Ci a ion: Ozamiz-E xba ia, N.;
Picaza, M.; Jiménez-E xeba ia, E.;
Co nelius-Whi e, J.H.D. Back o
School in he Pandemic:
Obse a ions o he In luences o
P e en ion Measu es on
Rela ionships, Au onomy, and
Lea ning o P eschool Child en.
COVID 2022,2, 633–641. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/co id2050047
Academic Edi o s: Luca Qua uccio
and Ma in Thomas Falk
Recei ed: 21 Ap il 2022
Accep ed: 13 May 2022
Published: 16 May 2022
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A icle
Back o School in he Pandemic: Obse a ions o he In luences
o P e en ion Measu es on Rela ionships, Au onomy, and
Lea ning o P eschool Child en
Naia a Ozamiz-E xba ia 1,* , Mai ane Picaza 2, Ene i z Jiménez-E xeba ia 1and Je ey H. D. Co nelius-Whi e 3
1Depa men o De elopmen al and Educa ional Psychology, Uni e sidad del País Vasco/Euskal He iko
Unibe si a ea UPV/EHU, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
2
Depa men o Didac ics and School O ganiza ion, Uni e sidad del País Vasco/Euskal He iko Unibe si a ea
UPV/EHU, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Counseling, Leade ship and Special Educa ion, Missou i S a e Uni e si y,
Sp ing ield, MO 65802, USA; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Backg ound: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a global impac on socie ies, economies,
and educa ion. In Spain, one o he coun ies mos a ec ed by he COVID-19 in he ini ial yea , he
i us began o sp ead a he end o Feb ua y 2020. When he Spanish go e nmen decla ed a s a e o
eme gency, he i s es ic i e measu e was he closu e o all educa ional cen e s on he 14 h o Ma ch.
All schools and uni e si ies we e closed un il Sep embe 2020, when s uden s e u ned o classes
wi h p e en a i e heal h measu es in place o p e en he sp ead o he i us. Me hods: This s udy
ocuses on he obse a ion o child en in p e-school educa ion. Speci ically, i ocuses on s udying
how p e en a i e heal h measu es ha we e aken in he p e-schools may ha e in luenced child en’s
social ela ionships, basic au onomy, and lea ning. We used a mixed me hod in which ield no es we e
aken and obse a ional sco es we e assigned. Resul s: The ollowing p e en ion measu es appea
o ha e in luenced child en’s ela ionships, au onomy, and lea ning: bubble g oups, handwashing,
eache s wea ing masks, di ided playg ounds so di e en classes canno mix, and no oys om home
o sha ed pe sonal objec s. Conclusions: The esul s o he s udy sugges ha new heal h measu es
such as he use o masks and social dis ancing do appea o be a ec ing he communica ion and
de elopmen o p e-school child en. Con inued esea ch is needed o unde s and and minimize he
po en ial nega i e impac s o pandemic measu es on child en’s de elopmen .
Keywo ds: COVID-19; educa ion; p eschool lea ning and de elopmen ; public heal h; social dis ancing
1. In oduc ion
As COVID-19 began o sp ead a in Spain he end o Feb ua y 2020, he go e nmen
decla ed a s a e o eme gency on 14 Ma ch. Un il he end o Ap il, ci izens we e comple ely
o bidden o lea e hei homes excep o co e hei basic needs. Consequen ly, all eaching
ac i i ies we e swi ched online. S udies ca ied ou du ing hese mon hs o con inemen
ha e poin ed ou he impo ance o eopening class ooms as soon as he heal h si ua ion
allows [1].
Al hough he cu en c isis may b ing oppo uni ies o child en o spend mo e ime
wi h pa en s o s eng hen esilience [
2
] and o amilies o o m s onge bonds while
assis ing each o he [
3
], he men al heal h disad an ages o child en a e clea ly subs an i-
a ed [
4
]. Syn hesizing 29 s udies wi h a o al global sample o 80,879 you hs, Racine e al.
ound ha child en had an app oxima ely 25% inc ease in dep ession and a 20% inc ease
in anxie y, a es double hose seen p e-pandemic. The inc eases we e mo e p onounced in
gi ls han boys, bu ( ele an o he cu en s udy) hey we e smalle o younge child en.
COVID 2022,2, 633–641. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/co id2050047 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/co id
COVID 2022,2634
Ano he majo h ea o child en is he inc eased isk o pa en al men al illness,
domes ic iolence, and child abuse [
5
]. Fo child en 0 o 6 yea s old, mo o skill de elop-
men and social lea ning ia he p ac ice o daily ou ines, guidelines o coexis ence, and
modelling a e essen ial [
6
–
8
], bu hey a e di icul o achie e in a i ual o ma . Indeed,
se e al s udies ha e claimed ha no being able o a end school and being con ined ha e
had nega i es impac on child en’s emo ional and beha io al s a e [
9
,
10
]. I is common
a schools o implemen p og ams o de elop posi i e class oom clima es [
8
], bu du ing
con inemen , i has no been possible o gua an ee an adequa e en i onmen o lea ning in
all amily o i ual en i onmen s [5].
A e six mon hs o s uden and eache non-a endance a school, he Spanish go e n-
men decided ha class ooms should be eopened om Sep embe 2020. In iew o he
conce n o a sa e e u n o he class oom, he Spanish go e nmen and he Au onomous
Communi ies a he Educa ion Sec o Con e ence ag eed upon measu es o be adop ed
in schools on 27 Augus . Howe e , ac ually ca ying ou hese measu es wi h he limi ed
esou ces a ailable in schools became a majo challenge and conce n on 7 Sep embe , a
week be o e he s a o he school yea , when i became clea ha he esponsibili y o
heal h measu es was le in he hands o each school.
Pedia ic co ona i us in ec ion is ela i ely mild compa ed o adul in ec ion, and
child en ha e been epo ed o ha e be e p ognoses. Mo ali y in childhood is a e.
The clinical ea u es o COVID-19 obse ed a his age include e e , cough, and loss o
smell, bu a la ge p opo ion o in ec ed child en ha e been shown o be asymp oma ic,
inc easing he un aced ansmission o he i us [
11
]. Limi ed da a a e cu en ly a ailable
on SARS-CoV-2 ansmission om young child en, pa icula ly in childca e se ings. The
dec ee 36/2020 o 26 Oc obe (BOPV) is consis en in se e al espec s wi h he Cen e s o
Disease Con ol and P e en ion’s guidance o child ca e p og ams ha ecommends he
use o masks among s a membe s o educe he ansmission o SARS-CoV-2, especially
when i is belie ed ha young child en would no be able o make p ope use o hem.
O he measu es include con inuous hand hygiene, he equen cleaning and disin ec ion
o high-con ac su aces, and s aying home in case o any symp oms [12].
In he Basque Au onomous Communi y (CAPV) in he academic yea 2019–2020,
84,322 s uden s we e en olled in he p e-school s age and a gene al ac ion p o ocol was
c ea ed o educa ional cen e s. Bo h indi idual p e en ion measu es and p e en i e
measu es o cleaning and disin ec ing acili ies we e se ou in a policy documen by
Depa men o Educa ion o he Basque Go e nmen . The amewo k add ess social
dis ancing and he o ma ion o s able lea ning g oups called bubble g oups, hand hygiene
and he use o masks, and he en ila ion, cleaning, and managemen o each cen e . Table 1
shows he speci ic p e en a i e measu es.
These in ec ion-p e en ion measu es may a ec he in eg al de elopmen o child en.
Social cons uc i ism o e s an explana o y amewo k o unde s and he e olu ion o
child en’s capaci ies in hei i s yea s o li e [
13
,
14
]. The i s yea s o li e a e impo an
o cogni i e and basic au onomy de elopmen [
15
]. Addi ionally, i is comple ely neces-
sa y o inc ease he emo ional in elligence o child en. The aim is o o e child en a ich
con ex o expe imen ing wi h he wo ld in o de o know, alue, sha e and hus de elop
in eg ally
[16,17]
. A he age o 0–6 yea s, o al language ( he basic ins umen o commu-
nica ion) is being de eloped and is a p ima y means o socializa ion. The socio-cul u al
pa adigm o lea ning canno be unde s ood ou side he con ex o lea ning and in e ac ion
in he class oom and child en’s en i onmen s, as he ac i e pa icipa ion o s uden s and
eache s is key in p omo ing and accompanying he acquisi ion o lea ning [
18
]. Fo his
eason, spaces o sha ed knowledge mus be c ea ed o acili a e socializa ion h ough
nego ia ion and dialogue [
19
]. Likewise, lea ning en ails p o iding acili a ing ela ionship
si ua ions. An impo an objec i e o he compe ences wo ked on in p eschool educa ion
is he explo a ion o he social en i onmen and g adual pa icipa ion in social and cul-
u al ac i i ies. By wo king on hese compe encies, he child’s de elopmen is gua an eed.
[a,d]. Fo his eason, ce ain emo ional compe ence can be lea ned, and he e is a need o
COVID 2022,2635
in eg a e hem ea ly ( he collabo a i e o academic, social and emo ional lea ning). Focus
on his pee in e ac ion is impo an in o de o child en o de elop emo ionally, awaken
eelings o empa hy, and es ablish sa is ac o y ela ionships [20].
The aim o his s udy was o obse e how he heal h measu es aken o p e en he
sp ead o he co ona i us a e a ec ing child en’s beha io wi hin his de elopmen al
con ex . Speci ically, we wan ed o s udy he in luence pandemic p e en ion measu es
ha e had on social ela ionships, basic au onomy, and lea ning.
Cu en ly, he e a e ongoing scien i ic s udies on he bene i s o applying emo ional
educa ion p og ams such as CASEL ha ha e demons a ed posi i e e ec s on child en.
Howe e , he new p e en a i e heal h measu es do no ma ch hese dimensions. The e o e,
i is expec ed ha he new p e en ion measu es will ha e a nega i e in luence on he
au onomy and lea ning ela ionships o s uden s. Speci ically, he ollowing measu es a e
expec ed o nega i ely in luence child en’s au onomy, ela ionships, and lea ning: bubble
g oups, handwashing, eache s wea ing masks, di ided playg ounds so di e en classes
canno mix, and no oys om home o sha ed pe sonal objec s.
Table 1. Speci ic p e en ion measu es.
S uden s o e 6 yea s o age mus wea a mask du ing he whole day.
S uden s unde 6 yea s o age mus wea a mask when hei bubble g oup canno be kep 1.5 m apa om o he g oups, such as on
a school bus.
Ma esses should be placed 1.5 m apa a nap ime.
Sha ed mo emen s o s uden s mus ollow a p esc ibed p o ocol.
Families a e no allowed o en e he school, and communica ion mus be acili a ed by email o elephone.
Only one adul can go o pick up each s uden , and hey mus lea e he school immedia ely o a oid c owds.
A home, pa en s mus ake hei child en’s empe a u e be o e going o school, and he child en mus s ay home i hei
empe a u e is 37 ◦C o highe .
I a s uden shows any symp oms o COVID-19 (cough, so e h oa , e e , e c.) a school, hey mus be aken o a designa ed
COVID-19 class while he amily is con ac ed.
Special ca e mus be aken in cleaning and disin ec ion; es ooms should be cleaned h ee imes a day.
Na u al and mechanical en ila ion should be inc eased wi h he goal o a minimum o 10 min o oom en ila ion a e each hou
o class use.
Hand sani ize and soap mus be a ailable o s uden s o e 3 yea s o age.
Each school may eo ganize space o inc ease he numbe o class ooms and al e ooms o common use.
Plexiglass sc eens o panels may be inco po a ed in o spaces such as dining ooms o lib a ies.
S uden s a e p ohibi ed om b inging oys om home and sha ing objec s o he pa io wi h o he le el s uden s.
Finally, i is ecommended o educe he con ac s be ween he di e en amilies, which means supp essing celeb a ions such as
bi hdays and limi ing ela ions in common spaces such as school ou ings, bus s ops, and snack imes.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Measu es and Ins umen s
Field no es we e aken in ela ion o he s anda ds se in he cen e , he space, he
people in ol ed, hei beha io , and desc ip i e da a ha shed ligh on he in luence
obse ed om ca ying ou he p o ocols.
An ad-hoc ques ionnai e was c ea ed o he p esen esea ch. This ques ionnai e asked
abou i e COVID-19-p e en ion measu es in o de o obse e s o o ganize hei pe cep-
ions o he in luence o he p e en ion p o ocols on pupils’ beha io s. The 5 no ms we e
as ollows: bubble g oups, hand washing, eache s wea ing masks, di ided playg ounds
so di e en classes canno be mixed, and no oys om home o sha ed pe sonal objec s.
A mixed s udy was ca ied ou wi h ield no es and obse a ion sco es. On he one
hand, obse a ional no es we e aken o each o he measu es. On he o he hand, a 4-poin
COVID 2022,2636
Like scale was c ea ed, wi h 1 = has no in luence; 2 = has some in luence; 3 = has in luence;
o 4 = has a lo o in luence. An example ques ion is: To wha ex en do you hink he
di ision o physical spaces in he cen e , such as he playg ound, in luences he ela ionship
be ween people? The pu pose o he ques ionnai e was o assess he obse ed in luence o
each measu e on in e pe sonal ela ions ( e bal and non- e bal communica ion, as well as
ela ional mo o ac i i ies such as playing), au onomy (explo ing he en i onmen , use o
space, use o objec s o ins umen s, us o sa e y in beha io , and espec o ules), and
lea ning (unde s anding ules, an icipa ing consequences, and pe o ming ac i i ies), all o
which a e skills o be de eloped in ea ly childhood educa ion [21,22].
2.2. Pa icipan s
Ten p e-school in e ns in he inal yea o hei bachelo ’s p og am in childhood
educa ion we e u o ed in a non-pa icipa o y induc i e obse a ion [
23
] be o e going
o he cen e s. This aining helped o educe po en ial bias and inc ease po en ial eli-
abili y be ween he obse e s. These pa icipan s/co- esea che s/obse e s comp ised
3 males and 7 emales wi h a mean age o 20, all o Spanish e hnici y. The obse a ions
we e ca ied ou in 10 cen e s in he Basque Au onomous Communi y, speci ically in he
p o ince o Bizkaia. The numbe o child en ha we e obse ed ega ding each p e en ion
measu e is di icul o e alua e gi en ha hey we e obse ed in a eal se ing, a imes
being in bubble g oups, class ooms, o la ge common a eas such as playg ounds, bu i
was o e 200 because each obse e was si ua ed in a class o a leas 20 child en. The
child en a e assumed o be ep esen a i e o hei coho gi en he di e si y o cen e s
and he numbe o child en obse ed. Howe e , only he 10 obse e s we e echnically
conside ed pa icipan s.
2.3. P ocedu e
I was conside ed o in e es o he esea che s o ha e an unde s anding o he educa-
ional con ex so ha hey would de elop he abili y o obse e he objec o s udy wi hou
in e ening [
23
]. The obse a ions we e ca ied ou bo h in he common a eas o schools
and class ooms du ing Oc obe 2020. O e he cou se o a week, obse e s ocused on hei
cen e ’s ealiza ion o p e en ion p o ocols and used ield no es—an app op ia e uns uc-
u ed me hod, use ul when he objec o s udy is no su icien ly known [
22
]— o eco d
whe he he pe o mance o he p e en ion p o ocols in luence social in e ac ion, au onomy
and lea ning. The obse e s hen u ilized hei quali a i e ield no es o help hem selec
which o he o dinal ca ego ies o in luence was mos accu a e. In his way, he ield no es
we e essen ially coded om quali a i e in o ma ion in o quan i a i e in o ma ion. The
quan i a i e in o ma ion was he e o e mo e meaning ul han i he obse e s we e jus
asked o p o ide hei opinions on he ques ionnai e wi hou he bene i o longe - e m,
documen ed obse a ion. The s udy was e iewed and app o ed by he e hics boa d o he
i s au ho ’s uni e si y, and ep esen a i es om all cen e s p o ided w i en in o med
consen . The obse e s we e con inuously supe ised by eache s wi h ex ensi e expe ience
wi h p eschool s uden s.
2.4. Da a Analysis
The p e en ion measu es we e o ganized in o i e ypes o p o ocols: (1) in e ac ion
wi h he same g oup o s uden s, (2) equen hand washing, (3) use o masks by eache s,
(4) di ision o physical space, and (5) no using sha ed ma e ials. Based on he i e selec ed
no ms, a ques ionnai e was designed o his pilo s udy, and a Like scale was used o
e alua e he in luence epo ed in each o he measu es h ough he ques ionnai e. This
Like scale measu ed he in luence o hese measu es on child en’s au onomy, ela ionships,
and lea ning. The esul s om all 10 e alua o s we e hen a e aged.
COVID 2022,2637
3. Resul s
Table 2shows he obse ed beha io s and he eco ded alues om 1 o 4 o he
obse ed in luence o he measu es on in e pe sonal ela ions, au onomy and lea ning, as
well as commen s ha cha ac e ize he na u e o ha in luence om obse e s’ pe spec i es.
F om he obse e s’ pe spec i es, he lack o in e ac ion be ween classes appea ed o ha e
he la ges impac on child en’s ela ionships. O he i e obse e s epo ing in o ma ion
on he playg ound in e ac ions speci ically, he e was unanimous ag eemen ha he
lack o in e ac ion be ween classes “has a lo o in luence” on he child en’s ela ionship
de elopmen . In con as , he ou ine o handwashing showed less impac on ela ionships
and was seen as a posi i e con ibu o o child en’s au onomy and lea ning. Teache
masking was iewed as ha ing in luence on child en’s ela ionships and lea ning bu o
a smalle ex en han in e ac ions be ween a la ge , mo e di e se g oup o child en. No
sha ing o pe sonal objec s and/o oys om home was iewed as ha ing mo e in luence
on child en’s ela ionships han on hei au onomy o lea ning.
Table 2.
Mean Sco es and Commen s o Obse e s’ Pe cep ions o he In luence o P e en ion
Measu es on P eschool S uden ’s Rela ionships, Au onomy, and Lea ning.
P e en ion
Measu es nRela ions (M) Au onomy (M) Lea ning (M) Commen s (M)
Bubble G oups 10 3.6 1.9 2.9
Nega i e aspec s could include:
-They only lea n o wo k wi h one
g oup, wi h no oppo uni y o
ela ionship wi h ex e nal g oups.
-In e ac ions wi h people om o he
g oups a e s opped by he in e en ion
o adul s.
Hand washing 9 1.4 2.9 2.8
Posi i e aspec s could include:
-They lea n o wash hei hands
independen ly.-They lea n he
impo ance o hygiene ou ines.
eache s wea ing
masks 8 2.9 1.75 3
Nega i e aspec s could include:
-Di icul ies in communica ion due o
an insu icien olume o one o oice.
-Loss o in o ma ion om lip ges u es.
The playg ound is
di ided so di e en
classes canno be
mixed
5 4 2.8 2.6
Nega i e aspec s could include:
-The playg ound is di ided wi h ma ks
on he loo and ibbons and o e s less
space o play.
-Limi s he possibili y o de eloping
new ela ionships.
They canno b ing
any oys om home
o sha e pe sonal
objec s.
5 3.2 1.6 2.2
Nega i e aspec s could include:
-They wan o show he oys o hei
iends bu a e discou aged by adul s.
-Wi hin he g oup, e e yone has hei
own ma e ial, which may make i
di icul o lea n o sha e.
n: Numbe o obse e s; M: Like scale mean.
4. Discussion
4.1. Key Findings in Con ex o P io Resea ch
I is clea ha COVID-19 has changed child en’s li es and all o ms o wo king,
lea ning, beha ing and communica ing in schools. The applica ion o hygiene and dis ance
be ween people helps o p e en he sp ead o he co ona i us, and i is impo an o apply
hese measu es in p e-schools, which has been s a is ically shown in schools ha ha e
demons a ed con olled con agion, as assu ed by in e na ional epo s.
Howe e , in addi ion o hei ad an ages, hese measu es can also ha e disad an ages.
In his esea ch, we obse ed some posi i e aspec s, such as he de elopmen o au onomy
in he ace o he inse ion o hand hygiene ou ines, bu we mos ly obse ed nega i e
aspec s ega ding ela ionship and communica ion di icul ies. S udies ha e shown ha
COVID 2022,2638
posi i e emo ions a o closeness be ween people, and s uden s ca ego ized as happy ha e
been ound o ha e a highe p opo ion o ela ionships and ha monious cha ac e [
24
].
Oppo uni ies o social in e ac ion ea ly ages a e i al o socializa ion, lea ning and li elong
success [
25
]. He an e al. [
14
] showed ha communica ing and in e ac ing wi h o he
child en helps social and in ellec ual de elopmen . In his s udy, i was obse ed ha
pupils no being able mix wi h people om o he classes had limi ed oppo uni ies o
ela ionships and communica ion (especially wi h a di e si y o di e en people), skills
which a e ein o ced h oughou coope a i e g oup wo k and social in e ac ions among
s uden s [
26
,
27
]. The e o e, al hough he measu e o es ablishing “socializing bubbles”
has been conside ed necessa y o minimize he isk o con agion on a physical heal h
le el, especially o con ac acing in he e en o con agion, on a psychological le el, he
consequences o ela ional lea ning ha can de i e om hese p e en i e measu es should
be se iously conside ed.
P e ious s udies ha e shown ha he di ision o physical spaces seems o in luence
social in e ac ion since i p e en s ela ionships wi h pee s om o he classes, which a e
impo an o adequa e emo ional de elopmen [
12
,
20
]. In he p esen s udy, his di ision
was obse ed o in luence psychomo o de elopmen because less play space limi ed
he necessa y abili y o child en o mo e eely. Child en exp ess hei emo ions and
expe ience lea ning and g ow h h ough mo emen , so i is a undamen al ac o in he
aining p ocess [
28
]. Fo his eason, al hough his measu e is used o he con olled
isola ion o people and he aceabili y o con ac s in cases o COVID-19 in ec ion, he
es ic ion o mo emen in he playg ound and he limi ing o in e ac ions ia sepa a ions o
physical space can limi lea ning and dese e o be econside ed. Rega ding hand hygiene,
esea che s ha e epo ed he impo ance o p omo ing and eaching egula handwashing
and posi i e hygiene beha io [
29
]. Hand hygiene is a widely accep ed p inciple in he
p e en ion o disease ansmission, especially du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, since p ope
hand hygiene has a 24–31 pe cen p obabili y o dec easing he sp ead o communicable
diseases. This measu e has been posi i e no only on a heal h le el bu also o he
de elopmen o au onomy and he acquisi ion o sel -ca e, since child en lea n o main ain
hygiene wi hou ou side help and in e nalize such necessa y ac ions in hei daily ac i i ies,
as was obse ed in his esea ch. Addi ionally, he child en we e su p ised by he ease
wi h which hey lea ned he ules o s opping he sp ead o COVID-19. The use o masks
in ea ly educa ion is a measu e ha has only been imposed on eache s, as child en a e
conside ed oo young o wea masks [
12
], and mask use is essen ial among eache s o
educe he sp ead o he i us. Howe e , acco ding o his s udy, i may ha e nega i e
e ec s on communica ion be ween eache s and s uden s. Mask limi communica ion since
non- e bal communica ion is as impo an as he wo ds we use. Du ing he pandemic,
he use o ace masks has limi ed he obse a ion o acial exp essions such as happiness,
sadness, ange , and ea on he lips. This lack o communica ion may be a ec ing bo h
ela ionships and lea ning, as co ec communica ion is he linchpin o lea ning.
O he measu es aken by some o he s udied schools included a ban on b inging oys
o o he household i ems ha could be sha ed. This measu e may s op he sp ead o he
i us as objec s b ough in om ou side may be in ec ed. Howe e , i can also lead o a
ailu e o each he impo ance o sha ing objec s among pee s, an ex emely impo an ac
in he acquisi ion o social skills. S udies ha e shown ha in child en, he i s p osocial
beha io apa om he ac o helping is he ac o sha ing a oy. The e o e, i is necessa y
o obse e he po en ial consequence o his measu e on he e olu ion o child en, as well
as o ind ways o a o he mani es a ion o his skill.
Finally, we obse ed o he measu es ha may inc ease eache s’ wo kloads, such
as measu ing s uden empe a u es be o e en e ing he school. This measu e could be
unde aken by he amily i sel , as we a e all esponsible o s opping he sp ead o he
i us in his pandemic. Families mus also a oid c owds a ound schools e en hough hei
ela ionships wi h each o he and eache s a e also a ec ed. The e a e o he measu es ha
can inc ease eache wo kloads and con use s uden s. Lea ing he doo s open o ai ou
COVID 2022,2639
spaces is essen ial o en ila e class ooms o educe he isk o con agion by COVID-19 [
30
];
howe e , child en may no unde s and his measu e and y o c oss he bounda ies. In any
case, i should be s essed ha child en a e showing ha hey a e capable o inco po a ing
he beha io s se ou in COVID-19 p e en ion p o ocols in o hei ou ines, se ing an
example o he es o socie y.
4.2. Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
The s udy was a ield s udy and a pilo a emp o sys ema ically obse e he po en ial
con ibu o s o p e en a i e measu es o ganized in o i e ypes o p o ocols on p eschool
child en’s ela ionships, au onomy, and lea ning. The gene alizabili y o esul s is limi ed.
The ou -poin scale was no alida ed, bu i se ed o p o ide some indica ion o indepen-
den obse e s’ pe cep ions o he con ibu ion o hese majo p e en ion hemes. Fu u e
esea ch could use longe h ee- o i e-poin scales, alida ed measu es, and da a analysis
p ocedu es o seek a mo e e ined unde s anding o he impac o p e en ion measu es on
child en’s beha io and de elopmen .
One clea limi a ion o his s udy was he low amoun o da a ga he ed and po en ial
bias om he small sample size o 10 obse e s. Howe e , he obse e s obse ed o e 200
child en, we e ained in non-pa icipa o y induc i e obse a ion [
22
], and used hei ield
no es o guide hei a ings so ha hey we e g ounded in ac ual obse a ion ins ead o hei
opinions. The a ings we e no adjus ed o any po en ial con ounds, such as compa isons
o baseline a ings aken be o e he pandemic wi h a ings du ing he pandemic. Fu u e
esea ch could employ mo e obse e s and di ec ly ga he da a om child en o eache s
as addi ional sou ces. While challenging, i an upcoming p e en ion measu e is known
in ad ance, baseline da a could be ga he ed p io o i s ini ia ion so ha wi hin-g oup
di e ences could be in e en ially explo ed. An addi ional limi a ion o he s udy was
ha hese ield no es we e no u he analyzed o hemes; hey we e only used so ha
he o dinal ques ionnai e ca ego iza ions we e mo e accu a e. Fu he esea ch could use
a mo e sophis ica ed mixed me hod app oach, such as using g ounded heo y o build
heo ies in esponse o a quali a i e ques ion o using a ue mixed me hod ques ionnai e
ha links he quali a i e and quan i a i e app oaches
5. Conclusions
Analyses published o da e on SARS-CoV-2 ansmission and he cou se o COVID-19
show ha child en play a much less impo an ole in he sp ead o he co ona i us han
adul s. Acco ding o a ailable esul s, child en and adolescen s all ill wi h COVID-19 no
only less equen ly bu also less se e ely han adul s
I is clea ly impo an o eopen p eschools wi hou excessi e es ic ions, bu i is
impo an o main ain es ic ions such as in e ac ing in e y small g oups and main aining
adequa e dis ances om o he s, eache mask use, and he cons ancy o g oup membe ship
o a oid mixing. Howe e , e en hese measu es can limi ela ing o o he s, c ea ing
au onomy, and lea ning. I is he e o e impo an ha hese limi ing ac o s in luence he
de elopmen o child en as li le as possible while conse ing hei posi i e in luence.
To accomplish his, i is necessa y o conside he in luence ha he pandemic and i s
es ic ions a e ha ing on his s age o childhood. I is necessa y o inc ease he numbe
o eache s in ea ly childhood educa ion so ha child en can ha e mo e a en ion and o
limi es ic i e measu es o p e en as much po en ial nega i e in luence on child en’s
au onomy, ela ionships and lea ning. I is also impo an o con inue o in es iga e he
in luence o he pandemic and o a emp o mi iga e his in luence on he de elopmen o
hese child en in o de o minimize damage as much as possible.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, M.P. and N.O.-E.; me hodology, E.J.-E.; o mal analysis,
J.H.D.C.-W.; o iginal d a p epa a ion, N.O.-E.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, all au ho s. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
COVID 2022,2640
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in
he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable on eques
om he co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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