Ci a ion: Dosil-San ama ia, M.;
Jau eguiza , J.; Be na as, E. Da ing
Violence in Adolescence: Compa ison
be ween Schola s and Adolescen s in
Residen ial Ca e. Sexes 2022,3, 49–58.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/sexes
3010004
Academic Edi o : Joana Ca alho
Recei ed: 16 Augus 2021
Accep ed: 1 Decembe 2021
Published: 10 Janua y 2022
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A icle
Da ing Violence in Adolescence: Compa ison be ween Schola s
and Adolescen s in Residen ial Ca e
Ma ia Dosil-San ama ia 1,* , Joana Jau eguiza 2and Elena Be na as 2
1Depa men o Educa ion Sciences, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, 48940 Lejona, Spain
2Depa men o De elopmen al and Educa ional Psychology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y,
48940 Lejona, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (J.J.); [email p o ec ed] (E.B.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-94-601-4625
Abs ac :
(1) Backg ound: Da ing iolence (DV) among adolescen s cons i u es a se ious p oblem,
no only because o he magni ude o he phenomenon, bu also because o he se iousness o he
pe sonal and social consequences de i ed om i . The objec i es o his s udy we e he ollowing: o
analyze he p e alence o DV among adolescen s in esiden ial ca e and in schools, acco ding o sex,
age and o igin, and o analyze he p e alence o he ypes o iolence and ic imiza ion, acco ding
o he esiden ial ca e esou ce and he school. (2) Me hods: The sample consis ed o adolescen s
in esiden ial ca e in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y (Spain) (n= 271) and
adolescen s in schools (n= 268) aged be ween 12 and 17 yea s. (3) Resul s: The esul s showed a
highe p e alence o DV in adolescen s in esiden ial ca e han ha ound in o he s udies wi h a
no ma i e sample. (4) Conclusions: These esul s suppo he need o wo k and esea ch wi h hese
mino s in esiden ial ca e. I also gi es an impo an weigh o sociodemog aphic a iables, such as
age and sex, and also o he ypes o iolence and ic imiza ion, i.e., a iables o be aken in o accoun
in he in e en ion wi h adolescen s. Fu u e educa ional p og ams should conside DV p e en ion
and child en in esiden ial ca e.
Keywo ds: esiden ial ca e; da ing iolence; ic imiza ion; school cen e s
1. In oduc ion
Some esea ch indica es ha he magni ude o da ing iolence (DV) is e en highe han
iolence in adul ela ionships [
1
,
2
]. Se an and Fi es one [
3
] al eady s a ed ha iolence
did no a ise spon aneously du ing ma iage o in couple li e bu was o en ini ia ed du ing
cou ship.
S aus and Rami ez [
4
] ound a es o DV pe pe a ion among young uni e si y s u-
den s o be ween 25% and 45%, hese pe cen ages being highe han hose ob ained om
among he ma ied couples in hei sample (be ween 10% and 15%). O he s udies wi h a
uni e si y sample show e en highe pe cen ages, as in he s udy by Mu ay e al. [
5
], which
ound ha 73% o hei sample epo ed ha ing pe pe a ed DV in he las mon h. Re-
sea ch wi h adolescen s es ima es a es o DV pe pe a ion anging om 9% o
51% ([6–9]
).
Howe e , o he au ho s indica e ha DV is in luenced by mul iple a iables (coun y,
cul u e, gende , ype o iolence, e c.) and ha DV pe pe a ion a es ange om 9% o
65% [
10
–
12
]. Along he same lines, se e al ecen me a-analyses e eal DV pe pe a ion
a es be ween 5% and in some cases up o 90% [
13
,
14
]. Ano he s udy conduc ed wi h
uni e si y s uden s o 17 na ionali ies (6 Eu opean, 2 No h Ame ican, 2 La in Ame ican,
5 Asian, 1 Aus alian and 1 New Zealand), showed p e alence a es be ween 15% and 45%
o DV pe pe a ion [4,15].
O he s udies analyze bo h iolence and ic imiza ion in in ima e pa ne ela ionships.
A s udy by Ma inez e al. [
16
] wi h a sample o 589 s uden s aged 12 o 22 yea s ound
a p e alence o 48.6% o pe pe a ion o iolence and 70.9%, o ic imiza ion. Mo e
speci ically, ega ding ic imiza ion in da ing ela ionships, he mac o-su ey conduc ed in
Sexes 2022,3, 49–58. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/sexes3010004 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sexes
Sexes 2022,350
he USA wi h abou 9900 s uden s showed ic imiza ion a es anging om 3% o 21% [
17
].
Ano he sample o 2524 Ame icans wi h a mean age o 16.2 yea s ound a p e alence o
ic imiza ion o 35% and 31% o pe pe a ion [18].
In summa y, s udies show a es anging om 20% o 70.9% o ic imiza ion and om
14% o 90% o pe pe a ion o iolence [
13
,
14
,
19
–
21
]. I should be no ed ha he dispa i y
in da a may be due o he me hodology used o he DV s udy.
In e ms o gende , a ecen e iew ound DV pe pe a ion a es o 9% o 37% in gi ls
and 6% o 21% in boys [
22
]. Likewise, Gio dano e al. [
23
] ound a highe p e alence
o pe pe a ion in gi ls (34.9%) han in boys (6.2%). O he esea ch poin s ou ha he
agg esso igu e appea s in he case o bo h gi ls and boys [24,25].
In ela ion o ic imiza ion, s udies seem o indica e a highe a e o ic imiza ion
among women. Thus, López-Cepe o e al. [
26
] s a e ha in Spain, 3.6% o men and 7.9%
o women ha e su e ed abuse du ing a you h da ing ela ionship. Fo hei pa , Cal e e
e al. [
27
] ound ha gi ls showed highe le els o ic imiza ion han boys. Along he
same lines, he esul s o he US Na ional Su ey [
28
] on isk beha io s o Ame ican
mino s showed ha 20.9% o adolescen gi ls and 10.4% o adolescen boys had su e ed
ic imiza ion om some ype o DV in he pas 12 mon hs ([
17
]). Ano he s udy conduc ed
wi h high school s uden s al eady indica ed ic imiza ion a es in gi ls o 15.5% and in
boys o 7.8% [29].
In e ms o age, i should be no ed ha he age o onse o da ing ela ionships is no
known wi h ce ain y. Connolly and McIsaac [
30
] indica e ha app oxima ely 25% o 12-
yea -old adolescen s a e in ol ed in a “da e” and ha 70% o young people up o 18 yea s
o age al eady ha e a pa ne . In e na ional esea ch indica es ha mino s gene ally begin
da ing o he i s ime be ween he ages o 13 and 15 [
25
]. Speci ically, Ea on and Wes [
31
]
s a ed ha 72% o people be ween 13 and 16 yea s o age a e al eady in a ela ionship. In
ou con ex , Muñoz-Ri as e al. [
12
] poin ou ha nea ly 90% o people begin hei da ing
ela ionships be ween 16 and 20 yea s o age.
In ela ion o he ypes o iolence, e bal iolence is he mos common, ollowed by
psychological, physical and sexual iolence [
32
]. Ano he s udy by Muñoz-Ri as e al. [
12
]
ound ha mo e han 90% o he young emale s uden s in hei sample admi ed o ha ing
eso ed o he pe pe a ion o e bal iolence in hei da ing ela ionships. Ve y simila ly,
Co nelius and Resseguie [
33
] epo ed e bal DV pe pe a ion a es o 88%. In he Wol e
e al. [
34
] s udy, e bal iolence was also ound o be he mos common. In addi ion,
Ca e e al. [
35
] no ed ha as age inc eases, his ype o iolence inc eases. Howe e , some
s udies do no dis inguish be ween e bal and psychological iolence, unde s anding bo h
ypes o iolence as psychological iolence. In he s udy by Fe ne e al. [
36
] o 71 young
people wi h an a e age age o 19 yea s (71.8% we e gi ls be ween 14 and 17 yea s), hey
ound ha 59.2% epo ed ha ing su e ed a o m o iolence (physical, psychological o
sexual) in he las 12 mon hs. Mo e han hal , 57.7%, epo ed expe iencing psychological
iolence, 18.3% physical iolence, and 29.6% sexual iolence. Howe e , he p e alence
a es o psychological iolence epo ed by di e en s udies a e e y dispa a e, anging
om 11% o 81% [
37
–
40
], aising suspicions o inaccu a e e minology and a consequen
lack o consensus in i s assessmen . The igu es o psychological iolence ic imiza ion
a e e en highe in o he s udies, such as ha o Jackson e al. [
2
], in which, h ough an ad
hoc su ey wi h adolescen s in New Zealand, hey ound ha 81.5% o gi ls and 76.3%
o boys epo ed ha ing su e ed psychological iolence (monopoliza ion, deg ada ion o
isola ion) in hei da ing ela ionships. Jou iles e al. [
41
] ound e en highe a es: 91% o
young people in hei sample epo ed expe iencing psychological iolence ( ic imiza ion).
Howe e , mos o he esea ch men ioned abo e is on no ma i e samples, and ew
s udies ha e been conduc ed wi h adolescen s in esiden ial ca e. A p esen , he sea ch o
esea ch on DV and adolescen s in esiden ial ca e is di icul , despi e he ac ha hey a e
clea ly conside ed a high- isk g oup o ela ionship dys unc ion [42–44].
In one o he i s s udies on DV, Jonson-Reid [
42
] ound ha among you h in p o ec i e
cus ody in he s a e o Cali o nia he e we e no highe a es o DV compa ed o you h
Sexes 2022,351
in he gene al popula ion. Howe e , hey did end o emain in hese oxic ela ionships
o longe pe iods o ime. In con as , o he s udies, such as ha o Manseu e al. [
43
],
su eyed 196 gi ls aged 12 o 18 yea s li ing in child p o ec ion cen e s in Quebec and
epo ed ha 53.1% had expe ienced a leas some o m o se e e physical iolence du ing
da ing, 87.9% expe ienced psychological iolence and 70.2% expe ienced sexual coe cion.
Weke le e al. [
44
], on he o he hand, in a s udy o 426 young people, ound ha 44% o
boys esponded ha hey had engaged in iolen beha io wi h hei pa ne , and 49% had
su e ed i . Gi ls, on he o he hand, epo ed pe pe a ing iolence in 67% o cases and
su e ing i ( ic imiza ion) in 63% o cases. As o he ype o iolence, bo h sexes men ioned
ha psychological iolence was mo e common han physical iolence. Finally, a ecen
s udy by Ka z e al. [
45
] indica ed ha mo e han 20% o he you h in he sample composed
o 23- and 24-yea -olds and o me wa ds o he p o ec ion sys em had pe pe a ed o
expe ienced DV in he yea p io o he sample collec ion.
The p oposed objec i e o his s udy is o analyze DV pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion
in adolescen s in esiden ial ca e and compa e i wi h adolescen s om a no ma i e sample.
Mo eo e , di e ences acco ding o gende and age will be explo ed. P e alence a es
o pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion o da ing iolence in mino s in esiden ial ca e and in
schools in he Basque Au onomous Communi y a e expec ed o be simila o hose ound
in p e ious s udies, al hough highe p e alence a es a e expec ed o be ound in mino s in
esiden ial ca e. I is expec ed ha gi ls will p esen highe le els o ic imiza ion and boys
will p esen highe pe pe a ion o da ing iolence, bo h in mino s in esiden ial ca e and in
mino s in schools. Finally, i is expec ed ha a olde ages, bo h adolescen s in esiden ial
ca e and adolescen s in schools epo highe le els o pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion in
hei da ing ela ionships han younge adolescen s.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
This s udy was ca ied ou wi h a o al sample o 539 adolescen s, 271 o whom esiding
in esiden ial ca e and 268 in schools in he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y
(Spain). The sample was ob ained wi h he p io consen o he ins i u ions esponsible
o he gua dianship o hese mino s and wi h he consen o he school p incipals and he
adolescen s hemsel es. The minimum age o he sample was 12 yea s, he mean age was
15 yea s and he maximum age was 18 yea s. O hese pe sons, 265 (49.2%) we e emale and
274 (50.8%) we e male. A o al o 72% (n= 388) o hem we e bo n in he Basque Coun y,
18.7% (n= 101) ab oad and 9.3% (n= 50) in o he egions o Spain.
The ins umen s used we e an ad hoc ques ionnai e wi h sociodemog aphic and
demog aphic ques ions and he Con lic in Adolescen Da ing Rela ionships In en o y CADRI
(Wol e e al., 2001). The o iginal scale consis ed o 70 i ems ha assessed bo h iolen
beha io owa d he pa ne , as well as expe iences o ic imiza ion. The p esen s udy was
ca ied ou using he e sion o Ca ascosa e al. (2018) used in hei s udy. Speci ically, he
ques ionnai e consis ed o 17 i ems ha analyzed he di e en ypes o pe pe a ions o
iolence; pe pe a ion o ela ional iolence (e.g., “I said hings o his/he iends abou
him/he o make hem go agains him/he ”), pe pe a ion o e bal–emo ional iolence
(e.g., “I b ough up in con e sa ion some hing bad ha he/she had done in he pas ”)
and pe pe a ion o physical iolence (e.g., “I pushed him/he o I shook him/he ”). In
addi ion, ano he 17 i ems measu ed ic imiza ion: ela ional ic imiza ion (e.g., “He/she
ied o sepa a e me om my g oup o iends”), e bal–emo ional ic imiza ion (e.g.,
“He/she insul ed me wi h pu downs”) and physical ic imiza ion (e.g., “He/she h ew
some hing a me”). Adolescen s we e asked o iden i y how o en hey ha e expe ienced
hese si ua ions in hei oman ic ela ionship: Ne e - his has no happened in ou ela ionship-
, a ely
−
1 o 2 occasions-, some imes -be ween 3 and 5 imes -o equen ly
−
6 o mo e
occasions-. In he p esen s udy, he eliabili y coe icien , C onbach’s alpha, o he o al scale
o iolence pe pe a ion was 0.72 and o he ela ional, e bal–emo ional and physical
iolence pe pe a ion subscales i was 0.57, 0.79 and 0.77, espec i ely. The eliabili y o he
o al scale o ic imiza ion was 0.78 and o he ela ional, e bal–emo ional and physical
Sexes 2022,352
ic imiza ion subscales, i was 0.61, 0.86 and 0.83, espec i ely. The o al alpha coe icien
o his sample was 0.75.
The da a analyses we e desc ip i e da a and also aimed o iden i y s a is ically signi i-
can associa ions be ween he a iables unde s udy, as well as he e ec size. All o his
was calcula ed wi h he IBM SPSS .26 s a is ical p og am.
3. Resul s
3.1. P e alence o Violence and Vic imiza ion in a No ma i e and Residen ial Ca e Sample
In he case o he sample collec ed in schools, sex and pe pe a ion o iolence show
signi ican associa ions
χ2
= 62.44; p< 0.01, VC ame = 0.48, as 84.6% (n= 66) a e boys and
15.4% (n= 12) gi ls. As o age, 24.4% (n= 19) o adolescen s who eso o iolence a e
be ween 12 and 14 yea s old and 75.6% (n= 59) a e be ween 15 and 17 yea s old, and hei
associa ion is also signi ican ,
χ2
= 7.90; p< 0.01, VC ame = 0.17, wi h a smalle e ec size.
In ela ion o ic imiza ion, as can be seen in Table 1, he same pa e n occu s. The
esul s show signi ican associa ions wi h sex and age, howe e , he e a e mo e cases wi h a
highe equency in adolescen s who a e no ic ims in hei da ing ela ionships. I is gi ls
who indica e a 87.6% (n= 85) mo e ic imiza ion han boys a 12.4% (n= 12),
χ2
= 73.24;
p< 0.01, VC ame = 0.52. Age, again, shows signi ican associa ions,
χ2
= 20.42; p< 0.01,
VC ame = 0.28. Olde adolescen s ha e a highe pe cen age, 80.4% (n= 78), and younge
adolescen s ha e a lowe pe cen age, 19.6% (n= 19).
Table 1. P e alence o iolence as a unc ion o sex and age in bo h s udy samples.
Violence
School Cen e s
(N = 268)
Pe pe a o s n(%)
(n= 78)
No pe pe a o s, n(%)
(n= 190)
χ2VC ame
Sex
Boy 66 (84.6%) 60 (31.6%)
Gi l 12 (15.4%) 130 (68.4%) 62.44 * 0.48
Age (N = 268)
12–14 19 (24.4%) 81 (42.6%)
15–17 59 (75.6%) 109 (57.4%) 7.90 * 0.17
Residen ial Ca e
(N = 271)
Pe pe a o s, n(%)
(n= 248)
No pe pe a o s, n(%)
(n= 23)
χ2VC ame
Sex
Boy 136 (54.5%) 12 (52.2%)
Gi l 112 (45.2%) 11 (47.8%) 0.06
Age
12–14 70 (28.3%) 19 (21.3%)
15–17 178 (71.7%) 4 (17.4%) 28.22 * 0.33
Vic imiza ion
School Cen e s
(N = 268)
Vic imiza ion, n(%)
(n= 97)
No ic imiza ion, n(%)
(n= 171)
χ2VC ame
Sex
Boy 12 (12.4%) 114 (66.7%)
Gi l 85 (87.6%) 57 (33.3%) 73.24 * 0.52
Age
12–14 age 19 (19.6%) 81 (47.4%)
15–17 age 78 (80.4%) 90 (52.6%) 20.42 * 0.28
Residen ial Ca e
(N = 271)
Vic imiza ion, n(%)
(n= 240)
No ic imiza ion, n(%)
(n= 31)
χ2VC ame
Sex
Boy 117 (48.8%) 25 (78%)
Gi l 123 (51.2%) 6 (22%) 9.57 * 0.19
Age
12–14 age 69 (28.2%) 20 (64.5%)
15–17 age 171 (71.8%) 11 (35.5%) 15.93 * 0.22
No e: * p< 0.05; VC ame : e ec size.
Sexes 2022,353
In he case o he sample in esiden ial ca e, he only a iable ha does no p esen
s a is ically signi ican di e ences is sex. A o al o 54.5% (n= 136) a e boys and 45.2%
(n= 112) a e gi ls.
In he case o age, signi ican associa ions a e shown,
χ2
= 28.22, p< 0.05, VC ame = 0.32.
Be ween 15 and 17 yea s o age, pe pe a ion o DV is 71.7% (n= 178) and in he case o ado-
lescen s aged 12 o 14 yea s i is 28.3% (n= 70). Rega ding ic imiza ion, 51.2% (n= 123) a e
pe cei ed o be gi ls and 48.8% (n= 117) boys, showing a signi ican associa ion χ2= 9.57,
p< 0.05, VC ame = 0.19. Rega ding age, 71.8% (n= 171) a e adolescen s be ween 15 and
17 yea s old, compa ed o 28.2% (n= 69) be ween 12 and 14 yea s old,
χ2
= 15.93, p< 0.05,
VC ame = 0.24.
3.2. P e alence o Types o Violence as a Func ion o Sex and Age in Adolescen s in No ma i e
Sample and Residen ial Ca e
In he case o he sample collec ed in schools, all ypes o pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion
show signi ican associa ions wi h sex. Howe e , in he case o age, i is only e bal–
emo ional iolence and ic imiza ion ha show signi ican associa ions (See Table 2).
Table 2. Types o DV as a unc ion o sex, age and sample.
School
Cen e s
Violence Vic imiza ion
Rela ional
(9.30)%
Ve bal–Emo ional
(26.9%)
Physical
(4.9%)
Rela ional
(11.20%)
Ve bal–Emo ional
(34%)
Physical
(3.7%)
Sex
Boys 22 (88%) 62 (86.1%) 10 (76.9%) 1 (3.3%) 10 (11%) 1 (10%)
Gi ls 3 (12%) 10 (13.9%) 3 (23.1%) 29 (96.7%) 81 (89%) 9 (90%)
χ218.59 ** 60.41 ** 4.91 ** 25.86 ** 71.79 ** 5.71 *
V * 0.26 0.48 0.14 0.31 0.52 0.15
Age
12–14 8 (32%) 16 (22.2%) 4 (30.8%) 8 (26.7%) 16 (17.6%) 4 (40%)
15–17 17 (68%) 56 (77.8%) 9 (69.2%) 22 (73.3%) 75 (82.4%) 6 (60%)
χ20.33 9.59 ** 0.25 1.64 22.93 ** 0.032
V * 0.04 0.19 0.03 0.08 0.29 0.011
Residen ial
Ca e
Rela ional
(39.10%)
Ve bal–Emo ional
(88.9%) Physical (38.70%) Rela ional
(48.70%)
Ve bal–Emo ional
(83.8%) Physical (30.30%)
Sex
Boys 75 (70.8%) 134 (55.4%) 50 (47.6%) 57 (43.2%) 116 (49.2%) 49 (59.8%)
Gi ls 31 (29.2%) 108 (44.6%) 55 (52.4%) 75 (56.8%) 120 (50.8%) 33 (40.2%)
χ218.30 ** 0.5 3.38 9.36 ** 1.26 7.36 **
V * 0.26 0.04 0.11 0.19 0.07 0.1
Age
12–14 age 23 (21.7%) 68 (28.2%) 21 (20%) 67 (28.4%) 12 (14.6%) 67 (28.4%)
15–17 age 83 (78.3%) 173 (71.8%) 84 (80%) 169 (71.6%) 70 (85.4%) 169 (71.6%)
χ29.8 ** 22.88 ** 12.82 ** 15.52 ** 17.67 ** 15.52 **
V * 0.19 0.29 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.24
No e: ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05; VC ame : e ec size.
Rega ding adolescen s in esiden ial ca e and he ypes o DV pe pe a ion and ic im-
iza ion, i can be obse ed in Table 2how he ype o pe pe a ion o ela ional iolence
shows signi ican di e ences in bo h sex and age. In he case o e bal–emo ional iolence
and ic imiza ion, he associa ions a e signi ican wi h age, bu no wi h sex. Finally, physi-
cal iolence shows a signi ican associa ion only wi h age. Howe e , physical ic imiza ion
shows signi ican associa ions wi h bo h a iables o sex and age.
4. Discussion
This s udy con i ms ha DV is a e y common phenomenon among adolescen s in
di e en se ings; adolescen s in esiden ial ca e and adolescen s in school cen e s. These
esul s p o ide da a ha had no been analyzed so a in ou immedia e en i onmen
and e y sca cely in in e na ional s udies. In o he wo ds, he esul s, pa icula ly hose
analyzed wi h adolescen s in esiden ial ca e, a e a new con ibu ion o he scien i ic
Sexes 2022,354
li e a u e, con i ming ha i is essen ial when s udying DV o also ake in o accoun mino s
in esiden ial ca e.
Rega ding he esul s o DV p e alence ob ained wi h he school sample, hese a e
in line wi h p e ious s udies, o bo h pe pe a ion [
6
,
7
,
9
,
46
] and ic imiza ion [
18
,
47
].
Howe e , in o he s udies, he p e alence and ic imiza ion a es o DV we e conside ably
highe han hose ound in his s udy, as o example, in he s udy by Ma inez e al. [
16
],
whe e hey ound a p e alence o 48.6% o pe pe a ion o iolence and 70.9% o ic-
imiza ion. The ac ha his s udy shows di e gen esul s compa ed o hose ound in
p e ious esea ch may occu o se e al easons. On he one hand, i may be due o he
ype o sample, since hey we e young people om di e en geog aphic and/o cul u al
a eas. On he o he hand, he ac o using di e en ools o measu ing DV may also be
one o he easons o he di e ences be ween he esul s ound in his s udy and hose
ound in o he s udies.
Rega ding he esul s o he p e alence o DV pe pe a ion in o me os e you h in
esiden ial ca e, he p esen s udy ound highe a es han p e ious s udies wi h a sample
o simila cha ac e is ics, such as ha o Jonson-Reid [
42
], which ound a p e alence o 48%.
Howe e , in a ecen s udy by Ka z e al. [
45
,
47
] o o me wa ds o he p o ec i e sys em
aged 20 o 24 yea s, mo e han 20% epo ed ha ing pe pe a ed o expe ienced DV in he
yea p io o sample collec ion, a pe cen age o pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion signi ican ly
lowe han in he p esen s udy. Pe haps he ac ha hese esul s a e di e en may be
ela ed o age, since he adolescen s in he p esen s udy we e adolescen s be ween 12 and
17 yea s o age, and p e ious s udies ha e al eady indica ed ha a e 17 yea s o age he
p e alence o DV ends o dec ease (Foshee e al., [47]).
In ela ion o sex, in he case o school pa icipan s sex showed signi ican associa ions
o bo h DV pe pe a ion (84.6% o pe pe a o s we e boys and 15.4% gi ls) and ic im-
iza ion (12.4% boys and 87.6% gi ls). Howe e , in he sample o adolescen s in esiden ial
ca e, he e was no associa ion be ween sex and pe pe a ion, and he e was an associa ion
be ween sex and ic imiza ion, wi h gi ls (51.2%) being mo e ic imized han boys (48.8%)
in he sample. P e ious s udies on gende di e ences in DV did no show a clea consensus
on he exis ence o o he wise o di e ences in pe pe a ion a es be ween boys and gi ls.
S udies, such as ha o Muñoz-Ri as e al. [
12
], wi h a school sample would co obo a e
he esul s o he p esen s udy, since hey concluded ha boys a e pe pe a o s o a g ea e
ex en han gi ls. Howe e , o he s udies, such as ha o Gio dano e al. [
23
], indica e he
opposi e, inding a highe p e alence o pe pe a ion in gi ls. The ac ha he e is a highe
p e alence in gi ls may also be condi ioned by he measu emen ins umen (Modi ied Con-
lic Tac ics Scale, MCTS), o by he ac ha he adolescen s a e om di e en backg ounds
(Uni ed S a es).
Rega ding ic imiza ion, he e is g ea e consensus among s udies, since mos o hem
indica e ha i is gi ls who epo g ea e ic imiza ion, as has been e i ied in he p esen
s udy [17,26,27,37].
The esul s o he sample unde esiden ial ca e in he p esen s udy coincide wi h he
esul s o Jonson-Reid [
42
], whe e a g ea e ic imiza ion in gi ls and simila dis ibu ion
we e also obse ed be ween male and emale pe pe a o s. On he con a y, in he s udy by
Weke le e al. [
44
] wi h a sample o adolescen s in social p o ec ion se ices, hey ound a
highe pe cen age o gi ls as pe pe a o s o DV compa ed o boys and highe ic imiza ion
in gi ls.
The esul s o he p esen s udy showed s a is ically signi ican associa ions in DV
pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion as a unc ion o age o bo h samples. These esul s would
be in line wi h o he s udies showing ha DV inc eased wi h inc easing age. The ac ha
highe a es o ic imiza ion and pe pe a ion o DV occu wi h inc easing age should
be in e p e ed wi h mode a ion, aking in o conside a ion he esul s no ed in a s udy by
Redondo-Pacheco e al. [
48
] and Foshee e al. [
47
], ha he inc ease in iolence occu ed up
o he age o 16 and 17 yea s, and om ha age onwa ds i was declining
Sexes 2022,355
S udies wi h a Spanish sample o adolescen s and using he same ins umen (CADRI)
showed highe a es o e bal–emo ional and physical DV pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion
han hose ound in his s udy [
10
,
49
]. O he s udies conduc ed wi h a Spanish sample
and using he MCTS [
50
] ound ha mo e han 90% o he adolescen s uden s in hei
sample admi ed o ha ing eso ed o he pe pe a ion o e bal iolence in hei da ing
ela ionships o deal wi h in e pe sonal con lic s wi h hei pa ne s [
12
]. These da a a e
simila o ha ound o e bal–emo ional DV pe pe a ion by adolescen s unde esiden ial
ca e. Howe e , he s udy by Muñoz-Ri as e al. [
12
] epo ed a pe pe a ion a e o physical
DV o 18%, a lowe esul han ha ound among he emale adolescen s unde esiden ial
ca e in his sample. The ac ha he pe cen ages a e lowe in he s udy by Muñoz-Ri as
e al. [
12
] compa ed o he esul s ound in his s udy could be explained by he di e en
ins umen s used o assess DV and by he cha ac e is ics o he samples.
O he s udies o bo h ic imiza ion and pe pe a ion o DV wi h an in e na ional sam-
ple o school adolescen s using he Re ised Con lic Tac ics Scale [
15
] indica ed pe cen ages
simila o hose ound in his s udy [
34
,
51
,
52
]. In con as , o he s udies showed pe cen ages
o up o 91% o psychological ic imiza ion, al hough hey we e clinical samples [41].
This s udy p esen s he explained s eng hs bu also limi a ions ha should be men-
ioned. The main limi a ions ha e o do wi h he c oss-sec ional na u e o he s udy and he
use o sel - epo ques ionnai es only. Fu u e s udies should use longi udinal designs and
complemen a y me hodology and ins umen s, such as mul i-in o man ques ionnai es,
ocus g oups o in e iews o be analyzed wi h quali a i e me hodologies.
5. Conclusions
I can be concluded ha he a es o p e alence and ic imiza ion o DV in adolescen s
in schools a e simila o hose ound in o he s udies and, mo eo e , because be ween he
wo samples in his s udy, i is he adolescen s in esiden ial ca e who showed highe a es
o p e alence and ic imiza ion han hose ound in adolescen s in schools.
On he o he hand, he sca ci y o s udies on DV wi h a sample o adolescen s in
esiden ial ca e makes i di icul o con as he esul s o he p esen s udy wi h p e ious
s udies. I can be concluded ha he as majo i y o s udies on his subjec ha e been
ca ied ou mainly wi h a school and/o uni e si y sample, making i di icul o compa e
wi h a pa icula g oup, such as adolescen s in esiden ial ca e. Likewise, he di e ences in
he me hodology used (ins umen s, ways o ca ego izing DV, e c.,) also make i di icul
on many occasions o compa e s udies wi h simila samples.
In he case o he sex o adolescen s in schools, as expec ed, gi ls showed highe
a es o ic imiza ion and boys showed highe a es o DV pe pe a ion; howe e , among
adolescen s in esiden ial ca e, sex di e ences we e no signi ican o DV pe pe a ion, bu
we e signi ican o ic imiza ion. The signi ican associa ion be ween sex and ic imiza ion
(in a o o women) in bo h samples may be due o he ac ha women iden i y mo e
wi h he ole o ic im in ou socie y, o , in u n, because hey ha e less di icul y epo ing
i , compa ed o men ([
53
]). Based on eminis heo ies ([
54
]) i could be a gued ha
gende s e eo ypes and oles may be ele an ac o s in he p e alence da a p o ided
in his hesis, as hey would e lec he pa ia chal model o male o ende and emale
ic im. Howe e , he in e p e a ion o he da a p o ided mus ake in o accoun mul iple
mac o-exo-mic osys emic as well as on ogene ic ac o s [
55
]. I is e iden ha sex is a
ele an ac o o ake in o accoun when explo ing DV. Au ho s such as Whi e [
54
] al eady
ad oca ed a sex-based app oach o unde s anding DV, bu acknowledged ha i is di icul
o assess he impac o sex on he o ganiza ion o social ela ionships.
Likewise, age seems o be a signi ican a iable: he highe he age, he g ea e he
pe pe a ion and ic imiza ion o DV. Howe e , u u e s udies should b oaden he age
ange o pa icipan s o include adolescen s o e 17 yea s o age, as p e ious s udies poin
o a downwa d end a e ha age.
The ac ha many s udies do no dis inguish be ween e bal and psychological io-
lence aises he suspicion o inaccu a e e minology and he consequen lack o consensus in
Sexes 2022,356
hei e alua ion and subsequen li e a u e e iew. Ne e heless, bo h ha e been iden i ied
on a la ge scale by adolescen adolescen s and should he e o e be aken in o accoun .
Likewise, unde s anding he eason why his ype o e bal–emo ional iolence may be
occu ing is essen ial. This could occu o wo easons. On he one hand, i could be due o
he pe missi eness o he adolescen s owa d he use o iolence o esol e hei con lic s,
o o he e y ac o no being able o ecognize ce ain insul s, blackmail o agg ession
be ween pa ne s as iolence [
12
]. On he o he hand, i may be due o he ac ha his
ype o e bal–emo ional iolence is a no malized p ac ice in young couple ela ionships,
as i is exe cised ecip ocally as a way o dealing wi h in e pe sonal con lic s wi h he
pa ne [10,12,56,57].
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, J.J., E.B.; me hodology, M.D.-S., E.B., J.J.; o mal analysis,
M.D.-S.; esea ch, M.D.-S.; me hodology, J.J., E.B., da a cu a ion, M.D.-S.; o iginal d a -w i ing,
M.D.-S., E.B., J.J.; d a ing- e ising and edi ing, M.D.-S., E.B., J.J., supe ision, J.J., E.B. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by a p edoc o al g an om he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y-
PIF16/257.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he guidelines
o he Decla a ion o Helsinki, and was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y/Euskal He iko Unibe si a ea) (code M10/2016/158).
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he
s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no con lic o in e es .
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