
] s udy showed ha
li ing wi h child en du ing con inemen posi i ely mode a ed he ela ionship be ween
o e all pe o mance and emo e wo k p oduc i i y. Ha ing o espond o child en’s needs
would p obably make people mo e likely o wo k in a mo e mo i a ing way. Besides,
he s udy ca ied ou by Xiao and collabo a o s [
39
] poin ed ou bo h he bene i s and
isks o wo king om home wi h child en o men al heal h. In pa icula , people who
wo ked om home and who had child en in hei ca e we e shown o ha e g ea e men al
well-being compa ed o people who had no . Howe e , wo king wi h child en om home
also appea ed o be a p edic o o new men al heal h issues. Finally, Ba iga Medina and
collabo a o s [
41
], and Ta a es and collabo a o s [
11
], showed ha elewo ke s su e ed
high wo k– amily con lic , and ha was ela ed o he elewo ke s’ bu nou [41].
In addi ion, o explain his con lic , he numbe o child en [
37
] and he gende o he
elewo ke mus be conside ed [
42
,
43
]. In gene al, women wi h ca egi ing esponsibili ies
end o ind i mo e di icul o elewo k [
42
,
43
], a si ua ion ha has also been no ed
du ing con inemen [
31
]. In addi ion, due o he closu e o schools and he inc easing
demand o schooling a home, and he gende imbalance in household cho es, Xiao and
collabo a o s’ [
39
] s udy showed ha women elewo ke s ha e expe ienced a highe isk
o dep ession du ing he con inemen .
Rega ding o ganiza ional ac o s, he p edic i e ole o a iables such as insu icien
esou ces o cope wi h he ask [
44
], lack o secu i y in he wo k en i onmen [
45
], o wo k
o e load [
20
] has been s udied. Undoub edly, he a i al o he pandemic b ough abou a
subs an ial and immedia e change in he way wo k ac i i y con inued. This is e lec ed
in he da a men ioned abo e conce ning he g ow h o elewo king in a con ex in which
wo ke s ha e ecei ed li le aining o such wo k [
2
]. Conside ing his g ow h, i appea s
ha he esou ces p o ided by o ganiza ions, and he capaci y o employees o adap , ha e
been limi ed.
In pa icula , ecen da a show ha 39.1% o elewo king people indica ed ha ele-
wo king equi ed mo e e o han ace- o- ace wo k [
46
]. Mo ikawa [
47
] s a es ha , in he
si ua ion o con inemen , he implemen a ion o elewo k has occu ed in a o ced manne ,
wi hou he wo ke s ha ing he necessa y esou ces o ca y ou his wo k. In his sense,
he esea ch conduc ed du ing con inemen by Ta a es and collabo a o s [
11
] poin s ou
ha , al hough elewo ke s seem o ha e adap ed easily o he sudden implemen a ion
o his modali y, among he di icul ies expe ienced is a lack o esou ces in e ms o he
necessa y in as uc u e o elewo king. Simila ly, Ruiz-F u os and collabo a o s [
16
] poin
ou ha he wo kload o mos elewo ke s inc eased du ing con inemen , and ha his
in luenced he eme gence o s ess. Ne e heless, Dona i and collabo a o s [
48
] e ealed
ha no all wo ke s expe ienced elewo king in he same way. In pa icula , people we e
mo e com o able wo king om home, and epo ed highe le els o well-being when hey
had a la ge expe ience in elewo king, and wo ked in la ge o ganiza ions. I is likely ha
hese wo ke s wo ked wi h g ea e echnical and eamwo k suppo , among o he s.
In he case o people whose p o essional ac i i ies had o be ca ied ou om hei
wo kplace, gi en he si ua ion o unce ain y caused by COVID-19, wo ke s and unions
demanded minimum sa e y condi ions in he wo kplace. Despi e his, 42.3% o wo ke s
indica ed no wo king sa ely [
16
]. Sa e y a wo k is a p edic o o lowe s ess, anxie y,
and dep ession [
49
]. In he same ein, he li e a u e e iew conduc ed by Hamouche [
21
]
on s udies published du ing he beginning o he pandemic ( om Decembe 2019 o
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 4 o 17
Ma ch 2020) shows he impo ance o sa e y measu es o ensu e he wel a e o ace- o- ace
wo ke s, no ing ha he lowe he sa e y measu es, he g ea e he s ess le els.
Finally, ega ding indi idual ac o s, and ocusing on he pandemic si ua ion, ea
o he disease and he possibili y o con agion ha e p o oked umina i e hough s and
compulsi e checking beha io s [
25
], causing high le els o s ess [
24
]. Conce ning gende ,
highe le els o isk pe cep ion [
50
,
51
] and wo se sel -pe cei ed well-being [
15
] ha e been
de ec ed among women han men. In addi ion, gi en he conce n o ansmi he i us o
he amily, he e was g ea e conce n s emming om ea o con agion among hose wi h
mino dependen s [
26
,
51
]. Mo eo e , conside ing he exposu e o he disease, he pe cei ed
h ea o heal h de e io a ion was pa icula ly signi ican among hose who a ended he
wo kplace [52].
3. S udy Objec i es and Hypo hesis
3.1. Objec i es
The objec i e o his s udy was o explo e he socio-labo condi ions in which people
wo ked du ing con inemen , analyzing he p edic o s o wo k- ela ed s ess, acco ding o
wo k modali y ( ace- o- ace o elewo king), om a holis ic poin o iew. In pa icula ,
o explo e he p edic o s o s ess, we analyzed he in luence o ex a-o ganiza ional (pe -
cei ed economic h ea and wo k– amily con lic ), o ganiza ional (o ganiza ional esou ces
a ailable o deal wi h he changes a wo k, and he inc ease (o no ) in wo kload), and
indi idual ( umina i e hough s abou he pandemic) ac o s.
In addi ion, we also sough o explo e he modula ing ole o gende , ca e, he le el o
esponsibili y in o ganiza ions, and he income le el in he ela ionships be ween p edic o
a iables and wo k s ess. In pa icula , we sough o explo e he modula ing ole o gende
and ca e esponsibili ies in he ela ionship be ween h ee p edic o a iables (economic
h ea , wo k– amily con lic , and umina ion) and wo k s ess. As well, we analyzed he
modula ing ole o he le el o esponsibili y in o ganiza ions and income le el in he
ela ionships be ween pe cei ed economic h ea and wo k s ess. Finally, we examined
he modula ing ole o he o ganiza ion’s size in he ela ionship o esou ces p o ided by
he o ganiza ions o elewo king and wo k s ess. We sough o analyze he modula ing
ole o he a iables men ioned (and no o all he a iables analyzed in his s udy), since
hese a e he a iables ha ha e a heo e ical jus i ica ion o such an analysis.
Wi h his, and om an applied pe spec i e, and conside ing he in luence o ex a-
o ganiza ional, o ganiza ional, and indi idual ac o s in he appea ance o wo k-s ess,
he aim was o ex ac some lessons ha could help o ganiza ions acing possible simila
si ua ions in he u u e. In pa icula , we wan ed o explo e how ou indings could in o m
he de elopmen o p o ocols ha op imize he o ganiza ional esponse o ensu e he
occupa ional heal h o hei employees and p e en , in a a ge ed manne (depending on
he ype o wo k), he occu ence o s ess among employees.
3.2. Hypo hesis
Rega ding ex a-o ganiza ional a iables, we expec ed ha pe cei ed economic h ea
would p edic s ess in bo h elewo ke s and ace- o- ace wo ke s (hypo hesis 1) [
24
,
25
].
Fu he mo e, conside ing ha ea o he economic c isis caused by he pandemic was
highe among people wi h mino dependen s [
26
], and ha he economic consequences a e
g ea e o women [
27
], we p edic ed ha aking ca e o a dependen pe son (hypo hesis 2-a)
and gende (hypo hesis 2-b) would mode a e he ela ionship be ween pe cei ed economic
h ea and s ess du ing con inemen . Besides, i was expec ed ha he le el o esponsibili y
in o ganiza ions (hypo hesis 2-c) and income le el (hypo hesis 2-d) would mode a e he
ela ionship be ween s ess and pe cei ed economic h ea [
24
]. Mo eo e , gi en ha
elewo ke s a e hose wi h he highes p o essional s a us [
4
,
5
], we expec ed ha pe cei ed
economic h ea would be mo e p edic i e o s ess in people who wo ked ace- o- ace
compa ed wi h hose who elewo ked (3).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 5 o 17
Wo k– amily con lic was also expec ed o p edic s ess in bo h wo king modali ies
(hypo hesis 4) [
31
,
39
,
41
]. Fu he , gi en he gende inequali ies in ca e esponsibili ies and
household cho es, and he inc eased demand o child and adolescen ca e ha con inemen
en ailed [
31
,
32
], i was hypo hesized ha bo h gende (hypo hesis 5-a) and ca egi ing
(hypo hesis 5-b) would mode a e he ela ionship be ween wo k– amily con lic and s ess.
Conce ning o ganiza ional a iables, we an icipa ed ha o ace- o- ace wo ke s,
secu i y measu es o ace- o- ace wo k would p edic s ess (hypo hesis 6) [
49
]. Fu -
he mo e, gi en he has y manne in which elewo k was es ablished [
47
], and he ac
ha his in ol ed g ea e e o on he pa o elewo ke s [
16
,
46
], i was expec ed ha
o ganiza ional esou ces alloca ed o elewo k and hou s wo ked (hypo hesis 7) would
p edic s ess. A his le el, i was expec ed ha he o ganiza ion’s size would mode a e
he ela ionship be ween o ganiza ional esou ces p o ided o elewo king and job s ess
(hypo hesis 8) [48].
Conce ning he indi idual umina ion a iable, i was expec ed o p edic s ess in
bo h wo k modali ies (hypo hesis 9) [
24
]. Finally, gi en ha ea o con agion was highe
among women and ca egi e s [
26
,
51
], i was hypo hesized ha gende (hypo hesis 10-a)
and ca egi e s a us (hypo hesis 10-b) would mode a e he ela ionship be ween umina i e
hough s and s ess.
4. Ma e ial and Me hods
4.1. Pa icipan s
The sample consis ed o 328 people (M
e
an = 43.48 yea s; SD = 10.07), o whom 53.35%
we e elewo king, and 46.65% we e wo king ace- o- ace. O he o al sample, 54.6% we e
women, and 20.6% o wo ke s had ca egi ing esponsibili ies, wi h no di e ences be ween
men and women. The le el o educa ion was high, being s a is ically highe in hose who
elewo ked (mas e ’s le el) compa ed o hose who a ended he wo kplace (deg ee le el)
(M = 7.23; SD = 0.9 e sus M = 6.36; SD = 1.08) ( = 6.85; p< 0.010). Among people who
elewo ked, he p esence o women was highe (65% s. 35%) (
χ2
4.51; p< 0.050), whe eas
among people who wo ked ace- o- ace, he e we e no gende di e ences (51.5% s. 48.5%).
Rega ding esponsibili y in he o ganiza ion, he le el was signi ican ly highe among
people who elewo ked (M = 4.04; SD = 1.59 s. M = 3.44; SD = 1.75) han hose who
a ended he wo kplace ( = 3.21; p< 0.010), and he e we e no gende di e ences in his
ega d ( emale elewo ke s M = 4.14; SD = 1.41; male elewo ke s M = 3.85 SD = 1.82 ( = 1;
p= 0.317), and emale ace- o- ace wo ke s M = 3.28; SD = 1.8; male ace- o- ace wo ke s
M = 3.38; SD = 1.85 ( = 0.269; p= 0.788)). In addi ion, we asked abou he income le els
o he pa icipan s, bu due o he sensi i i y o he ques ion, we we e unable o collec
in o ma ion on his a iable.
4.2. P ocedu e
A e ob aining app o al om he e hics commi ee o he Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y (M10/2020/088), he sample o pa icipan s was ec ui ed h ough an online
ques ionnai e (Su ey-Monkey pla o m) (Su ey-Monkey, San Ma eo, CA, USA) pos ed on
social ne wo ks (Facebook, Wha sApp) (Me a Pla o ms, Inc, Menlo Pa k, CA, USA). Da a
collec ion was ca ied ou be ween Ap il and May 2020, du ing he con inemen and s a e
o ala m decla ed by he Spanish Go e nmen . Pa icipan s we e in o med o he s udy’s
objec i e, asked o pe mission o he use o he da a, and assu ed o hei anonymi y
and con iden iali y.
4.3. Ins umen s
People who elewo ked and hose who wo ked ace- o- ace wo k answe ed he
same ques ions, excep hose ela ed o o ganiza ional esou ces, whe e speci ic ques ions
adap ed o each wo k modali y we e o mula ed.
Sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics. The ollowing a iables we e included: gende
(
1 = “Male”
, 2 = “Female”), age, aking ca e o a dependen pe son (1 = “Yes”, 0 = “No”),
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 6 o 17
educa ional le el (1 = “Basic s udies no comple ed”; 8 = “Doc o a e”), he le el o esponsi-
bili y in o ganiza ions based on a Like scale (1 = “No esponsibili y”, 2 = Low le el o
esponsibili y, 3 = Medium le el, 4 = High le el, 5 = “Ve y high le el o esponsibili y”),
amily income le el (1 = less han 1000 eu os pe mon h and 5 = mo e han 5000 eu os), and
o ganiza ion size measu ed by he numbe o employees (1 = 1–10 employees, 2 = 11–50,
3 = 51–100, 4 = 101–250, 5 = mo e han 250).
Modali y o wo k. This was de e mined h ough one ques ion (“Wha is you cu en
wo k si ua ion? “) wi h he ollowing esponse op ions: 1 = “Telewo king,” 2 = “A ending
my wo kplace”.
Job s ess. This was e alua ed h ough six i ems o he S ess in Gene al Scale [
53
]
(“To wha ex en do you eel he ollowing way in ela ion o you job?”: “Unde p es-
su e”, “Ne ous”, “Bu dened”, “Calm”, “Com o able”, “Ha ing di icul y in ul illing my
du ies”) (1 = “No a all”, 7 = “Comple ely”) (α= 0. 88).
4.4. Ex a-O ganiza ional Va iables
Pe cei ed economic h ea . This was measu ed by an ad hoc scale wi h wo i ems
(“Indica e you deg ee o ag eemen o disag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen s”:
“I am a aid o he economic c isis ha his pandemic is going o cause”, “I am a aid
ha his c isis will agg a a e social inequali y in ou socie y”) (1 = “S ongly disag ee”,
7 = “S ongly ag ee”) ( = 0.47; p< 0.001).
Wo k– amily con lic . Th ee i ems om he Ne emeye e al. [
29
] scale we e used
(“Indica e you deg ee o ag eemen o disag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen s”: “My
wo k obliga ions in e e e wi h my amily li e”, “The ime my wo k demands o me makes
i di icul o me o assume my amily esponsibili ies”, “The p essu e I ha e a wo k
makes i di icul o me o assume my amily esponsibili ies”) (1 = “S ongly disag ee”,
7 = “S ongly ag ee”) (α= 0.91).
4.5. O ganiza ional Va iables
Hou s wo ked. This aspec was de e mined using a ques ion (“How many hou s do
you wo k unde hese new condi ions?”) wi h h ee answe op ions: 1 = “Less han usual”,
2 = “The same”, 3 = “Mo e han usual”; h ee esponse op ions: 1 = “Less han usual”,
2 = “The same”, 3 = “Mo e han usual”.
O ganiza ional esou ces p o ided by he o ganiza ions du ing elewo king. These
we e e alua ed h ough i e i ems (“How do you a e he di e en se ices ha he o gani-
za ion has p o ided o you o con inue wo king om home?”: “T aining”, “O ganiza ional
compu e ”, “Technical ad ice gi en”, “Co po a e elephone”, “Access licenses o pla o ms
o ideo-con e encing o collabo a i e en i onmen s”) (1 = “Nonexis en ”, 7 = “To ally
adequa e”) (α= 0.78).
Secu i y measu es o ace- o- ace wo k. These we e measu ed using a se en-i em ad
hoc scale (“How would you a e he a ious measu es you o ganiza ion has aken o ensu e
sa e y du ing he pandemic? “P o ision o ace masks by he company/o ganiza ion”,
“Minimum dis ance equi ed be ween wo ke s”, “Glo es p o ided by he company”,
“P o ision o means o handwashing”, “Es ablishmen o shi s o a oid c owding o
wo ke s”, “Clea in o ma ion on occupa ional heal h measu es”, “S uc u al measu es
o disin ec ion o he wo kspace”) (1 = “To ally insu icien ”, 7 = “To ally adequa e”)
(α= 0.75).
4.6. Indi idual Va iables
Rumina i e esponses linked o he heal h eme gency. Two i ems adap ed om
Nolen-Hoeksema and Mo ow [
54
] we e used (“Indica e how o en you a e eeling each
o hese sensa ions du ing con inemen ”: “Wi hou wan ing o, I am in aded by hough s
and images abou wha we a e expe iencing wi h his pandemic”, “I ge dis ac ed o
ha e ouble concen a ing because o my hough s abou his pandemic”) (1 = “Ne e ”,
7 = “Cons an ly”) ( = 0.62; p< 0.001).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 7 o 17
4.7. Da a analysis
A e checking he no mali y and homoscedas ici y o he sample, desc ip i e analyses
we e ca ied ou . Nex , o iden i y p edic o s o s ess, co ela ional analyses and mul iple
hie a chical eg essions we e conduc ed. Gi en ha o he o ganiza ional a iables, spe-
ci ic ques ions we e de eloped o each wo k modali y, he analyses we e ca ied ou in a
seg ega ed manne ( o p o essionals who elewo ked and hose who wo ked ace- o- ace).
Sociodemog aphic a iables (gende , aking ca e o a dependen pe son, le el o espon-
sibili y in o ganiza ions, o ganiza ion size, and educa ion le el) and ex a-o ganiza ional
a iables (economic h ea , wo k– amily con lic ), o ganiza ional a iables (hou s wo ked,
o ganiza ional esou ces p o ided by he o ganiza ions o elewo king and sa e y measu es
o ace- o- ace wo k), and an indi idual a iable ( umina ion) we e included.
Finally, in o de o analyze he modula ing ole o gende , ca egi ing, le el o espon-
sibili y in o ganiza ions, and o ganiza ion size in bo h elewo k and ace- o- ace wo k, he
mac o p ocess o Hayes e al. (Dubuque, IA, Uni ed S a es) [
55
] was used. The Hayes
e al. mac o p ocess allows o mode a ion analysis o be conduc ed in SPSS (IBM, Mad id,
Spain). Wo k s ess was in oduced in o he model as a dependen a iable; economic
h ea , wo k– amily con lic , umina ion, and he esou ces p o ided by he o ganiza ions
o elewo king as independen a iables; and gende , ca egi ing, he le el o esponsibili y,
and o ganiza ion size as modula ing a iables.
5. Resul s
5.1. Desc ip i e Acco ding o he Modali y o Wo k
Table 1p esen s he a iables s udied acco ding o wo k modali y.
Table 1. Means, and T de S uden and chi-squa ed es esul s acco ding o wo k modali y.
Va iables To al
n= 328
Telewo k
n= 175
Face- o-Face Wo k
n= 153
T de S uden /
Chi-Squa ed pd de
Cohen/Phi
M(SD)/% M(SD)/% M(SD)/%
S ess a wo k 4.26(1.37) 4.14(1.32) 4.4(1.43) −1.595
0.112
−0.19
Pe cei ed economic h ea 6.1(1.03) 6.02(1.07) 6.19(0.97) −1.325
0.186
−0.16
Wo k– amily con lic 3.52(1.74) 3.62(1.69) 3.39(1.81) 1.103
0.271
0.13
O ganiza ional esou ces
o elewo k - 3.82(1.53) -
Sa e y measu es o on-si e wo k
- - 4.53(1.41)
Rumina ion 3.25(1.44) 3.07(1.41) 3.49(1.45) −2.384
0.018
−0.29
Hou s wo ked 2.04(0.71) 2.07(0.78) 1.98(0.64)
Less 23.6% 25.5% 21.2% 0.733
0.392
−0.50
Same 48.5% 40% 59.1% 10.701
0.001
0.190
Mo e 27.9% 34.5% 19.7% 8.029
0.005
−0.164
5.2. P edic o s o Wo k S ess Acco ding o Wo k Modali y
Table 2p esen s he co ela ions be ween wo k s ess and he se o a iables s udied
acco ding o wo k modali y.
Wo k s ess co ela ed posi i ely and signi ican ly wi h pe cei ed economic h ea ,
wo k– amily con lic , hou s wo ked, and umina ion in bo h wo k modali ies. Likewise,
in bo h wo k modali ies, s ess co ela ed nega i ely wi h he p o ision o lowe le els o
o ganiza ional esou ces ( o elewo king) and secu i y measu es ( o wo king on-si e).
The a iables ha co ela ed wi h wo k s ess we e hen en e ed in o he hie a chical
eg ession analysis, g ouping hem acco ding o he ex a-o ganiza ional, o ganiza ional,
and indi idual ca ego ies in which he a iables had been included.
Among elewo ke s, wo k– amily con lic , hou s spen a wo k, and umina ion we e
ound o be p edic o s o wo k s ess (see Table 3).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 8 o 17
Table 2.
Co ela ions be ween wo k- ela ed s ess and ex a-o ganiza ional, o ganiza ional, and
indi idual a iables acco ding o wo k modali y.
Va iables S ess a Wo k
Telewo king Going o he wo kplace
Gende 0.106 0.178
Ca egi ing 0.134 0.075
Le el o educa ion 0.100 0.121
Le el o esponsibili y −0.049 0.098
O ganiza ion size 0.083 0.083
Economic h ea pe cei ed 0.165 * 0.234 *
Wo k– amily con lic 0.498 ** 0.509 **
O ganiza ional esou ces o elewo king −0.221 **
Sa e y measu es o on-si e wo k −0.478 **
Hou s wo ked 0.245 ** 0.340 **
Rumina ion 0.360 ** 0.366 **
No e. **. Co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.01 le el (bila e al). *. Co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.05 le el (bila e al).
Table 3. Hie a chical eg ession on wo k- ela ed s ess among elewo ke s.
R2B S anda dized Sig 95% CI
(LL, UL)
Collinea i y S a is ics
VIF Tole ance
Model 1 0.238
Pe cei ed economic h ea 0.119 0.108 (−0.030, 0.295) 0.967 1.034
Wo k– amily con lic 0.463 0.001 (−0.239, 0.459) 0.967 1.034
Model 2 0.267
Pe cei ed economic h ea 0.156 0.037 (0.011, 0.334) 0.936 1.068
Wo k– amily con lic 0.388 0.001 (0.176, 0.408) 0.840 1.190
O ganiza ional esou ces −0.128 0.091 (−0.228, 0.017) 0.904 1.106
Hou s wo ked 0.153 0.040 (0.012, 0.496) 0.934 1.071
Model 3 0.318
Pe cei ed economic h ea 0.075 0.320 (−0.081, 0.248) 0.842 1.188
Wo k– amily con lic 0.340 0.001 (0.142, 0.370) 0.811 1.233
O ganiza ional esou ces −0.108 0.141 (−0.207, 0.030) 0.898 1.113
Hou s wo ked 0.193 0.009 (0.083, 0.557) 0.909 1.100
Rumina ion 0.258 0.001 (0.097, 0.371) 0.817 1.223
Among ace- o- ace wo ke s, wo k– amily con lic , secu i y measu es, and umina ion
explained he a iance in wo k s ess. In addi ion, pe cei ed economic h ea p edic ed job
s ess in a enden ial manne (see Table 4).
Table 4. Hie a chical eg ession on wo k- ela ed s ess among people wi h ace- o- ace jobs.
R2B S anda dized Sig 95% CI
(LL, UL)
Collinea i y S a is ics
VIF Tole ance
Model 1 0.297
Pe cei ed economic h ea 0.179 0.029 (0.028, 0.495) 0.984 1.016
Wo k– amily con lic 0.505 0.001 (0.264, 0.509) 0.984 1.016
Model 2 0.426
Pe cei ed economic h ea 0.182 0.014 (0.054, 0.477) 0.981 1.019
Wo k– amily con lic 0.359 0.001 (0.154, 0.395) 0.829 1.207
Sa e y measu es 0-.353 0.001 (−0.499, −0.202) 0.918 1.090
Hou s wo ked 0.146 0.057 (−0.011, 0.673) 0.898 1.114
Model 3 0.478
Pe cei ed economic h ea 0.125 0.083 (−0.024, 0.391) 0.928 1.078
Wo k– amily con lic 0.331 0.001 (0.138, 0.368) 0.819 1.221
Sa e y measu es −0.356 0.001 (−0.495, −0.212) 0.918 1.090
Hou s wo ked 0.106 0.152 (−0.090, 0.571) 0.874 1.144
Rumina ion 0.248 0.001 (0.103, 0.391) 0.887 1.128
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 9 o 17
5.3. Mode a ion Analysis Resul s
The ca egi ing a iable modula ed he ela ionship be ween pe cei ed economic
h ea and job s ess in he ace- o- ace wo k modali y (
β
= 1.39, SE = 0.439, = 3.171,
p= 0.02
). In pa icula , he posi i e ela ionship be ween pe cei ed economic h ea and
job s ess was mo e p onounced in hose who ha e dependen s unde hei ca e (Figu e 1).
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
5.60
5.80
6.00
6.20
6.40
6.60
6.80
7.00
Pe cei ed economic h ea
Ca e
Job s ess
Figu e 1.
In luence o pe cei ed economic h ea on wo k- ela ed s ess as a unc ion o ca egi ing in
a ace- o- ace wo k se ing.
The model including ca egi ing and pe cei ed economic h ea explained 16% in he
a iance o job s ess (R2 = 0.16, F(3100) = 6.45, p= 0.005, 2 = 0.19), and he in e ac ion
explained an addi ional 8% in he a iance in job s ess (change in R2 = 0.08,
F(1100) = 10.13
,
p= 0.01).
The ca egi ing a iable also modula ed he ela ionship be ween umina ion and job
s ess in he ace- o- ace wo k modali y (
β
= 0.53, SE = 0.23, = 2.291, p= 0.02). The posi i e
ela ionship be ween umina ion and wo k s ess was also mo e p onounced in hose who
ha e dependen s unde hei ca e (Figu e 2).
The model including ca egi ing and umina ion explained 18% in he a iance o
job s ess (R2 = 0.18, F(3100) = 7.37, p= 0.002, 2 = 0.22), and he in e ac ion explained an
addi ional 4% in he a iance in job s ess (change in R2 = 0.04, F(1100) = 5.13, p= 0.03).
In he ela ionship be ween wo k– amily con lic and s ess, ca egi ing and gende
did no mode a e his ela ionship in any popula ion analyzed. In addi ion, he le el
o esponsibili y in o ganiza ions did no mode a e he ela ionship be ween pe cei ed
economic h ea and wo k- ela ed s ess. Finally, none o he mode a ion analyses yielded
signi ican esul s in he case o he elewo king popula ion.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3837 16 o 17
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