Ci a ion: Magalhães, L.C.; Ca lesso,
G.C.; López de Lacalle, L.N.; Souza,
M.T.; de Oli ei a Palhe a, F.; Binde ,
C. Tool Wea E ec on Su ace
In eg i y in AISI 1045 S eel D y
Tu ning. Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma15062031
Academic Edi o : K zysz o ˙
Zak
Recei ed: 8 Feb ua y 2022
Accep ed: 2 Ma ch 2022
Published: 9 Ma ch 2022
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Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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ma e ials
A icle
Tool Wea E ec on Su ace In eg i y in AISI 1045 S eel
D y Tu ning
Lau ence Cola es Magalhães 1,* , Gab iel Ca a ino Ca lesso 1, Luis No be o López de Lacalle 2,* ,
Ma celo T amon in Souza 3, Fabiana de Oli ei a Palhe a 4and C is iano Binde 4
1Depa men o Indus ial Technology, Fede al Uni e si y o Espí i o San o (UFES), Vi ó ia 29075-910, B azil;
[email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Mechanical Enginee ing, CFAA—Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU),
Zamudio Technologic Pa k, 48170 Bilbao, Spain
3
Depa men o Exac and Technological Sciences, San a C uz S a e Uni e si y (UESC), Ilhéus 45662-900, B azil;
[email p o ec ed]
4Depa men o Mechanical Enginee ing, Fede al Uni e si y o San a Ca a ina (UFSC),
Flo ianópolis 88040-900, B azil; [email p o ec ed] (F.d.O.P.); [email p o ec ed] (C.B.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (L.C.M.); [email p o ec ed] (L.N.L.d.L.);
Tel.: +55-27-99764-8009 (L.C.M.)
Abs ac :
In he p esen wo k, he su ace in eg i y and lank wea o uncoa ed ce me inse s in d y
u ning o AISI 1045 s eel we e e alua ed. Th ee-dimensional echniques we e used o assess he
su ace oughness. P e iously, ini e elemen analysis was ca ied ou o p edic he cu ing o ces and
hea dis ibu ion in he chip o ma ion egion. Cu ing speed and eed we e he pa ame e s a ied in
he expe imen s. Feed is decisi e in he inal quali y o he u ned su ace and cu ing speed had li le
in luence on his aspec . The su ace was signi ican ly damaged wi h he p og ession o he inse
lank wea . Conside ing an a e age lank wea VB
B
o 0.1 mm, a ool li e o 35 min was achie ed
using a cu ing speed o 175 m/min, and o 23 min o a cu ing speed o 275 m/min. Ab asi e
wea was p edominan du ing he expe imen s. No mic os uc u e de ec s we e obse ed, as well as
c ack p opaga ion o accen ua ed de o ma ions nea he machined su ace egion. The e o e, he d y
u ning o 1045 s eel wi h ce me inse s ou e has p o en ex emely iable om he s andpoin s o
ool li e, su ace in eg i y, chip o ma ion, and sus ainabili y.
Keywo ds: d y u ning; su ace in eg i y; ool wea
1. In oduc ion
Machining indus ies a e in e es ed in high ma e ial emo al a es and high p oduc
quali y by using he g ea es cu ing speed and eed a es o achie e be e p oduc i i y.
I becomes ex emely ough o a ain hese p ope ies as he high cu ing empe a u e
p oduced in he cu ing zone causes p ema u e ailu e o he cu ing ools, which esul s
in poo dimensional accu acy. I also weakens he su ace in eg i y o he p oduc by
inducing ensile esidual s esses and su ace and sub-su ace mic oc acks in addi ion o
apid oxida ion and co osion [
1
]. Residual s esses a e always a se ious conce n ega ding
he a igue li e o componen s.
The main unc ions o cooling lub ican s a e o educe hea gene a ion by educing
ic ion and o elimina e he exe ion o unaccep able in luences on he s uc u e o he
subsu ace laye o he wo kpiece by abso bing and emo ing hea om he cu ing a ea.
In cu ing ope a ions, cooling lub ican s also ha e an impo an anspo unc ion o
he chips which ha e o be emo ed. Thus, e icien lub ica ion sys ems enable high-
pe o mance ope a ions in p ac ice [2].
In d y machining ope a ions, he e is no coolan . This means ha he e will be mo e
ic ion and adhesion be ween he ool and wo kpiece. Tools and wo kpieces a e subjec ed
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma15062031 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ma e ials
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 2 o 16
o g ea e he mal loads. This may esul in highe le els o ool wea , e.g., in inc eased
c a e o ma ion when s eel ma e ials a e machined using uncoa ed ca bides. Howe e , he
d y cu ing may also show posi i e e ec s such as a educ ion in he mal shock and hus in
he o ma ion o comb c acks when pa s a e machined in in e up ed mode wi h ca bides
o ce me s. Highe machining empe a u es in luence chip o ma ion. This may esul in
bo h ibbon chips and sna l chips [2].
The usage o cooling lub ican s imposes en i onmen al p oblems due o hei chemical
b eakdown a high empe a u es and i con amina es wa e and soil du ing mass disposal.
I also imposes a high cos o he se up o a coolan sys em, as i has o be s o ed, pumped,
il e ed, and ecycled when i is used. I also has ad e se e ec s on he pa s o he machine
ool and wo kpiece causing co osion, which leads o i s ailu e. Besides, a en ion o heal h
p ecau ions canno be neglec ed [1,2].
Recen ad ances in cu ing ools ma e ials ha e success ully enabled he use o d y
cu ing o MQL (minimum quan i y o lub ica ion), no ably in s eels and alloys. In some
cases, he su ace quali y is he same o be e when d y cu ing is used. Mo eo e , depend-
ing on he selec ed cu ing pa ame e s, ool wea in d y cu ing is no ha di e en when
MQL is used [3].
Conside ing ool ma e ials o d y cu ing, ce me s s and ou due o hei high ho
ha dness, low eac i i y wi h s eels and o he me als, and especially low he mal con-
duc i i y compa ed wi h cemen ed ca bide [
4
]. So, Klocke [
5
] compa es he p ope ies o
he p incipal cons i uen s o a ypical cemen ed ca bide (WC-6CO) wi h ce me ( i anium
ca bide, TiC—based) inse s. Tungs en ca bide (WC) has an a e age mic oha dness o
1580 HV (HV30) and he mal conduc i i y o 80 W/(m.K), while o TiC, hese alues a e
3100 HV (HV0.05) and 33 W/(m.K), espec i ely. Fu he mo e, some ea u es (such as wea
esis ance, edge s eng h, and sha pness, abili y o cu a high speeds employing mode a e
eeds and dep hs o cu , and high quali y o he machined su ace) a e esponsible o he
supe io cu ing pe o mance o ce me s [
6
]. The p ope ies, pe o mance, and cos , compa-
able wi h cemen ed ca bides, make ce me ools a compe ing al e na i e o semi- inish
and inish machining o s eels and cas i ons [7].
Some wo ks ha e in es iga ed he u ning o alloy s eels unde di e en cooling
condi ions employing di e en cu ing ma e ials. REIS e al. [
8
] in es iga ed he cu ing
pe o mance and wea beha io o single-coa ed ce me and mul ilaye -coa ed ca bide
ools wi h dis inc chip b eake geome ies when d y u ning AISI 4340 s eel. Wi h ega d
o ool wea , he coa ed ce me ool showed he lowes alues o maximum lank wea
(VB
Bmax
) compa ed wi h he cemen ed ca bide ool. C a e wea was also lowe on he
ce me inse . Adhesi e and ab asi e wea mechanisms we e obse ed, espec i ely, in he
ake and lank aces o bo h ools.
Ma uda e al. [9] e alua ed he cooling e ec unde minimum quan i y cooling lub i-
ca ion and d y cu ing on s uc u al changes and mic oha dness o he e i ic–pea li ic
AISI 1045 s eel a e u ning. The es s showed ha cooling o he cu ing zone unde mini-
mum quan i y cooling lub ica ion (MQL) condi ion dec eased he dep h o he ha dened
laye compa ed wi h d y cu ing by app oxima ely 40% o bo h pea li e and e i e phase
s uc u es. The mic oha dness o he pe li e phase on he op su ace was 430 (HV 0.05)
on d y condi ion and 340 HV on MQL condi ion. As a esul o cooling being applied o
he cu ing zone using he MQL me hod, he a e age diame e o e i e g ains has been
dec eased in he en i e su ace a ea compa ed wi h d y cu ing.
Sa jana e al. [
10
] e alua ed uncoa ed ce me ools made o i anium ca boni ide
(TiCN) as co e pa icles, (Ti, Nb, and W) (C, N) o he second ha d phase, and a W- ich
Co binde and a PVD-coa ed (TiCN/TiN) ool o he u ning o high-s eng h low-alloy
s eel AISI 4340 (ha dened o 50 HRC). The esul s o he s udy show ha bo h ce me ools
can be ecommended o suppo he wo k o coa ed cemen ed ca bide, in pa icula , o
inish he u ning o he ha dened s eel. The op imum cu ing condi ion a cu ing speed o
120 m/min, eed o 0.1 mm/ e , and dep h o cu o 0.2 mm gi e he bes esul in e ms
o p oduc i i y. The uncoa ed ool showed be e esul s in e ms o p oduc i i y and he
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 3 o 16
PVD-coa ed ool showed be e esul s in e ms o su ace quali y. Flank wea was he
dominan wea and ailu e mode o bo h ce me cu ing ools when assigned o inish ha d
u ning. Besides, chipping was also obse ed, and his wea mode s a ed a e a ce ain
limi o lank wea p og ession (a e VB
B
~ 125
µ
m o uncoa ed and a e VB
B
~ 100
µ
m
o PVD-coa ed).
Yang e al. [
11
] s udied he lank wea mechanism o (Ti,W)C–Mo2C–Co ce me s
du ing d y u ning o a high ca bon alloy s eel ha dened o 62 HRC. Conside ing he
a e age lank wea o VB
B
= 0.3 mm, he ool li e was abou 33 min o a cu ing speed
o 180 m/min. Tool li e dec eased a ound 40% when he cu ing speed was aised o
280 m/min and 75% when he cu ing speed was aised o 450 m/min. A lowe cu ing
speeds, only ab asi e wea was no iced and adhesion was obse ed a highe cu ing
speeds. Tool li e dec eased 75% when he dep h o cu was aised om 0.22 o 0.5 mm,
and 22% when he eed was aised om 0.08 o 0.24 mm/ e . Dep h o cu was he mos
signi ican pa ame e in luencing di usi e wea ing. Fou wea mechanisms, including
ab asi e wea ing, adhesi e wea ing, di usi e wea ing, and oxida i e wea ing, agg a a e
he lank wea o (Ti, W) C-based ce me inse s di e en ly when a ying cu ing speed,
eed a e, o dep h o cu .
Das e al. [
12
] compa ed he pe o mance o uncoa ed ca bide wi h coa ed ce me
inse s in d y u ning o AISI 4340 s eel (ha dened a 48 HRC). The au ho s analyzed he
pa su ace empe a u e, cu ing o ces, and lank wea . Cu ing o ces and ool wea we e
lowe wi h he use o ce me s.
G zesik [
13
] s udied he in luence o ool wea on su ace oughness in he ha d
u ning o AISI 5140 s eel wi h mixed ce amic wipe inse s. The au ho d aws a en ion
o he no ch wea on he seconda y lank as an agg a a ing ac o in he oughness o he
u ned su ace.
Sampaio e al. [
3
] analyzed he wea p ocess o PCBN (polyc ys alline cubic bo on
ni ide) cu ing ools in he ha d u ning o ha dened SAE 1045 s eel using MQL and
compa ed i wi h d y machining. In e ms o su ace oughness, d y cu ing p esen s be e
pe o mance. In d y condi ions, o a cu ing speed o 150 m/min wi h a dep h o cu se a
0.2 mm, he ool lank shows se e e damage wi h chipping o he ool edge because he
c a e wea s ex ended up o he lank egion. Adhesion, ab asion, and plas ic de o ma ion
could be obse ed as wea modes in he d y condi ion. In gene al, he MQL condi ion can
educe he c a e and lank wea and whi e laye hickness.
Abbas e al. [
14
] compa ed he e ec i eness o using d y, lood, and MQL me hods
when u ning he AISI 1045 s eel. Be e su ace oughness and powe consump ion
pe o mance we e achie ed a MQL condi ions. Howe e , he lowes machining cos s we e
no iced in d y-cu ing condi ions.
Magalhães e al. [
15
] e alua ed he wea o coa ed ce me inse s in u ning 1020 s eel
applying coolan . The esul s showed ha o a cu ing speed o 290 m/min and conside ing
he a e age lank wea o VB
B
= 0.3 mm, he ool li e is 113 min, which demons a es he
easibili y and success o his ool ma e ial o gene al indus ial p ocesses. The same
au ho in es iga ed he in luence o he eed and ool geome y on he su ace oughness
in he high-speed u ning o 4340 s eels. I was ound ha he eed is a capi al ac o in
his sense and he co ne adius o he inse has li le in luence in his aspec . A i hme ical
mean heigh alues o Ra = 0.35
µ
m we e ob ained when he bes pa ame e s we e selec ed,
i.e., smalle eeds and la ge co ne adii [
16
]. Zhang and Wu [
17
] s udied he chip con ol
in he d y u ning o ha dened AISI 1045 s eel (52~58 HRC). Nega i e CBN inse s we e
used in he expe imen s. The s udies we e ca ied ou om wo pe spec i es: con en ional
and high-speed cu ing. The esul s showed ha con inuous ibbon chips can be p oduced
a a low cu ing speed o 110 m/min, and he chip hickness is ela i ely uni o m. Chips
demons a e saw- oo h mo phology a a cu ing speed o 276 m/min. When high cu ing
speeds we e used (414 and 552 m/min), se a ed chipping ook place. These chips we e
easily b oken in o sho chips o 1~3 cm leng hs. The su ace oughness ob ained a
high speeds anged om 0.63
µ
m o 1.6
µ
m, p o ing ha ha d u ning is easible o be
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 4 o 16
implemen ed in indus ial applica ions since i can each he same le el as ha achie ed by
he g inding p ocess in e ms o su ace oughness.
Kuma e al. [
18
] in es iga ed he pe o mance o TiAlC N-coa ed ungs en ca bide
ools du ing AISI 1045 s eel d y u ning. The applica ion o he TiAlC N coa ing caused
a signi ican educ ion in he coe icien o ic ion, which esul ed in a educ ion in ool
s esses. Besides, he coa ing ac s as a he mal ba ie o he subs a e, i makes he emo al
o he ho chip as e , hus educing he ime o con ac wi h he wo kpiece.
Finally, a ious au ho s ha e p oposed al e na i e cooling me hods in machining,
wi h CO
2
c yogenics being he mos p omising one because o i s low cos and maximum
cooling ac ion. Amigo e al. [
19
] ob ained good esul s in ha d u ning. O he au ho s such
as Suá ez e al. [
20
] p oposed he use o high p essu e wi h emulsions coolan s ins ead o
con en ional p essu e alues. E en wi h he good esul s o hose wo ks, d y u ning will
also p o ec he heal h and sa e y o he wo ke s.
In his wo k, he d y u ning o AISI 1045 s eel was s udied. Uncoa ed ce me inse s
we e used. Feed and cu ing speed we e a ied and su ace in eg i y and ool wea we e
e alua ed. Fini e elemen analysis was pe o med o unde s and chip o ma ion, hea
gene a ed in he cu ing zone, and cu ing o ces. Wi hin his con ex , i is expec ed o
con ibu e o a mo e sus ainable machining p ocess, e i ying i he combina ion o he use
o mode n ce me s in d y u ning in he p ocessing o medium ca bon s eels can be a iable
ou e om he poin o iew o su ace quali y, ool li e, and mic os uc u e.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Expe imen al P ocedu e
Ex e nal cylind ical d y u ning was pe o med on AISI 1045 S eel (w %—0.48 C,
0.73 Mn, 0.25 Si, 0.016 P, 0.05 S, 0.02 Al, 0.02 C , and 0.01 Ni—manu ac u e da ashee ) ound
ba s wi h 30 mm diame e and 55 mm leng h in a Box o d
®
CNC la he model 160 VMCi
(Hali ax, UK) (0.5 KW powe and 3200 maximum pm). The 1045 s eel was machined in i s
s a e o supply and p esen ed a ha dness o 248 HB; i s mechanical p ope ies a e shown in
Table 1. A h ee-jaw ai chuck was used o clamp he pa s. The posi i e (6
◦
ake angle)
uncoa ed ce me inse s g ade T1200A geome y DNMG090202N-SC and SDACR062B ool
holde supplied by Sumi omo Tools (Osaka, Japan) we e used on expe imen s (Figu e 1).
Acco ding o he manu ac u e , he inse s p esen a ough composi e phase o coa se g ains,
a W- ich ough ha d phase, and a ine TiCN g ain phase in he binde phase.
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 17
Figu e 1. Pa and ool ix u e scheme du ing pe o med es s.
Two alues o cu ing speed (Vc): 175 m/min and 275 m/min, and ou alues o eed
( ): 0.025 mm/ e , 0.05 mm/ e , 0.075 mm/ e , and 0.01 mm/ e we e a ied du ing he
es s. Dep h o cu (doc) was kep cons an a 0.2 mm (100% o ool co ne adius), as shown
in Table 2. Be o e each es , an ini ial p epa a ion pass wi h a dedica ed ool was pe -
o med o uni o m he su ace. Each es was epea ed wice and a new cu ing edge was
used o each es . Di e gence was lowe han 5% in each condi ion.
Table 2. Tes cu ing pa ame e s.
Vc (m/min) (mm/ e ) Doc (mm)
175
0.025
0.2
0.05
0.075
0.1
275
0.025
0.05
0.075
0.1
2.2. Fini e Elemen s Analysis (FEA)
Fini e elemen analysis was pe o med o p edic cu ing o ces, hea low in he cu -
ing zone, and chip o ma ion. Ad an Edge V7.1 so wa e (2015, Minneapolis, MN, USA)
was used o simula e he o hogonal cu o he wo cu ing speeds (175 m/min and 275
m/min) and he lowe and highe eed le els (0.025 mm/ e and 0.1 mm/ e ).
The ic ion coe icien was es ablished acco ding o ool geome y and he ma e ial
so wa e de aul o he gene al ce amic ool. Ad an Edge simpli ies he ic ion coe icien
as de ined by Coulomb ic ion in he ollowing Equa ion (1):
= ×
(1
)
whe e Fn is he no mal o ce exe ed be ween he su aces, μ is he coe icien o ic ion,
and F is he esul ing o ce due o ic ion. AISI 1045 s eel da a we e cus ome -de ined
wi h Table 1 da a and equi alen chemical composi ion. The wo kpiece meshing was de-
ined as a maximum and minimum elemen size o 0.1 mm and 0.02 mm, espec i ely. The
mesh e inemen and coa sening ac o we e kep as de aul s, 2 and 6, espec i ely. The
maximum numbe o nodes was adjus ed o 2400. Thi y ou pu ames we e adop ed.
Tecplo 360 R2 so wa e (2020, Belle ue, WA, USA) was used o da a analysis and ea -
men . A Ca l Zeiss Disco e y V12 s e eomic oscope (Obe kochen, Ge man) equipped
Figu e 1. Pa and ool ix u e scheme du ing pe o med es s.
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 5 o 16
Table 1. Ma e ial p ope ies.
P ope ies Values
Tensile s eng h (MPa) 793
Yield s eng h (MPa) 718
Ha dness (HB) 248
Two alues o cu ing speed (Vc): 175 m/min and 275 m/min, and ou alues o eed
( ): 0.025 mm/ e , 0.05 mm/ e , 0.075 mm/ e , and 0.01 mm/ e we e a ied du ing he
es s. Dep h o cu (doc) was kep cons an a 0.2 mm (100% o ool co ne adius), as shown
in Table 2. Be o e each es , an ini ial p epa a ion pass wi h a dedica ed ool was pe o med
o uni o m he su ace. Each es was epea ed wice and a new cu ing edge was used o
each es . Di e gence was lowe han 5% in each condi ion.
Table 2. Tes cu ing pa ame e s.
Vc (m/min) (mm/ e ) Doc (mm)
175
0.025
0.2
0.05
0.075
0.1
275
0.025
0.05
0.075
0.1
2.2. Fini e Elemen s Analysis (FEA)
Fini e elemen analysis was pe o med o p edic cu ing o ces, hea low in he cu ing
zone, and chip o ma ion. Ad an Edge V7.1 so wa e (2015, Minneapolis, MN, USA) was
used o simula e he o hogonal cu o he wo cu ing speeds (175 m/min and 275 m/min)
and he lowe and highe eed le els (0.025 mm/ e and 0.1 mm/ e ).
The ic ion coe icien was es ablished acco ding o ool geome y and he ma e ial
so wa e de aul o he gene al ce amic ool. Ad an Edge simpli ies he ic ion coe icien
as de ined by Coulomb ic ion in he ollowing Equa ion (1):
F =µ×Fn (1)
whe e Fn is he no mal o ce exe ed be ween he su aces,
µ
is he coe icien o ic ion,
and F is he esul ing o ce due o ic ion. AISI 1045 s eel da a we e cus ome -de ined wi h
Table 1da a and equi alen chemical composi ion. The wo kpiece meshing was de ined as
a maximum and minimum elemen size o 0.1 mm and 0.02 mm, espec i ely. The mesh
e inemen and coa sening ac o we e kep as de aul s, 2 and 6, espec i ely. The maximum
numbe o nodes was adjus ed o 2400. Thi y ou pu ames we e adop ed. Tecplo 360 R2
so wa e (2020, Belle ue, WA, USA) was used o da a analysis and ea men . A Ca l
Zeiss Disco e y V12 s e eomic oscope (Obe kochen, Ge man) equipped wi h AxioCam
305 (Obe kochen, Ge man) and AxioVision V4.7 so wa e (2008, Jena, Ge many) was used
o measu e chip hickness and compa e hese esul s wi h FEA analysis.
2.3. Su ace Roughness
A i s , he opog aphy o su aces machined wi h new inse s was e alua ed using
whi e ligh in e e ome y. Wi h his echnique, be e isualiza ion and e alua ion o he
su ace in eg i y is possible. I was employed wi h he New View 7300 in e e ome e om
Zygo (Middle ield, CT, USA) and Leica (We zla , HE, Ge man). A scan a e o 100
µ
m/s
and a magni ica ion o 20
×
we e used. The accu acy o he o me equipmen is less han
0.75%, he la e al esolu ion om 0.36 o 9.5 nm, and he e ical esolu ion 0.1 nm.
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 6 o 16
In he second s age, he su ace oughness was e alua ed a in e als o 150 mm o
machined leng h oge he wi h he ool wea e alua ion, so a oughness
×
lank wea cu e
could be plo ed. A his s age, a Taylo Hobson Su onic 25 oughness me e (Leices e ,
England) was employed. A cu -o o 0.25 mm acco ding o ISO 4288 [
21
] was es ablished.
The esul s a e an a e age o h ee measu emen s pe o med on each sample. The esul s
we e compa ed wi h heo e ical oughness (h) ollowing Equa ion (2), whe e Re is he inse
co ne adius. Fo he Ra pa ame e , his may be w i en as h/4 [22].
h=
2
8Re (2)
2.4. Tool Li e and Tool Wea
The ool li e es s we e pe o med using an end-o -li e c i e ion based on an a e age
wid h o he lank wea land VB
B
= 0.1 mm based on he ISO 3685 [
23
] s anda d. An a e age
o h ee measu emen s we e aken. Tool wea was measu ed a in e als o 150 mm o
machined leng h. The lank wea was measu ed using a Ca l Zeiss Disco e y V12 s e eomi-
c oscope equipped wi h AxioCam 305 (Obe kochen, BW, Ge many) and AxioVision V4.7
so wa e (2008, Jena, Ge many) o acqui e and p ocess digi al images.
2.5. Mic os uc u e and Mic oha dness E alua ion
To e alua e he su ace in eg i y unde he machined su ace, mic oha dness es s on
each mic ocons i uen o he ma e ial (pea li e—da k phase and e i e—whi e phase), we e
pe o med. Samples we e cu and embedded in Bakeli e and hen sanded and polished
wi h alumina suspensions wi h g anula ion o 1
µ
m. The me allog aphic sec ions we e
e ched using a 2% ni ic acid solu ion in e hanol (Ni al) du ing 10 s. A Vicke s inden e
wi h a load o 25 g du ing 12 s was used in he es o all he measu emen s which we e
pe o med benea h he machined su ace in dep hs o 25
µ
m, 125
µ
m, 225
µ
m, 325
µ
m,
and 425
µ
m, as shown in Figu e 2de ails. Th ee measu emen s we e pe o med a nea by
poin s. A Shimadzu HMV-G 20ST ha dness es e (Kyo o, Japan) was used o pe o m
mic oha dness e alua ion. The Nikon Eclipse MA200 mic oscope (Kyo o, Japan) was used
o analyze ma e ial mic os uc u e a e he machining p ocess.
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17
Figu e 2. Mic oha dness inden a ions on he pea li e phase in a sample machined a Vc = 275 m/min
and = 0.1 mm/ e .
3. Resul s
3.1. FEA Analysis Resul s
The FEA analysis esul s show ha he empe a u e in he ool pa con ac zone can
exceed 860 °C o he highes cu ing speed and eed se ings used in he expe imen s,
while 17% lowe empe a u e alues a e ound o he lowes cu ing speed and eed se -
ings used. The chips a e p edominan ly in he o m o wis ed ibbons o he con inuous
ype, o all es con igu a ions (Figu es 3 and 4).
Figu e 3. Hea dis ibu ion and chip hickness in Fini e Elemen s Analysis (FEA) o = 0.025
mm/ e . Vc = 175 m/min ( op) and Vc = 275 m/min (below).
Figu e 2.
Mic oha dness inden a ions on he pea li e phase in a sample machined a Vc = 275 m/min
and = 0.1 mm/ e .
3. Resul s
3.1. FEA Analysis Resul s
The FEA analysis esul s show ha he empe a u e in he ool pa con ac zone can
exceed 860
◦
C o he highes cu ing speed and eed se ings used in he expe imen s, while
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 7 o 16
17% lowe empe a u e alues a e ound o he lowes cu ing speed and eed se ings
used. The chips a e p edominan ly in he o m o wis ed ibbons o he con inuous ype,
o all es con igu a ions (Figu es 3and 4).
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17
Figu e 2. Mic oha dness inden a ions on he pea li e phase in a sample machined a Vc = 275 m/min
and = 0.1 mm/ e .
3. Resul s
3.1. FEA Analysis Resul s
The FEA analysis esul s show ha he empe a u e in he ool pa con ac zone can
exceed 860 °C o he highes cu ing speed and eed se ings used in he expe imen s,
while 17% lowe empe a u e alues a e ound o he lowes cu ing speed and eed se -
ings used. The chips a e p edominan ly in he o m o wis ed ibbons o he con inuous
ype, o all es con igu a ions (Figu es 3 and 4).
Figu e 3. Hea dis ibu ion and chip hickness in Fini e Elemen s Analysis (FEA) o = 0.025
mm/ e . Vc = 175 m/min ( op) and Vc = 275 m/min (below).
Figu e 3.
Hea dis ibu ion and chip hickness in Fini e Elemen s Analysis (FEA) o = 0.025 mm/ e .
Vc = 175 m/min ( op) and Vc = 275 m/min (below).
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 17
Figu e 4. Hea dis ibu ion and chip hickness in FEA analysis o = 0.1 mm/ e . Vc = 175 m/min
( op) and Vc = 275 m/min (below).
I is possible o e i y a good ag eemen be ween he chip hickness alues es ima ed
by FEA and measu ed h ough mic oscopy by analyzing Table 3 and Figu e 5. The smalle
he eed, he smalle he chip shea angle. As expec ed, he cu ing o ce alues inc ease
wi h inc easing eed, howe e , he cu ing o ces es ima ed by he FEA analysis did no
exceed 120 N in any se ing o pa ame e s used (Figu e 6). The good conco dance o he
chips ob ained wi h hose es ima ed by FEA analysis, in e ms o shape and hickness,
shows ha his echnique has good eliabili y o he esul s p esen ed and discussed.
Table 3. Compa ison be ween FEA analysis and op ical measu emen chip hickness.
Feed,
(mm/ e )
Cu ing Speed, Vc
(m/min)
Chip Thickness (mm)
FEA Analysis (σ) Op ical Measu emen (σ)
0.025
175
0.043 (0.003)
0.045 (0.002)
275 0.035 (0.001) 0.028 (0.002)
0.1 175 0.15 (0.02) 0.12 (0.03)
275 0.17 (0.01) 0.18 (0.01)
Figu e 4.
Hea dis ibu ion and chip hickness in FEA analysis o = 0.1 mm/ e . Vc = 175 m/min
( op) and Vc = 275 m/min (below).
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 8 o 16
I is possible o e i y a good ag eemen be ween he chip hickness alues es ima ed
by FEA and measu ed h ough mic oscopy by analyzing Table 3and Figu e 5. The smalle
he eed, he smalle he chip shea angle. As expec ed, he cu ing o ce alues inc ease
wi h inc easing eed, howe e , he cu ing o ces es ima ed by he FEA analysis did no
exceed 120 N in any se ing o pa ame e s used (Figu e 6). The good conco dance o he
chips ob ained wi h hose es ima ed by FEA analysis, in e ms o shape and hickness,
shows ha his echnique has good eliabili y o he esul s p esen ed and discussed.
Table 3. Compa ison be ween FEA analysis and op ical measu emen chip hickness.
Feed,
(mm/ e )
Cu ing Speed, Vc
(m/min)
Chip Thickness (mm)
FEA Analysis (σ) Op ical Measu emen (σ)
0.025 175 0.043 (0.003) 0.045 (0.002)
275 0.035 (0.001) 0.028 (0.002)
0.1 175 0.15 (0.02) 0.12 (0.03)
275 0.17 (0.01) 0.18 (0.01)
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17
Figu e 5. Chip hickness unde op ical mic oscope measu emen s o Vc = 175 m/min and = 0.1
mm/ e .
Figu e 6. Cu ing o ces p edic ed by FEA analysis ( il e ed o nume ical noise) o = 0.1 mm/min
and Vc = 275 m/min.
3.2. Su ace Roughness and Tool Wea
The opog aphy o he machined su ace, as a unc ion o eed, using a new cu ing
edge, is shown in Figu es 7 and 8 o cu ing speeds o 175 m/min and 275 m/min, espec-
i ely, and he esul s a e summa ized in he g aph shown in Figu e 9. I is easy o see he
e ec o inc eased eed on machined su ace deg ada ion. Fo a eed o 0.025 mm/ e , an
a i hme ical mean heigh alue (Sa) o 0.23 μm is eached, deno ing a supe inishing su -
ace s a e. This alue eaches he 0.94 μm Sa ma k, o a eed o 0.1 mm/ e . Conside ing
he maximum heigh Sz pa ame e , he alues a e Sz = 8.13 μm and Sz = 8.8 μm, espec-
i ely, when he cu ing speed is 175 m/min. The Sa pa ame e expands he p o ile (line
oughness) h ee-dimensionally. I ep esen s he a i hme ic mean o he absolu e o dina e
Z (x,y) wi hin he e alua ion a ea. This is one o he mos widely used pa ame e s p o id-
ing s able esul s since i is no signi ican ly in luenced by sc a ches, con amina ion, and
measu emen noise. The Sz pa ame e expands he p o ile (line oughness) pa ame e Rz
h ee-dimensionally. The maximum heigh Sz is equi alen o he sum o maximum peak
heigh Sp and maximum alley dep h [24].
By inc easing he cu ing speed o 275 m/min, an a i hme ical mean heigh alue Sa
= 0.26 μm is achie ed, also deno ing a supe inishing su ace s a e. This alue eaches he
Sa = 0.96 μm ma k, o a eed o 0.1 mm/ e . Conside ing he maximum heigh Sz pa am-
e e , he alues a e Sz = 6.4 μm and Sz = 12.2 μm, espec i ely. I is hus possible o es ab-
lish ha he cu ing speed has li le in luence on he inal oughness, howe e , i he Sz
pa ame e is manda o y, i is be e o use he combina ion o high cu ing speed (275
m/min) and low eed (0.025 mm/ e ). None heless, i is wo h conside ing ha al hough
equen ly used, his pa ame e is signi ican ly in luenced by sc a ches, con amina ion,
and measu emen noise due o i s u iliza ion o peak alues [24].
Figu e 5.
Chip hickness unde op ical mic oscope measu emen s o Vc = 175 m/min and
= 0.1 mm/ e .
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17
Figu e 5. Chip hickness unde op ical mic oscope measu emen s o Vc = 175 m/min and = 0.1
mm/ e .
Figu e 6. Cu ing o ces p edic ed by FEA analysis ( il e ed o nume ical noise) o = 0.1 mm/min
and Vc = 275 m/min.
3.2. Su ace Roughness and Tool Wea
The opog aphy o he machined su ace, as a unc ion o eed, using a new cu ing
edge, is shown in Figu es 7 and 8 o cu ing speeds o 175 m/min and 275 m/min, espec-
i ely, and he esul s a e summa ized in he g aph shown in Figu e 9. I is easy o see he
e ec o inc eased eed on machined su ace deg ada ion. Fo a eed o 0.025 mm/ e , an
a i hme ical mean heigh alue (Sa) o 0.23 μm is eached, deno ing a supe inishing su -
ace s a e. This alue eaches he 0.94 μm Sa ma k, o a eed o 0.1 mm/ e . Conside ing
he maximum heigh Sz pa ame e , he alues a e Sz = 8.13 μm and Sz = 8.8 μm, espec-
i ely, when he cu ing speed is 175 m/min. The Sa pa ame e expands he p o ile (line
oughness) h ee-dimensionally. I ep esen s he a i hme ic mean o he absolu e o dina e
Z (x,y) wi hin he e alua ion a ea. This is one o he mos widely used pa ame e s p o id-
ing s able esul s since i is no signi ican ly in luenced by sc a ches, con amina ion, and
measu emen noise. The Sz pa ame e expands he p o ile (line oughness) pa ame e Rz
h ee-dimensionally. The maximum heigh Sz is equi alen o he sum o maximum peak
heigh Sp and maximum alley dep h [24].
By inc easing he cu ing speed o 275 m/min, an a i hme ical mean heigh alue Sa
= 0.26 μm is achie ed, also deno ing a supe inishing su ace s a e. This alue eaches he
Sa = 0.96 μm ma k, o a eed o 0.1 mm/ e . Conside ing he maximum heigh Sz pa am-
e e , he alues a e Sz = 6.4 μm and Sz = 12.2 μm, espec i ely. I is hus possible o es ab-
lish ha he cu ing speed has li le in luence on he inal oughness, howe e , i he Sz
pa ame e is manda o y, i is be e o use he combina ion o high cu ing speed (275
m/min) and low eed (0.025 mm/ e ). None heless, i is wo h conside ing ha al hough
equen ly used, his pa ame e is signi ican ly in luenced by sc a ches, con amina ion,
and measu emen noise due o i s u iliza ion o peak alues [24].
Figu e 6.
Cu ing o ces p edic ed by FEA analysis ( il e ed o nume ical noise) o = 0.1 mm/min
and Vc = 275 m/min.
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 9 o 16
3.2. Su ace Roughness and Tool Wea
The opog aphy o he machined su ace, as a unc ion o eed, using a new cu ing
edge, is shown in Figu es 7and 8 o cu ing speeds o 175 m/min and 275 m/min,
espec i ely, and he esul s a e summa ized in he g aph shown in Figu e 9. I is easy o see
he e ec o inc eased eed on machined su ace deg ada ion. Fo a eed o 0.025 mm/ e ,
an a i hme ical mean heigh alue (Sa) o 0.23
µ
m is eached, deno ing a supe inishing
su ace s a e. This alue eaches he 0.94
µ
mSa ma k, o a eed o 0.1 mm/ e . Conside ing
he maximum heigh Sz pa ame e , he alues a e Sz = 8.13
µ
m and Sz = 8.8
µ
m, espec i ely,
when he cu ing speed is 175 m/min. The Sa pa ame e expands he p o ile (line oughness)
h ee-dimensionally. I ep esen s he a i hme ic mean o he absolu e o dina e Z (x,y)
wi hin he e alua ion a ea. This is one o he mos widely used pa ame e s p o iding
s able esul s since i is no signi ican ly in luenced by sc a ches, con amina ion, and
measu emen noise. The Sz pa ame e expands he p o ile (line oughness) pa ame e Rz
h ee-dimensionally. The maximum heigh Sz is equi alen o he sum o maximum peak
heigh Sp and maximum alley dep h [24].
Ma e ials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 17
Figu e 7. 3D su ace oughness o Vc = 175 m/min wi h di e en eeds. (a) 0.025 mm/ e , (b) 0.05
mm/ e , (c) 0.075 mm/ e , (d) 0.1 mm/ e .
Figu e 8. 3D su ace oughness o Vc = 275 m/min wi h di e en eeds. (a) 0.025 mm/ e , (b) 0.05
mm/ e , (c) 0.075 mm/ e , (d) 0.1 mm/ e .
Figu e 7.
3D su ace oughness o Vc = 175 m/min wi h di e en eeds. (
a
) 0.025 mm/ e ,
(b) 0.05 mm/ e , (c) 0.075 mm/ e , (d) 0.1 mm/ e .
By inc easing he cu ing speed o 275 m/min, an a i hme ical mean heigh alue
Sa = 0.26 µm
is achie ed, also deno ing a supe inishing su ace s a e. This alue eaches
he
Sa = 0.96 µm
ma k, o a eed o 0.1 mm/ e . Conside ing he maximum heigh Sz
pa ame e , he alues a e Sz = 6.4
µ
m and Sz = 12.2
µ
m, espec i ely. I is hus possible
o es ablish ha he cu ing speed has li le in luence on he inal oughness, howe e , i
he Sz pa ame e is manda o y, i is be e o use he combina ion o high cu ing speed
(275 m/min) and low eed (0.025 mm/ e ). None heless, i is wo h conside ing ha
al hough equen ly used, his pa ame e is signi ican ly in luenced by sc a ches, con ami-
na ion, and measu emen noise due o i s u iliza ion o peak alues [24].
Ma e ials 2022,15, 2031 16 o 16
18.
Kuma , C.S.; Zeman, P.; Polca , T. A 2D ini e elemen app oach o p edic ing he machining pe o mance o nanolaye ed
TiAlC N coa ing on WC-Co cu ing ool du ing d y u ning o AISI 1045 s eel. Ce am. In . 2020,46, 25073–25088. [C ossRe ]
19.
Amigo, F.J.; U bikain, G.; Pe ei a, O.; Fe nández-Lucio, P.; Fe nández-Valdi ielso, A.; de Lacalle, L.L. Combina ion o high eed
u ning wi h c yogenic cooling on Haynes 263 and Inconel 718 supe alloys. J. Manu . P ocess. 2020,58, 208–222. [C ossRe ]
20.
Suá ez, L.; López de Lacalle, R.; Pol o oza, F.; Veiga, A.; W e land, A. E ec s o high-p essu e cooling on he wea pa e ns on
u ning inse s used on alloy IN718. Ma e . Manu . P ocess 2017,32, 678–686. [C ossRe ]
21.
ISO. ISO 4288: Geome ical P oduc Speci ica ion (GPS)—Su ace Tex u e: P o ile Me hod—Rules and P ocedu es o he Assessmen o
Su ace Tex u e; In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion: Gene a, Swi ze land, 1996.
22. Shaw, M.C. Me al Cu ing P inciples, 2nd ed.Ox o d Uni e si y P ess: London, UK, 2004.
23.
ISO. ISO 3685—Tool Li e Tes ing Wi Single Poin Tu ning Tools; In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion:
Gene a, Swi ze land, 1993
.
24.
B own, C.A. Roughness Measu emen Guidebook: In oduc ion o Su ace Roughness Measu emen ; Olympus Co po a ion:
Tokyo, Japan, 2017; pp. 1–45.
25. Da im, J. Su ace In eg i y in Machining; Sp inge : Ams e dam, The Ne he lands, 2010.
26.
Pe ei a, O.; Rod íguez, A.; Calleja-Ochoa, A.; Celaya, A.; de Lacalle, L.N.L.; Fe nández-Valdi ielso, A.; González, H. Simula ion
o C yo-cooling o Imp o e Supe Alloys Cu ing Tools. In . J. P ecis. Eng. Manu . Technol. 2022,9, 73–82. [C ossRe ]
