Ci a ion: Izaola, B.; Akizu-Ga doki,
O.; O egi, X. Li e Cycle Analysis
Challenges h ough Building Ra ing
Schemes wi hin he Eu opean
F amewo k. Sus ainabili y 2022,14,
5009. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
su14095009
Academic Edi o s: S e e Ka dinal
Jusu and Soh Chew Beng
Recei ed: 24 Ma ch 2022
Accep ed: 18 Ap il 2022
Published: 21 Ap il 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
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sus ainabili y
A icle
Li e Cycle Analysis Challenges h ough Building Ra ing
Schemes wi hin he Eu opean F amewo k
Bo ja Izaola 1,2 , O zi Akizu-Ga doki 1,3,* and Xaba O egi 4
1Depa men o G aphic Design and Enginee ing P ojec s, Facul y o Enginee ing,
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Plaza Ingenie o To es Que edo, 48013 Bilbao, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
2G een Building Council España (GBCe), 28014 Mad id, Spain
3
Li e Cycle Thinking G oup, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Plaza Ingenie o To es Que edo 1,
48013 Bilbao, Spain
4CAVIAR Resea ch G oup, Depa men o A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU,
Plaza Oña i, 2, 20018 Donos ia-San Sebas ián, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The deca bonisa ion o buildings is a c ucial miles one i Eu opean ci ies mean o each
hei mi iga ion a ge s. The cons uc ion sec o was esponsible o 38% o he GHG emissions in
2020. F om hese emissions, 11% is calcula ed o be cu en ly embodied in building ma e ials. In his
con ex , an e alua ion om a li e cycle pe spec i e is becoming inc easingly necessa y o achie e
he objec i es se . Cu en ly, he e a e di e en building a ing sys ems (BRS) a Eu opean le el ha
allow he e alua ion o he deg ee o sus ainabili y o buildings. Du ing his s udy, he au ho s ha e
e alua ed o wha ex en and how he mos ex ended i e BRS (NF Habi a HQE, VERDE, DGNB,
BREEAM, and HPI sys ems) in he Eu opean amewo k ha e in eg a ed he li e cycle me hodology
du ing hei e alua ion p ocess. Fou me hodologies ha e been used in he esea ch in o de o
analyse hese i e sys ems: quan i a i e assessmen , mul i-le el pe spec i e, mapping–gap analysis,
and expe in e iews. Al hough each me hodology has p oduced di e en esul s, he need o
ha monise he e alua ion c i e ia a he Eu opean le el, he insu icien consis ency o da a so wa e,
and he a ailabili y o skilled LCA p o essionals o wide LCA ma ke pene a ion, among o he s,
should be highligh ed. The quali y and ha monised da a o cons uc ion p oduc s is equi ed o
LCA o gi e agg ega ed and ans o ma i e esul s.
Keywo ds:
li e cycle assessmen ; g een building a ing sys ems; mul i-le el pe spec i e; deca bonisa-
ion; sus ainabili y; sus ainable ansi ion
1. In oduc ion
1.1. The Global Impac o Buildings
The deca bonisa ion o buildings is a c ucial miles one i Eu opean ci ies mean o each
hei mi iga ion a ge s and become sus ainable. Howe e , o he en i onmen al impac
ca ego ies a e also key in he educ ion o he ha m ul e ec s o he Eu opean cons uc ion
indus y: g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, abio ic deple ion, acidi ica ion, eu ophica ion,
ene gy oo p in , wa e consump ion, solid was e p oduc ion, o he a ious social impac s.
The new ci cula economy (CE) plans boos he educ ion o hese impac s, especially in
e ms o was e managemen [
1
]. This and o he s a egies b ing li e cycle assessmen (LCA)
o he o e on o he Eu opean buildings’ amewo k.
The cons uc ion sec o is esponsible o 39% o he GHG emissions [
2
], upda ed
o 38% in 2020 [
3
]. F om hese emissions, 11% is calcula ed o be cu en ly embodied in
building ma e ials and eleased be o e he in as uc u es a e used. Conc e e, i on, and s eel
alone a e esponsible o ~9% o his 11%. Addi ionally, acco ding o he Global Alliance o
Buildings and Cons uc ion [
4
], in he 2010–2018 pe iod, he newly buil a ea inc eased by
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su14095009 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 2 o 24
24%, while GHG emissions and PE g ew a a lowe a e (by 6%). I has been es ima ed ha
embodied GHG emissions could each up o 50% o he o al emissions o he cons uc ion
sec o by 2050 [
2
]. Being awa e o he need o deca bonisa ion h oughou all he li e s ages
o a building, 2010 in Eu ope was ma ked by he i s e sion o he Ene gy Pe o mance
o Buildings Di ec i e (EPBD) [
5
], which made i manda o y o all new buildings o be
Nea ly Ze o Ene gy (NZEB) by 31 Decembe 2020 [
6
]. Fo deca bonisa ion and ene gy
e iciency pu poses, a ing sys ems, pe o mance s anda ds, and a ple ho a o da abases,
codes, egula ions, and building solu ions need o become pa o he designing, e ec ing,
and managing o buildings [7].
The cons uc ion sec o also accoun s o 36% o global p ima y ene gy (PE) use,
meaning ha in e na ional e o s need o be made in his sec o in o de o mee he
global clima e ambi ions se o h in he Pa is Ag eemen [
8
]. They ha e also es ima ed
ha by 2030 he ene gy in ensi y pe squa e me e mus be educed by 30% in ela ion
o he 2015 alues. While ene gy e iciency policies a e success ul du ing he use-s age
o buildings, he sec o has ecen ly s a ed o ake in o accoun he embodied ca bon
emissions and ene gy consump ion o building ma e ials and building p ocesses, which
ha e seen apid g ow h since 2015 [
9
]. In eg a ion o he analysis o embodied ene gy
impac s is s ill ba ely in eg a ed wi hin LCA in poin s 9, 10, and 11 o he EN15978 [
10
].
When his applies o building p oduc s, he EN15804 o en i onmen al p oduc decla a ion
(EPD) is pa icula ly no ewo hy.
Conce ning cons uc ion and demoli ion was e (CDW) gene a ion, he Eu opean
Union (EU) cons uc ion sec o p oduced 923 million ons o was e in 2016 [
1
]. This
ep esen s he la ges was e s eam in he EU—30% o all was e gene a ed, o which
sca cely hal was ecycled (wi h a 70% a ge ) [
1
]. Al hough he EU’s ci cula economy
s a egy is imp o ing he si ua ion, he LCA o CDW is being applied, and he o e all
landscape o cons uc ion s akeholde s lacks in e nal common d i e s [11].
1.2. The His o ical Pe spec i e
B ie ly e isi ing he e olu ion o buildings, p imal builde s had an in ui i e and
e i o ial app oach o he e icien use o ma e ials, he com o o occupan s, and indoo
hyd o he mal balance. Thus, e nacula a chi ec u e s udies show a g owing esea ch
in e es in he sus ainable ea u es o adi ional buildings ac oss he globe [
12
]. Recalling
ancien knowledge, a chi ec s and an h opologis s a e engaged in a comp ehensi e mu-
ual unde s anding o u ban en i onmen s [
13
], aiming a an in eg a ed examina ion o
building sus ainabili y [
14
]. Bo h his o ical and cu en challenges, oge he wi h echnical
and policy solu ions, a e unde s ood om a wide and well- ounded cul u al analysis [
15
].
This applies o e e y hing, om an unde s anding o he complemen a y oles o builde s,
a chi ec s, and enginee s in key cons uc ion achie emen s [
16
] o he assessmen o sus ain-
abili y indica o s in e nacula a chi ec u e [
17
] and he eme ging u u es whe e a i icial
in elligence migh eplace human labou [18].
Indus ialisa ion and demog aphic changes ha e u ned he adi ionally na u e-
in eg a ed scena io in o a as and complex business, which a i s peak o p oduc ion in
Eu ope (2005–2008) was p oducing mo e han 1.5 million homes pe yea [
19
]. The con-
s uc ion sec o amoun s cu en ly o a 66% sha e o he o al in e nal ma ke ade in goods
and se ices be ween EU membe s a es [
20
]. Howe e , he wo ld’s main concen a ion o
building impac s lies in cu en globalised ma ke ends [
21
], whe e LCA gains ele ance
and is becoming una oidable. The end o deep eno a ion d aws a s epwise app oach
om he li e cycle pe spec i e and acili a es he ha monisa ion o a “passpo ” ha ells
he whole his o y o he building [22].
1.3. The Eu opean S anda disa ion and Le el(s) F amewo k
While local olun a y ini ia i es and bes p ac ices ha e his o ically led sus ainabili y
e o s wi hin he sec o , Eu opean policies a e now aking o e . A he hea o he ci cula
economy and Reno a ion Wa e s a egies, he Eu opean Join Resea ch Cen e (JRC) has
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 3 o 24
c ea ed he Le el(s) amewo k [
23
] gea ed owa ds ans o ming he sec o [
24
]. Le el(s) is
a olun a y epo ing amewo k o imp o e he sus ainabili y o buildings. Using exis ing
s anda ds, i p o ides a common EU language and app oach o assess pe o mance in he
buil en i onmen . The i s e sion was published in 2017 and was es ed in 83 buildings
ac oss Eu ope in 2019. The second e sion appea ed a he s a o he Reno a ion Wa e
plan in Oc obe 2020 [
25
]. I ocuses on six “ho spo s” h ough he whole building li e
cycle: GHG emissions, esou ce e iciency, wa e use, heal h and com o , esilience and
adap a ion o clima e change, and cos and alue. I s 16 indica o s can be used a he design,
cons uc ion, and ope a ional le els, gi ing he amewo k i s name and b inging usabili y
o a ious s akeholde s. Rele an ly he e, Le el(s) is he only amewo k co e ing all LCA
s ages [
26
], as well as he IEQ ela ed ac o s ( he mal, isual and acous ic com o , plus
indoo ai quali y).
One o he many ac i i ies o he pene a ion o Le el(s) in o he EU building ma -
ke [
27
] is o ake ad an age o he i es and mos inno a i e building a ing sys ems
(BRS) in he EU. In his s udy, i e BRS ha e been chosen o un agains Le el(s). Bo h
BRS and Le el(s) had o sha e a olun a y basis, a se o ools and da ase s whe e li e cycle
hinking (LCT) is cen al. As an eligibili y c i e ia, hey a e second gene a ion BRS and ully
in eg a ed in hei na ional sec o . They ep esen a a ie y o Eu opean building cul u es.
They ha e been ac i e in he de elopmen o Le el(s). O he esea che s ha e s udied BRS
bu excluding Le el(s) and wi h di e en pu poses and eligibili y c i e ia [
28
,
29
]. Resea ch
abou Le el(s) wi hin BRS has jus begun and only on speci ic issues [30].
1.4. Building Ra ing Sys ems (BRS)
The issue abou how many BRS exis wo ldwide is s ill open, in spi e o he much
quo ed [
31
] and he egula ly upda ed [
32
,
33
] epo s om BRE [
34
]. A ha ime, mo e han
600 ools ha in some way measu ed o e alua ed he en i onmen al, economic, o social
dimensions o he sus ainabili y o buildings we e e iewed. Some co e ed one, wo, o all
h ee dimensions. The ypes di e ed—147 we e selec ed as en i onmen al ools. O hese,
41 we e checked and only 25 ully e alua ed—se en o u ban planning, h ee o design,
se en o buildings, se en o LCA, and one o in as uc u es. Cu en ly, he Wo ld G een
Building Council has e ol ed o become he main co po a e body, upda ing wha a e called
“G een Building Ra ing Tools” (GBRT). In 2016, hei 55 GBRTs wo ldwide had ce i ied
1.04 Bn m
2
o sus ainably buil loo a eas [
35
]. Scien i ic esea ch has paid a en ion o
whe he “G een” BRS can be compa ed, how hey ha e e ol ed, and how many aspec s o
sus ainabili y hey include [
36
]. P ima ily Asian esea che s ha e shown an in e es in he
egional di e ences o he p e ailing “G een” BRS and hei u u e esea ch di ec ions [
37
].
Addi ionally, in Eu ope, he impo ance o “G een” BRS o a ain sus ainable buildings is
coming in o ocus [
38
] unde simila p emises ( he mos common BRS compa ed in sco ing
e ms) wi h he added alue o Le el(s).
In ou esea ch, he upda ed e sion o Le el(s) is analysed and i e BRS a e mapped
agains i wi h a ocus on LCA and deca bonisa ion po en ial in Eu ope. The idea o
ha monising exis ing BRS has been scanned be o e, howe e , no by aking Le el(s) in o
accoun [
39
] The BRS align wi h a common amewo k con ibu e wi h he c ea ion o an
assessmen me hod/p ocess able o compa e and benchma k buildings in e na ionally. Fo
he easons discussed, some mains eam BRS ha e no been included: LEED because i is
oo ed in he building cul u e o he USA and because LCA weighs only 3% o he o al
c edi s (3 ou o a maximum o 110) [
40
], as well as G eenS a and CASBEE, since hey a e
used in he sou heas Paci ic and a e ela i ely mino [
41
]. Ano he s udy [
42
] selec ed
he 36 mos ep esen a i e BRS and compa ed hem using ou i ems: phase o li e cycle
applied, sus ainabili y aspec s assessed, ca ego ies conside ed, and he ype and s a us
o he building assessed. The esul s showed ha many BRS do no assess all aspec s o
sus ainable building. Many assess ene gy and he quali y o he in e io en i onmen , bu
ew assess ele an social and economic aspec s. Ou i e chosen BRS do quali y in all hese
aspec s. The discussion below will show o wha ex en hei esul s a e agg egable.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 4 o 24
The name building “ a ing” sys em has been a ou ed o e o he equen e ms,
such as “assessmen ” o “e alua ion”, because he chosen BRS make use o he mo e
academic “assessmen ” o a he comme cial “ a ing” pu poses. A p e ixed adjec i e
such as “g een”, “en i onmen al”, o “sus ainable” has been a oided, as he selec ed
BRS include p ocess, clima e, heal h, and cul u al aspec s on op o he en i onmen al,
economic, and social aspec s common o sus ainabili y. Al hough G een Building Ra ing
Sys em (GBRS) is equen ly used in esea ch and ma ke ac i i y, and has become a
Taxonomy concep aimed a cla i ying he ole o BRS in ela ion o sus ainabili y and
clima e change mi iga ion (Regula ion (EU) 2020/852 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o
he Council o 18 June 2020 on he es ablishmen o a amewo k o acili a e sus ainable
in es men , and amending Regula ion (EU) 2019/2088 [
43
], he e m is s ill ambiguous
and p one o “g eenwashing”. Simply, BRS s esses he ongoing e olu ion o he ela ed
keywo ds. An ex ensi e bibliome ic analysis o 4203 eco ds o “Sus ainable Building
Assessmen Me hods” om 1975 o 2017, assesses he impo ance o keywo ds in he
e olu ion o he opic [44].
1.5. The Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA)
Adding LCA o he sus ainabili y indica o oolki add esses he inc easing p esence
o embodied impac s in buildings, especially as building ene gy e iciency imp o es and
ene gy use in he ope a ion o buildings dec eases [
45
]. I , in cu en buildings, he use
phase con ibu es o an 80–85% sha e in he o al li e cycle ene gy use [
46
], a he same
ime, o he au ho s claim ha hei embodied impac s accoun o 50–70% o he o al [
47
].
Once Nea ly Ze o-Ene gy Buildings (NZEB) a e he no m, he embodied ene gy and
ca bon in buildings will be key o unde s anding how sus ainable o “g een” a building
is, as well as he igh p opo ion be ween di ec and embedded ene gy consump ion o
minimise impac s. This will be also he key o ansi ion owa ds E+ buildings [
48
], ca bon
sinks [
49
], o egene a i e buildings [
50
]. Ne e heless, a di e en ia ion appea s when
sus ainabili y ( a he quali a i e) me ges wi h LCA (mo e quan i a i e) in o a li e cycle
sus ainabili y assessmen me hod, as opposed o sus ainable building ce i ica ion [
51
],
which is less e ol ed han he BRS chosen in his pape . Fo ou pu pose, i is ele an o
unde line ha embodied ca bon and deca bonisa ion ha e no p e iously been ea ed as
key concep s. Ou LCA app oach is oo ed in all en i onmen al in e en ions and impac
ca ego ies [
52
]. The UNEP-SETAC li e cycle ini ia i e is imp o ing an LCT app oach o
social issues, decision-making suppo , ha monisa ion, and unce ain y educ ion, as well
as u he de eloping LCIA (buildings included). Consequen ly, he Eu opean building and
cons uc ion sec o is cu en ly unde going a socio- echnical ansi ion (STT) in luenced by
clima e change [53], Eu opean policies [54], and he e olu ion o he building sec o [55].
1.6. The Goal o he S udy
These building a ing sys ems (Table 1) a e holis ic and close- o- he-ma ke managing
bodies, which a e key in iden i ying he eal impac s o buildings. Eu opean G een Building
Councils (GBCs) a e a he o e on o his challenge. A goal o his esea ch has been o
analyse and compa e he i e mos ele an Eu opean BRS, all managed by hei espec i e
coun y’s GBC in hei newes e sion (2020). The s udy has implemen ed and combined
ou di e en me hodologies in o de o achie e his objec i e. They ha e been selec ed
among o he Eu opean-bo n me hods o hei ma u i y, ep esen a i eness, and ma ke
adop ion. Acco ding o hei ma ke ing igu es, mo e han 7000 Eu opean buildings ha e
been ce i ied using hese BRS, mo e han 6000 consul an s see ha hei speci ic skills a e
inc easingly alued by he ma ke , and mo e han 3000 ma ke ac o s a e associa ed wi h
hei co esponding associa ion.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 5 o 24
Table 1.
Basic impac me ics o selec ed BRS. In o ma ion p o ided by he Wo ld G een Building
Council Membe Value Su ey 2020 (WGBC, 2020b).
Coun y
(Associa ion) BRS (1s Ve sion)
Ce i ied
Buildings
(Oc obe 2020)
Associa ed Co po a e
En i ies
(July–No embe 2020)
Associa ed P o essionals
(July–No embe 2020)
Consul an s
(Oc obe 2020)
1 F ance (HQE)
NF Habi a [
56
] (2013)
N/A * 91 267 N/A **
2 Spain (GBCe) VERDE [57] (2011) 132 107 202 192
3
Ge many (DGNB)
DGNB Sys em [58]
(2010) 6232 1266 73 4820
4The Ne he lands
(DGBC)
BREEAM-NL [59]
(2007) 317 370 N/A *** 879
5 I eland (IGBC) HPI [60] (2016) 350 170 30 55
TOTALS 7031 2438 639 6046
* No disagg ega ed om o he NF ce i ica ions. ** +1000 no speci ied. *** Only en i ies a e accep ed.
1.7. S uc u e o he S udy
In he nex Sec ion 2, he applied esea ch echniques a e lis ed so as o display he
wide ange o speci ica ions o he i e BRS and o d a a amewo k o compa ing hem
agains Le el(s). In he Sec ion 3, he quan i a i e and quali a i e esul s o he di e en
analyses a e shown. In he Sec ion 4, he esul s a e con ex ualised. Unde Conclusions, he
sec ion p o ides clea in o ma ion o policymake s and expe s o he building sec o o
boos he sus ainable ansi ion o he p esen cons uc ion indus y. I is no he pu pose
o his pape o desc ibe in dep h he BRS o he Le el(s) amewo k, bu o unde s and
hei po en ial o he ha monisa ion and agg ega ion o da a mo e conc e ely in he ligh
o Le el(s) and ega ding LCA in eg a ion. I his p o es use ul, a boos in hese building
sus ainabili y assessmen ools and an imp o emen in he sus ainabili y o buildings can be
expec ed. The challenges a e complex, and his esea ch and inno a ion s i es o app oach
hem lea ing none aside. We also aim o make ecommenda ions o s eng hen he links
be ween LCA, BRS, Le el(s), and sus ainable buildings.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The ollowing ou complemen a y me hodologies ha e been used in he esea ch in
o de o achie e a deepe pe spec i e o cu en en i onmen al impac analysis s anda dis-
a ion in he Eu opean amewo k:
1. A quan i a i e analysis o he p esence o he LCA app oach in BRS;
2.
A mul i-le el pe spec i e (MLP) was ollowed o con ex ualise BRS and he Le el(s)
amewo k wi hin he building sec o and sus ainabili y- ela ed sys emic challenges;
3.
A combined mapping–gap analysis o he Le el(s) indica o s was pe o med o check
he compliance o he BRS wi h Le el(s);
4.
Expe in e iews we e un pa allel o p o ide i s -hand da a and con ex ual in e -
p e a ion om he manage s o he BRS.
2.1. Quan i a i e Analysis o he S a e o he A
The 5 BRS selec ed o his s udy a e he closes o he Eu opean ma ke , as hey
de i e less om academic o public adminis a ions, and mo e om na ional sec o ial
associa ions [
61
]. These 5 alone include mo e han 2400 associa ed co po a ions and 650
p o essionals om he sec o . They a e well in e ela ed, as he associa ions whe e hey a e
ca ied ou (Eu opean GBCs om F ance, Spain, Ge many, The Ne he lands, and I eland,
espec i ely) wo k closely oge he . These GBCs a e ac i e un il 2022 in wo cu en R&D
p ojec s unning in he ield: Building Li e [
62
] and LIFE Le els [
63
]. The wo k is LCA-
inclusi e and easily adap able o Le el(s), as hey a e aligned wi h Eu opean di ec i es and
policies ansposed in o na ional law. As a esul , hese BRS a e ma u e in he Eu opean
cons uc ion sec o . O hese, BREEAM is p esen globally and adap ed o he Ne he lands,
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 6 o 24
while he o he s a e mainly na ional o sp ead by language/cul u e. DGNB (Ge many)
is widely p esen in i s neighbou ing coun ies and is he mos de eloped in e ms o
sus ainabili y balance and LCA weigh . I s in e na ional e sion, examined he e, has been
es ed in o he con inen s oo. When unning applied esea ch p ojec s, a common ba ie
is he limi a ions o ma ke pene a ion wi hin he wide scope o i s scien i ic objec i es.
In he wide ield o sus ainabili y, science has p o ided in-dep h awa eness o he a ge s
and heo e ical p ocesses o each a balanced ecosys em o a clean, e ile, and h i ing
en i onmen . Conce ning buildings, op imal echniques, ma e ials, and sus ainable designs
a e a ailable. Howe e , ma ke , assignmen , and p o essional eali ies do no always ollow.
A gap appea s be ween he expec ed and eal esul s. Howe e , his poses an oppo uni y
o lea n and imp o e he me hodology. Science can eappea o explain said gaps. When
his i e a ion has su icien i ems o he p ocedu e has un simila ly in o he con ex s, he e
a ises ano he oppo uni y o compa ison, analysis, o es ing. Mapping hese gene a es
new knowledge in a isual o m ha p o ides a gene al o e iew and allows o apid
conclusions and ecommenda ions.
Mo eo e , om a bibliome ic [
64
] and scien ome ic [
65
] app oach, down o a e y
conc e e app oach a he encoun e be ween he cons uc ion sec o ’s ci cula economy
and LCA [
66
,
67
], he combina ion o a mapping and a gap analysis enables he esea che
o disco e pa e ns and ends, as well as missing s a egies, p ocesses, o skills. Then,
i ecommends s eps o help mee he p oposed goals. This esea ch, a e expe iences
analysing hund eds o i ems [
42
,
68
], ocuses on a ew conc e e and applied i ems in he
na owe geog aphical scale o i e Eu opean coun ies, which s ill de ine a ep esen a i e
mus e o he ield.
The chosen BRS, h ough hei websi es/pla o ms, echnical and adminis a i e
guidelines, and p o ile o cus ome s/p o ide s, ha e been compa ed o unde s and bo h
hei echnical and ope a ional aspec s. As a esul , we see ha hey ollow common en y
poin s, glossa ies, s a egies o implemen a ion, a se o check poin s, consul an s’ p o iles,
and insigh s ha imp o e he sus ainabili y o he building wi hin i s speci ica ions. The
e o , p ice, and need o engage o he expe s a y. The ma ke ing, communica ion, and
exploi a ion o he ou comes and a ings di e oo. Sadly, due o da a p o ec ion and
p ocessing e o s, igu es agg ega ed in a ha monised manne , which a e i o in o m he
na ional and Eu opean ma ke s and policymaking, a e ew and di icul o ob ain.
2.2. Mul i-Le el Pe spec i e (MLP)
A ema kable me hodology o sus ainabili y ansi ions esea ch—and ha is insu -
icien ly applied o buildings—is he mul i-le el pe spec i e (MLP) [
69
–
71
]. Using MLP
helped place ocus on one ela i ely unseen bu key ansi ion o he building sec o , namely,
ha na ional BRS pai ed wi h he Eu opean Le el(s) a e slowly becoming “no mal”, which
has e en inspi ed policies and G een Public P ocu emen (GPP) p ac ices. Based on he
assump ion ha (only) egula ions make agen s change, one would a gue ha as hey a e
olun a y, BRS would ne e become mains eam, ha me ely a ing, wi hou he legal
powe o exclude i ems below a ce ain h eshold, does no emo e he lowes a ed i ems
om he sec o , o ha , in any case, buildings a e solely eal es a e (RE) asse s and no
cul u al and clima e- esilien a i ac s. Con e sely, sus ainable buildings a e becoming he
new no m, se ing minimum alues and accoun ing o op imal loca ions, ma ke oppo u-
ni ies, and capaci ies o accommoda e h i ing and esilien socie ies. This me hodology
helps o connec he di e en scales o ac ion and change. I s a s by di e en ia ing h ee
le els, each o which comp ises one o mo e socio- echnical aspec (including science, he
ma ke , and sec o ial ac o s and ac ions), which his s udy p oposed o apply o he subjec ,
as shown in Table 2.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 7 o 24
Table 2. O e all adap a ion o MLP o he subjec o esea ch.
Mic o-Le el Niche Li e cycle assessmen o indi idual buildings.
Meso-Le el Regime S anda disa ion and ypi ica ion o buildings h ough
building a ing sys ems (BRS).
Mac o-Le el Landscape
E olu ion o BRS h ough he Eu opean Le el(s) amewo k
By coupling LCT wi h a sys emic app oach o a ing buildings as he selec ed BRS,
buildings can become mains eam a i ac s eady o a heal hy, esou ce-e icien u u e.
They can pu an end o he “old” 3D (di y, dange ous, and demeaning) sec o [
72
], which
is esponsible o as haza ds on land, unde g ound, in he a mosphe e, and in he wa e ,
wi h insu icien conside a ion o com o , ai dis ibu ion, and he igh o h i e o all li -
ing beings, u he aliena ed om he social alue o housing, place, communi y, li eabili y,
and sus ainabili y. They embody a egime shi ha explains many changes occu ing. We
will adap Rip and Kemp’s ep esen a ion o he mul i-laye ed backd op o no el y and
i e e sibili y [
73
] and hei ea lie concep o he echnological egime. This allows us o
iden i y niche a i ac s, such as LCA, as “ echnologies a wo k”, niches whe e he echno-
logical inno a ion and he socio- echnical en i onmen e ol e in o inno a i e a i ac s.
Mo eo e , ollowing Geels’ h ee in e ela ed concep ual dimensions o STT [
69
], a
p oposal is applied o ou subjec . The dynamic exchange be ween ac o s and ules is
d i en in he socio- echnical ansi ion, c ea ing he sys em, which in u n de ines and
causes ac o s and ules o e ol e. Con inuing wi h Geels [
70
], he niche inno a ions applied
in ou con ex a e he e y speci ic ac ions BRS and Le el(s) a e aking o align and become
endy o Eu opean buildings. These a e ac ions leading us o unde s and he impo ance
o LCT in building design, cons uc ion, and managemen , as well as ac ions aimed a
aising awa eness o he heal h ac o s o he building, wi h a special ocus on IEQ and
ac ions calling o he public p ocu emen o buildings o in oduce hese c i e ia as GPP.
Going u he in o he me hodological de ail o MLP applied o BRS, he ansi ion
pa hways [
71
,
74
] o he success o BRS in collabo a ion wi h Le el(s) speak o an en-
dogenous egime ans o ma ion ou o i s e y own unsus ainabili y. This has special
signi icance o he inancial sec o . As has al eady occu ed wi h he su ge o he elec ic
ca indus y, we a e obse ing a “selec i e ansla ion” (Geels, 2018) [
75
] be ween g een
niches, such as BRS and he egime o he building sec o . MLP helps o iden i y o he
issues, such as he poli ical s uggles and inno a ions a ound building codes: should hese
BRS s op being olun a y and become pa o he body o he building codes? The way
o wa d is p obably o adop “policy mixes” [76].
The issue o he cul u al alue o buildings emains open o an h opology—no only
monumen s a e “he i age”. Common buildings a e he locus o peoples and hei cul u es
o e gene a ions. The way a coun y shapes i s iden i y lies e y much in he building codes
and bes p ac ices i gi es i sel . Wha kind o socie y will be bo n ou o esilien , deca -
bonised buildings and ci ies? Wha a i ac s, ules, and sys ems will de ine i s concep ual
amewo k and shape i s walls and oo s? In a global wo ld uled by co po a ions, which
business s uggles (among compe i o s bu also in ela ion o na ion s a es and egions)
will ease o edi ec ansi ion pa hways owa ds niches, such as BRS? Will co po a ions
make a case o LCA in buildings, c ea ing hei own s anda d? Will di e en business
models coexis in di e se sus ainabili y niches?
Applying MLP he e aims o iden i y he ansi ions be ween he niche o BRS and he
nex egime. The e ec s a a landscape le el ha e been iden i ied and a e isible. Howe e ,
his pape e e s o he lowe le el o he echnical s uggles and dependencies be ween
he chosen BRS and Le el(s). While policies a e ully p esen as GPP ecommenda ions
and he in luence o BRS on he na ional deca bonisa ion oadmaps, we ocus on a guably
he mos p omising dependency: o ha be ween LCA and he sus ainabili y a ing o
buildings. MLP se es o iden i y and e ame he gaps, compliances, and challenges ha
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 8 o 24
appea a he c oss oads o Le el(s) and BRS in he ield o LCA. Thus, he nex s ep o he
me hodology is o map and analyse he gaps in hese dependencies.
2.3. Mapping P ocedu e and Gap Analysis
The applied mapping p ocedu e has been pe o med wi h a sp eadshee o iden i y
how he Le el(s) indica o s align and con o m o he indica o s wi hin he BRS. I calcula es
he pe cen age “deg ee o compliance” o he LCA indica o and o he s wi hin a de ailed
quan i a i e con o mi y assessmen . I also gi es a ough o e iew o compliance h ough
a quali a i e con o mi y assessmen o all Le el(s) indica o s. This eeds he gap analysis
be ween Le el(s) and he BRS. In addi ion, i shows compliance wi h Le el(s) a he
h ee le els. Fo he quan i a i e p ocedu e, a deep di e in o he Le el(s) indica o s was
necessa y o b eak hem down in o hei “me hodological aspec s” (building scope, sys em
bounda ies, and e e ence s anda d, e c.). The o icial epo on “How o make pe o mance
assessmen s using Le el(s)—Pa 3 o o ice and esiden ial building” [
24
] and i s ela ed
sp eadshee “Le el(s) common epo ing o ma o all indica o s and ools, elease 1.3”
a e he e e ence o his p ocedu e. Fo he quali a i e p ocedu e, he app oach was a
b ie se o ques ions sen o he BRS manage s. Fo each i em, he choice is “complian ”
o “non-complian ”, and each “complian ” is awa ded wi h 1 poin and hen added o he
sp eadshee . Table 3shows he “deg ee o compliance” (in %), calcula ed as he a io o he
achie ed poin s o o al possible poin s, ollowing each one o he headings e e enced in
he abo e-men ioned epo s. The deg ee o compliance is calcula ed o all h ee le els
and se s up he gap analysis.
Table 3. Awa ding sys em o analysing BRSs deg ees o compliance wi h Le el(s) amewo k.
Simila 95–100% deg ee o compliance (G een)
Mino de ia ion 80–95% deg ee o compliance (Yellow)
Majo de ia ion 50–80% deg ee o compliance (O ange)
Missing 0–50% deg ee o compliance (Red)
Finally, o he quali a i e assessmen , he le el o be conside ed is chosen, and a
subjec i e inpu is p o ided as “simila ”, wi h “de ia ion” o “missing”, wi h he possibili y
o add a commen . The le els o knowledge o he building assessmen , he BRS used,
and Le el(s) a e high. A wide mapping p ocedu e was pe o med in he esea ch p ojec
(32 i ems); howe e , in his a icle, he 3 indica o s ela ed o LCA analysis ha e been
compa ed: Indica o 1 “Use-s age ene gy pe o mance”, Indica o 2 “Li e cycle Global
Wa ming Po en ial”, and Indica o 3 “Li e Cycle Cos s”.
2.4. Expe In e iews
The manage s o he i e BRS ha e been con ac ed pe online ideocall o ully un-
de s and he ela ionship be ween he BRS and Le el(s) and o check a ailabili y and
agg egabili y o da a. The same in e iew pa e n has been used o ask hem how LCA is
aken in o accoun , abou he impac o he scheme, and he exploi abili y o esul s. A b ie
ques ionnai e ela ed o Sec ions 3.3 and 3.4 o his pape had been sen in ad ance by email.
The con e sa ions ook place in May 2021 wi h Ma in Mooij om BREEAM-NL, Nadége
Ou y om NF HQE, Paula Ri as om VERDE, Le an Ekh aia om DGNB, and wi h Pa
Ba y om HPI. These in e iews aimed o es he alidi y o he MLP app oach and gain
in-dep h knowledge o he BRS, as well as i s compliance wi h Le el(s). The s akeholde
cons ella ion and hei BRS was b ie ly discussed and con i med he p oposed iew. Some
ecommenda ions o u he imp o emen s we e also collec ed and will be discussed in
he inal sec ions.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 9 o 24
3. Resul s
3.1. Quan i a i e Analysis o he S a e o he A o BRS
A quan i a i e analysis o he ela i e weigh o LCA in he s udied BRS has been
ca ied ou in Table 4 o e ec i ely assess how and o wha ex en LCA is aken in o accoun .
O he LC ools ela ed o cos s o social aspec s a e less p esen ac oss he BRS and a e
no quan i ied. These can be be e seen in Sec ion 3.4 as he e ec o including mo e
o ewe s ages, impac ca ego ies, and building elemen s. BRS ha e a ange o c edi s
o poin s o a ing i ems, such as LCA in his case. Ra ing is some imes linea (DGNB,
VERDE), some imes s epwise (HPI, BREEAM, and HQE). Posi i e ac ion is manda o y
o DGNB, VERDE, and HPI, bu no o HQE and BREEAM. Figu es below co espond
o he la es e sions o new buildings. Values om olde e sions can be di e en o
ehabili a ion wo ks, o ices, and o he building ypes. When a BRS is adap ed o second
coun ies, igu es also a y: he Ge man e sion o DGNB has highe alues, ano he
coun y’s e sion o BREEAM a es up o down. Benchma ks a e no ye ully in eg a ed
in o BRS. This was a subjec o deba e a he in e iews: Eu opean policies, wi h he No dic
coun ies as on unne s, a e p oposing o limi alues ha will in luence he BRS. The
exchange be ween ac o s, ules, and ools is p esen ed and discussed in Sec ion 3.2. Finally,
indica o s o aspec s ela ed o LCA do no ollow an iden ical app oach. VERDE and
BREEAM ocus on he bill o ma e ials, HQE di ides he i em in se e al s ands, and HPI
and DGNB ollow an o hodox LCA. The need o ha monisa ion will be discussed as a
s and-alone issue in Sec ion 4.1.
Table 4. LCA weigh s in he BRS.
BRS: Coun y
(En i y)
Indica o
Code/Name S ages Impac Ca ego ies Building Elemen s LCA
De elopmen
Sha e on
To al Poin s
NF Habi a :
F ance (HQE)
Indica o s PE1.4.4,
RCE4.1, REM2.4.1,
DEC1, and DEC2
N/A Rela ed o
he indica o s Po en ially any Min 0%
Max 2.12%
VERDE: Spain
(GBCe)
RN 11 Impac o de
los ma e iales
de cons ucción
A1, A2, A3 GWP, ADP
En elope, inne pa i ions
Min 2.80%
Plus A4, A5, B4,
C3, C4 GWP, ADP All Med 4.50%
Plus A4, A5, B4,
C3, C4 +AP, EP, POCP, ODP Plus 10% educ ion Max 5.60%
DGNB-Sys em
in e na ional 2020
o buildings:
Ge many (DGNB)
Building li e cycle
assessmen
(ENV1.1)
A1, A2, A3
GWP, ODP, POCP, AP,
EP
Founda ion + s uc u e,
en elope, HVAC Min 1%
+ B2, B4, B6, B7,
C3, C4 Plus PE, WU, ADP All a design Med 4%
Plus D All Impac s Plus CO2neu al, plus no
halo-hyd oca bons Max 9.50%
BREEAM NL:
The Ne he lands
(DGBC)
MAT1: ma e ial
speci ica ion
A1, A2, A3,
p oduc -based
GWP A leas h ee ma e ials Min 0.80%
A leas wo mo e
En i onmen al impac o
ma e ials used is a leas
30% lowe han e e ence
Med 4%
A leas ou mo e Idem 60% lowe Max 8%
HPI: I eland
(IGBC)
EN:7.0 embodied
impac s o homes
and LCA, plus
exempla y poin s
A1, A2, A3 GWP Whole building Min 4%
Plus A4, A5 Plus as many o ODP,
AP, EP, o POCP
as possible
Med 6%
+ all B + all C +100% embodied o se Max 8%
3.2. Mul i-Le el Pe spec i e (MLP) S udy
Figu e 1is a syn he ised p oposal o he MLP applied o his esea ch. A se o
concep ual, echnical, and sociological inno a ions happen in ime and scope. Mo ing
om he le -bo om co ne o he uppe igh , we ind: ini ial p o o ypes o singula
bes p ac ices in indi idual buildings, ools o EPDs ha a e pe o med by ew ac o s
in sho cycles and accumula ed o e ime, c ea ing wha he MLP concep ualises as a
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 16 o 24
building LCA. This aised ano he challenge, namely he insu icien a ailabili y o da a,
which a e he e y basis o LCA.
The MLP me hodology was no known o any o he in e iewees. The GBCs, whe e
hey a e ac i e, a e, in ac , key agen s in he ansi ion. This was well unde s ood and
accep ed. Ne e heless, while acknowledging a posi i e ecen e olu ion, all in o med ha
hei na ional ma ke s o e esis ance. They iden i y hemsel es as pionee s.
4. Discussion and Fu u e S eps
Fo wide LCA ma ke pene a ion, he insu icien consis ency o da a so wa e and
a ailabili y o skilled LCA p o essionals a e weak poin s. Ha monised da a a ailabili y
and anspa ency in he p ocessing o da a wi hin he calcula ion ool (no necessa ily a
complex so wa e bu simple sp eadshee s migh be enough) a e u gen needs. The e a e
open sou ce and ee solu ions, bu hei da abases a e no ha easy o ob ain o hey a e
no ailo ed o buildings [
81
]. P op ie a y ools a e well adap ed bu a e no ee. Some
coun ies (Ne he lands, Ge many, F ance) ha e na ional da abases, and he e is an ongoing
discussion ega ding whe he , o a building sec o o p o ide eliable igu es, a na ional
da abase is necessa y. We e his o be he case, i mus no hinde agg ega ion. Howe e ,
Le el(s) does no come wi h a Eu ope-wide da abase. Al hough o LCA s ages A and
B his could easily be adjus ed wi h na ional ene gy and anspo impac s, o s ages C
and D, na ional policies a y eno mously. The axonomy es ablishes “Do No Signi ican
Ha m” was e benchma ks, which a e impossible o accomplish quickly in some coun ies.
Findings om he MLP each us o ecommend ha all hese a i ac s need o e ol e in
pa allel so ha he egime changes.
Mo e conc e ely, some key manu ac u e s, namely s eel and cemen p oduce s, play
a c ucial ole: hey a e a he same ime he hea ies pollu e s and ene gy demande s,
and he bigges in es o s in sus ainable inno a ions. I hey do no diminish hei impac ,
hey migh all ou side o he egula ions, bu hey a e also p one o g eenwashing, o
swallowing huge public unds, and hey a e, ine i ably, esou ce p eda o s. A change in
he egime ine i ably means a change in hei ole. Howe e , no mo e han 75 yea s ago,
ein o ced conc e e was no a ele an building ma e ial. Can i lose ele ance again? A e
low-ca bon ma e ials such as imbe and mud a eal al e na i e? Ma ke and scien i ic
s udies answe ing his [
82
] a e, howe e , ou side he scope o his pape . None heless, i
can be s a ed ha , as men ioned in he in oduc ion’s b ie his o ical e iew, e nacula
a chi ec u e was and may once again be he solu ion. On he o he hand, i in he p esen
egime a chi ec u e alls in he ealm o RE, a deep egime shi mus happen o up- o-da e
e nacula a chi ec u e o be unde s ood as an al e na i e.
Recen ly, he egula o y amewo k has been pushed by he EC h ough he JRC. The
esul has been a p o ound me hodological ans o ma ion a he p oduc le el, om EN
15,804 + A1 o EN 15,804 + A2, and a he building le el, wi h he e ision o EN15978 and
o Le el(s). Will he egula ions be e ec i e o deal wi h he challenges i poses, mainly o
he cons uc ion indus y, bu also o he p o essionals in he sec o ? A e he s anda ds
and ools ma u e enough o ace hese challenges? E idence ound in his pape sugges s
ha d wo k will be equi ed o mee expec a ions.
While in Eu ope only 2.5% o he o al buil a ea [
68
] is ce i ied, highly de eloped and
densely buil coun ies, such as Singapo e, ha e 1/3 o hei building s ock ce i ied (mainly
wi h he BCA G een Ma k). Howe e , Eu ope is leading he way o in eg a ed policies,
olun a y schemes, and ma ke alue in a ou o sus ainable buildings and LCA. The
success o EPBD policies and Le el(s) by in oducing LCT in i s objec i es and indica o s
pa es he way o deca bonising new Eu opean buildings [
83
]. I he pa h dependencies
desc ibed in he MLP esul s a e u he unlocked, he Eu opean building sec o migh ind
i sel al eady in a deep ansi ion.
Th ee o he issues dese e a speci ic discussion:
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 17 o 24
4.1. Ha monisa ion o BRS and Da a a Eu opean Le el
I we ag ee ha Le el(s), p esen s anda ds, and no ms ma k he u u e me hodology
o he sus ainabili y assessmen o buildings, he e alua ion o p oduc s and buildings
should ollow hese s anda ds, bo h a he p oduc le el and a he building le el. Howe e ,
i s adop ion and applica ion s ill need o be ha monised. As men ioned be o e, all s ages,
impac ca ego ies, and building elemen s need o be equally included. I his succeeds,
ei he in BRS o as c i e ia o GPP, i can suppo he egula o y e olu ion o he di e en
na ional building codes and u n p og essi ely om olun a y o manda o y. Remaining
olun a y migh weaken he momen um o shi he egime. The need o ha monisa ion
mus cla i y he inclusion o o he ele an issues; c ucially, he heal h and com o aspec .
Ini ia i es such as he IEQ-Compass [
84
] o he TAIL scheme [
85
] a emp o upg ade his
issue and u he ela e IEQ pa ame e s wi h ene gy pe o mance and li e cycle me ics,
ollowing ISO 1772-1, EN 16798-1, and EN 16798-2. Unde a scena io o no malised NZEBs,
li e cycle cos ing mus also op imise IEQ o each long- e m clima e a ge s. While his a ea
o esea ch is no new [86], i emains open o u u e in es iga ions.
In Le el(s), se e al le els o da a quali y a e allowed and subsequen ly ca ego ised.
Di e en le els o e alua ion a e es ablished, whose choice depends on he phase o
he p ojec and he objec i e o he assessmen . Ca ego ies a e based on a quali y sco e
a e aging be ween i s ele ance and i s accu acy. The deg ee o (un)ce ain y o eliabili y
is p o ided by he o igin o da a, mainly local EPDs. Gene ic de aul da a is less accu a e
and is penalised wi h e y high load ac o s o encou age manu ac u e s o gene a e hei
own da a. The geog aphical and echnological ep esen a i eness o he da a implies ha
da a mus be localised. Howe e , he e is a huge amoun o da a gene a ed in di e en
con ex s ( ools, da abases, Eu opean p ojec s) ha is essen ial o add alue, and could be
in eg a ed in o a Eu opean da abase in he nea u u e, once i s quali y and adap abili y
o all egions has been e i ied. Na ional da abases, whe he hey exis ye o no , need o
align wi h Eu opean ones, and BRS a e i o use one o he o he . The In e na ional Open
Da a Ne wo k o Sus ainable Building is managing o con ince all da a de elope s and
p o ide s, as well as all LCA so wa e p o ide s, ha ha monised da a is a mus .
4.2. Pa hways o Building Deca bonisa ion
Acco ding o he WGBC’s “B inging Embodied Ca bon Up on ” Repo [
2
], he
wo ld’s o al global loo a ea o buildings is p ojec ed o double by 2060, a g ow h o
230 Bn m2, which is equi alen o he size o New Yo k Ci y e e y mon h, mos ly in he
Global Sou h. The e a e also equally huge e o i equi emen s in he Global No h: In
Eu ope, an es ima ed 97% o he building s ock is no e icien enough o comply wi h he
Pa is Clima e ag eemen . I business goes as usual, embodied ca bon could make up hal
o o al new cons uc ion emissions be ween now and 2050. As he ene gy pe o mance o
buildings imp o es, he impac sha e o embodied ca bon will inc ease.
The men ioned s udy [
83
] on he balance be ween ope a ional and embodied ca bon
shows esul s based on he LCA o 238 buildings: while he e is a educ ion end in LC
emissions due o imp o ed ope a ional ene gy pe o mance, an inc ease is demons a ed
in he ela i e and absolu e con ibu ions o embodied ca bon (emissions a ising om he
manu ac u ing and p ocessing o building ma e ials), pa icula ly o esiden ial buildings.
Some [
87
] add a dynamic indica o (cumula i e adia i e o cing and global mean em-
pe a u e change) o LCA o all he clima e scena ios o 2050, wi hin a ime unc ion o
clima e change o 500 yea s. The main ou come o he compa ison be ween dynamicLCA
and LCA is ha he esul s can be g ea ly di e en , especially when biogenic ca bon is
p esen om low-ca bon ma e ials. Thei me hodology calls o a empo al dimension o
he in en o y and he impac indica o s. This links building science closely wi h clima e
science, which will necessa ily become a c oss-cu ing ield o esea ch. In his con ex , basic
ac ions o design new low-ca bon buildings and hei espec i e educ ions in GHG emis-
sions a e iden i ied [
82
]. I s e ec needs o be analysed unde a cohesi e and ha monised
building LCA.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 18 o 24
Howe e , hese s udies a e nei he known no demanded by he building sec o .
Manu ac u e s a e doing EPDs wi hin he EN 15,804. I is wo h unde lining he exponen ial
e olu ion in EPDs in he cons uc ion sec o in he las 10 yea s. F om less han 100 EPDs,
de eloped by h ee coun ies, we now see mo e han 7000 de eloped by 25 agen s/coun ies.
While he EPD migh be no mo e han a s a egy o sell hei p oduc s, baselines a e needed
o he building o limi i s o e all alue o deca bonisa ion and o he impac s. This can be
pe o med wi h sec o ial o gene ic EPDs, p o ided hey con ain all impac ca ego ies. As
men ioned in he esul s, ca bon me ics mus be he spea head o all o he impac s. Clima e
change a ec s no only he a mosphe e, bu also he land, wa e sheds, and biodi e si y,
which a e as impo an , and a guably mo e c ucial, o human li e. Any ansi ion needs o
unde s and he ela ionships be ween a leas ai , soil, wa e , and li e, bu also he con inui y
be ween he indi idual, socie y, and he ecosys ems. While g een may be he colou o
chlo ophyl, jus as impo an a e he ed o oxygena ed haemoglobin, he b own o humic
acid, and he anspa ency o clean wa e .
4.3. The S o y elling Flaws o he G een Socio-Technical T ansi ion
The egime o he building sec o , in syne gy wi h he ene gy, inancial, and u ban
acili ies and se ices sec o s, igno ing pionee s and olun ee s, is p o iled by a di use
alue chain, domina ed by a ew huge cons uc ion indus ies ha possess g ea in luence
on he policy agenda, and which ha e gained cul u al s o y elling hand in hand wi h
he RE business. O e shadowed by hese, science and use demand become seconda y
playe s. Fo he egime, g een is jus a colou , used and abused o hide i s g ey emissions.
In Eu ope, he e a e ( igu es om 2019) abou 50.000 companies in he cons uc ion sec o
(buildings and in as uc u es), wi h 12 million employees and a yea ly u no e o a ound
EUR 1.5 billion. The op 100 companies’ sha e o he u no e is one hi d o he o al,
while he accumula ed u no e o he op 10 eaches EUR 235 billion (15%). Alone, he
h ee op F ench companies (Ei age, Bouygues, and Vinci) amass o e EUR 100 billion [
88
].
A c i ical eye is needed when eading news abou hei g een in es men s. I would be
equally unsus ainable o BRS, LCA, EPDs, and he g een inno a ions o lay a he ee o
hei in e es s. I g een buildings become a p i ilege o a ew, he sec o will ha e ailed in
i s ansi ion.
The inancial sec o en e ed in o sus ainable asse s be o e he mains eam RE did
( he niche o he highes s anda d RE al eady conside ed g een-ce i ied buildings, and
LEED has been a key ma ke ing le e o his, no wi hs anding a deg ee o g eenwashing).
The e has been a huge shi o RE asse s o “ ul u e unds”, which has c ea ed a eac ion
among local go e nmen s and socie y, as well as o he handlings ha exceed he pu pose
o his pape , bu a e pa o he landscape. Many Eu opean buildings, especially in he ci y
cen es, ha e no unde gone in eg al e u bishmen and lack he basic ea u es o cu en
building codes and li es yles. All hese in e nal changes ha e ed he su ge o he BRS and
he demand o sus ainable buildings. Ma e ials and buildings passpo s can boos and
ack his necessa y deep eno a ion. Howe e , whe e building is no necessa y, he mos
sus ainable m2 is one ha is no buil , jus as he cleanes kWh is one ha is no consumed.
G een inance mus be a he se ice o p o ec ing li e, no buildings.
The Eu opean Cons uc ion Sec o Obse a o y egula ly analyses and ca ies ou
compa a i e assessmen s on he cons uc ion sec o in all 27 EU coun ies and he UK, o
p o ide policymake s and s akeholde s wi h up- o-da e in o ma ion on ma ke condi ions
and policy de elopmen s. I s i e p io i ies a e inancing and digi alisa ion, skills and
quali ica ions, esou ce e iciency ( ocusing on low-emission cons uc ion, ecycling and
alo isa ion o cons uc ion, and demoli ion was e, and is hus ela ed o his pape ’s
ocus), he egula o y amewo k, and in e na ional compe i ion. I does no ejec g een
s o y elling when placing as much in e es in digi alising and going ab oad as in esou ce
e iciency and upskilling. The heads o he egime a e bo h policymake s and he CEOs o
big companies. Pe haps policymake s need o s ep down i s .
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 19 o 24
Pionee ing p ocesses and esul s p o ide a egula d ip o ex ao dina y buildings
whose inhe en alue, a e a sho ma ke ing “shoo ing s a ” e ec —o no ma ke ing a
all—is ei he swallowed by he egime o emains anonymous. Howe e , as BRS gain
ma ke ing alue, he a ing lea es less and less space o akes, and as he clima e challenges
highligh bes p ac ices, mo e windows o oppo uni y and inc eased momen um is a ained
by uly sus ainable buildings. The Eu opean Taxonomy Regula ion and delega ed ac s
we e published in July 2020 o se ou o e a ching condi ions ha any economic ac i i y
(including buildings) mus mee in o de o quali y as en i onmen ally sus ainable [
89
].
Howe e success ul all his appea s, i i alls in o he g een na a i e and i can easily be
washed away. Pionee s mus mee , collabo a e, and agg ega e knowledge, po en ial, and
esul s so ha he niche hey c ea e ans o ms he egime.
The exogenous con ex is shaped by clima e change mi iga ion ( he deca bonisa ion o
he building sec o and s ock) and e y ecen ly by he pandemic and he manda o y home
lockdown. While egula o y p essu e on ene gy e iciency has been g owing o 10 yea s,
i was in 2021 ha NZEB became compulso y. NZCB a e a cen al concep o na ional
and Eu opean deca bonisa ion goals. In his scena io, Le el(s) s ands as he co ne s one
o he deca bonisa ion s a egy, he ci cula economy package, and he esilience o he
Eu opean building s ock. I he na ional building sec o s we e eluc an o ake ac ion,
and he o e all deca bonisa ion s a egies did no conside buildings as a key issue, i
is he e y socio- echnical landscape ha is ma king he ou e o u u e de elopmen s.
Deca bonisa ion canno be p ey o g eenwashing o i will ail o pa e he way o he o he
jus -as-impo an impac ca ego ies.
5. Conclusions
App oaching he challenges o a complex me hodology such as LCA in an equally
complex sec o such as ha o buildings, unde he lens o Eu ope’s complex egula o y
amewo k, and a ge ing no one single aspec , bu all hose p esen , has been a complex
ques . None heless, simpli ying i by educing he scope o dep h o selec ing—by any
c i e ia—one single aspec , nei he seemed o i he size o he impac s o he sec o no he
ob ious ansi ion i is unde going.
Quali y and ha monised da a o cons uc ion p oduc s a e equi ed o LCA o gi e
agg ega ed and ans o ma i e esul s. These a e necessa y o comply wi h cu en and
u u e legal and olun a y equi emen s and o os e he decoupling o he building sec o
om he cu en consump ion o esou ces and gene a ion o impac s. Da a and so wa e
p o ide s a e asked o collabo a e and acili a e access. Upskilled expe s a e needed.
Acco ding o he s anda d, LCA o buildings mus ollow a modula app oach,
epo ing he ull se o impac s and s ages whe e hey occu , so as o a oid a ans e o
denial o loads. I needs o include all building elemen s. All impac s mus ollow he
ca bon oo p in as being he mos known impac , and hei ele ance o he sec o ea u ed.
The loss o biodi e si y, land occupa ion, and wa e usage impac s need u gen a en ion.
The Le el(s) amewo k, wi h i s due compliance o he Reno a ion Wa e and he
axonomy, is a powe ul changemake , able o de e g eenwashing, misleading inancing,
and obscu ing in o ma ion. The Eu opean building sec o is a en i e o i s e olu ion and
he academy is esea ching on i s po en ial and adop ion pa hways. Le el(s) needs o
become mains eam and comple e ools, da a, benchma ks, and in e p e a ion c i e ia.
BRS a e well equipped connec o s be ween Le el(s), he ma ke , public p ocu emen ,
and socie y. They a e adop ing he amewo k, illing in he gaps wi hin hei sys ems in
o de o p o ide, oge he wi h he a ing, a ”Le el(s) complian ” seal. This e o is also
d i ing he ha monisa ion o da a and LCA. Playing a olun a y ole migh be hea ily
challenged i manda o y ules appea ed.
These BRS a e exploi ing hei na ional niches a hei limi ed bu s eadily g owing
G een Building Councils, which a e pionee ing hei ma ke s as key agen s, w i ing a new
sc ip o he building sec o . Howe e , hey need o expand in scope and o con inue
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 20 o 24
e ol ing. They migh be oo young o shi he pa h dependencies o hei sec o s, making
socio-poli ical ac ion key o hem o ma u e and lead he ansi ion o he sec o .
The mul i-le el pe spec i e me hodology p o es i o unde s and and explain he
inno a ion niches, he pa h dependencies o he egime, and he STT ha he Eu opean
building sec o is unde going owa ds a sus ainable pa e n. I mus deca bonise, adap
o clima e change, and p o ide heal hy indoo s and egene a i ely buil en i onmen s.
Should i ail, i s own unsus ainabili y migh lead i o collapse.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Da a cu a ion, B.I.; Me hodology, B.I.; Supe ision, O.A.-G. and X.O.; W i ing—
o iginal d a , B.I. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by he esea ch p ojec LOCAL-REGEN (PID2019-104871RB-C22),
suppo ed by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion (Minis e io de Ciencia e Inno ación) –
S a e Resea ch Agency/10.13039/501100011033.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable on eques
om he main au ho (Izaola B.—[email p o ec ed]). The da a a e no publicly a ailable as o
no he comp omise o p i acy o he esea ch pa icipan s and he i e BRS ins i u ions p esen in
he esea ch.
Acknowledgmen s:
The wo k p esen ed in his pape belongs o he esea ch p ojec s LIFE Le el(s)
(GIE/ES 1000911) p ojec , whose aim is o accele a e he pene a ion o he Le el(s) F amewo k in o
ma ke s; and P ojec LOCAL-REGEN (PID 2019-104871RB-C22), unded by he Minis y o Science
and Inno a ion—S a e Resea ch Agency/10.13039/501100011033. Mo eo e , his esea ch wo k is
pa o he main au ho ’s (Izaola B.—[email p o ec ed]) Doc o al Thesis ha aims o in es iga e
on he applicabili y o LCA o Eu opean buildings.
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s ce i y ha hey ha e no a ilia ions wi h o in ol emen in any
o ganisa ion o en i y wi h any inancial in e es , o non- inancial in e es , in he subjec ma e o
ma e ials discussed in his manusc ip .
Abb e ia ions
ADP Abio ic Deple ion Po en ial
AP Acidi ica ion Po en ial
BRS Building Ra ing Sys ems
BREEAM Building Resea ch Es ablishmen En i onmen al Assessmen Me hodology
CE Ci cula Economy
CASBEE Comp ehensi e Assessmen Sys em o Buil En i onmen E iciency
CDW Cons uc ion and Demoli ion Was e
DGNB Deu sche Gesellscha ü Nachhal iges Bauen
DGBC Du ch G een Building Council
EPBD Ene gy Pe o mance o Buildings Di ec i e
EPD En i onmen al P oduc Decla a ion
EP Eu ophiza ion Po en ial
GWP Global Wa ming Po en ial
GBC G een Building Council
GBRT G een Building Ra ing Tool
GPP G een Public P ocu emen
GHG G eenhouse Gas
HQE Hau e Quali éEn i onnemen ale
HPI Home Pe o mance Index
IEQ Indoo En i onmen Quali y
JRC Join Resea ch Cen e
LULUC Land Use and Land Use Change
LEED Leade ship in Ene gy & En i onmen al Design
LCA Li e Cycle Assessmen
LCC Li e Cycle Cos s
LCIA Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 5009 21 o 24
LCT Li e Cycle Thinking
MLP Mul i-Le el Pe spec i e
NZCB Nea ly Ze o-Ca bon Buildings
NZEB Nea ly Ze o-Ene gy Buildings
PE P ima y Ene gy
PED P ima y Ene gy Demand
RE Real Es a e
STT Socio-Technical T ansi ion
UNEP Uni ed Na ions En i onmen al P og am
VERDE Valo ación de E iciencia de Re e encia de Edi icios
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