psyg-13-827014 Ap il 6, 2022 Time: 10:53 # 1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 07 Ap il 2022
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.827014
Edi ed by:
João P. Ma ôco,
Uni e si y Ins i u e o Psychological,
Social and Li e Sciences (ISPA),
Po ugal
Re iewed by:
Wande son Sil a,
Fede al Uni e si y o Al enas, B azil
Ka ja Upadyaya,
Uni e si y o Helsinki, Finland
*Co espondence:
Denisse Man ique-Millones
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Quan i a i e Psychology
and Measu emen ,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 02 Decembe 2021
Accep ed: 11 Ma ch 2022
Published: 07 Ap il 2022
Ci a ion:
Man ique-Millones D, Vasin GM,
Dominguez-La a S,
Millones-Ri alles R, Ricci RT,
Ab egu Rey M, Escoba MJ,
Oya ce D, Pé ez-Díaz P,
San elices MP, Pineda-Ma ín C,
Tapia J, A a ia M,
Valdés Pacheco M, Mi anda MI,
Sánchez Rod íguez R,
Mo gades-Bamba CI,
Peña-Sa ionandia A,
Salinas-Qui oz F, Sil a Cab e a P,
Mikolajczak M and Roskam I (2022)
Pa en al Bu nou Assessmen (PBA)
in Di e en Hispanic Coun ies: An
Explo a o y S uc u al Equa ion
Modeling App oach.
F on . Psychol. 13:827014.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.827014
Pa en al Bu nou Assessmen (PBA)
in Di e en Hispanic Coun ies: An
Explo a o y S uc u al Equa ion
Modeling App oach
Denisse Man ique-Millones1*, Geo gy M. Vasin2, Se gio Dominguez-La a3,
Rosa Millones-Ri alles4, Rica do T. Ricci5, Milag os Ab egu Rey5,
Ma ía Jose ina Escoba 6, Daniela Oya ce7, Pablo Pé ez-Díaz8, Ma ía Pía San elices9,
Claudia Pineda-Ma ín10, Ja ie Tapia11, Ma iana A a ia11, Maday Valdés Pacheco12,
Ma ía Isabel Mi anda13, Raquel Sánchez Rod íguez14,15,
Cla a Isabel Mo gades-Bamba16, Ainize Peña-Sa ionandia17,
Fe nando Salinas-Qui oz18, Paola Sil a Cab e a19, Moï a Mikolajczak20 and
Isabelle Roskam20
1Ca e a de Psicología, Facul ad de Ciencias de la Salud, Uni e sidad Cien í ica del Su , Lima, Pe u, 2Cen e
o Mul idisciplina y Resea ch in Educa ion, Russian Academy o Educa ion, Moscow, Russia, 3Escuela de Psicología,
Ins i u o de In es igación de Psicología, Uni e sidad de San Ma ín de Po es, Lima, Pe u, 4Facul ad de Educación,
Uni e sidad Ma celino Champagna , Lima, Pe u, 5Facul ad de Medicina, Uni e sidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Miguel
de Tucumán, A gen ina, 6Cen e o Social and Cogni i e Neu oscience, School o Psychology, Uni e sidad Adol o Ibáñez,
San iago, Chile, 7Ca e a de Psicología, Facul ad de Ciencias Sociales y Comunicación, Uni e sidad San o Tomás, Talca,
Chile, 8Ins i u o de Psicología, Uni e sidad Aus al de Chile, Pue o Mon , Chile, 9School o Psychology, Millenium Ins i u e
o Resea ch in Dep ession and Pe sonali y, Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Chile, San iago, Chile, 10 School o
Psychology, Kon ad Lo enz Uni e si y, Bogo á, Colombia, 11 Facul ad de Ciencias Sociales, Ins i u o de In es igaciones
Psicológicas, Uni e sidad de Cos a Rica, San José, Cos a Rica, 12 Facul ad de Psicología, Uni e sidad de la Habana, La
Habana, Cuba, 13 Facul ad de Psicología, Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Ecuado , Qui o, Ecuado , 14 Cé es Resea ch
Uni , TR3, F ee Facul y o A s and Humani ies, Ca holic Ins i u e o Toulouse, Toulouse, F ance, 15 Cen e o S udies
and Resea ch in Psychopa hology and Heal h Psychology (CERPPS), Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o Toulouse Jean
Jau ès, Toulouse, F ance, 16 Depa amen o Me odología de Ciencias del Compo amien o, Uni e sidad Nacional
de Educación a Dis ancia, Mad id, Spain, 17 Depa amen o “Psicología Clínica y de la Salud y Me odología de In es igación”,
Facul ad de Psicología, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, Donos ia-San Sebas ián, Spain, 18 “Abby & Anna” SOGIE Lab,
Elio -Pea son Depa men o Child S udy and Human De elopmen , Tu s Uni e si y, Med o d, MA, Uni ed S a es,
19 Depa amen o de Psicología, Ins i u o de Psicología, Educación y Desa ollo Humano, Uni e sidad de la República,
Mon e ideo, U uguay, 20 Depa men o Psychology, UCLou ain, Lou ain-la-Neu e, Belgium
Pa en al bu nou is a unique and con ex -speci ic synd ome esul ing om a ch onic
imbalance o isks o e esou ces in he pa en ing domain. The cu en esea ch aims
o e alua e he psychome ic p ope ies o he Spanish e sion o he Pa en al Bu nou
Assessmen (PBA) ac oss Spanish-speaking coun ies wi h wo consecu i e s udies. In
S udy 1, we analyzed he da a h ough a bi ac o model wi hin an Explo a o y S uc u al
Equa ion Modeling (ESEM) on he pooled sample o pa icipan s (N= 1,979) ob aining
good i indices. We hen a ained measu emen in a iance ac oss bo h gende and
coun ies in a se o nes ed models wi h g adually inc easing pa ame e cons ain s.
La en means compa isons ac oss coun ies showed ha among he pa icipan s’
coun ies, Chile had he highes pa en al bu nou sco e, likewise, compa isons ac oss
gende e idenced ha mo he s displayed highe sco es han a he s, as shown in
p e ious s udies. Reliabili y coe icien s we e high. In S udy 2 (N= 1,171), we es ed
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
he ela ions be ween pa en al bu nou and h ee speci ic consequences, i.e., escape
and suicidal idea ions, pa en al neglec , and pa en al iolence owa d one’s child en. The
medium o la ge associa ions ound p o ided suppo o he PBA’s p edic i e alidi y.
O e all, we concluded ha he Spanish e sion o he PBA has good psychome ic
p ope ies. The esul s suppo i s ele ance o he assessmen o pa en al bu nou
among Spanish-speaking pa en s, o e ing new oppo uni ies o c oss-cul u al esea ch
in he pa en ing domain.
Keywo ds: equi alence, Spanish-speaking, exhaus ion, pa en ing, ESEM
INTRODUCTION
Pa en hood is associa ed wi h posi i e emo ions like joy,
accomplishmen , and p ide in many cul u es. Howe e , e idence
shows ha pa en ing is also a complex and s ained ac i i y
(e.g., Abidin, 1990;C nic and Low, 2002;Dea e -decka d,
2014). Exposu e o oo many s esso s o e long pe iods can
lead o bu nou , as has been demons a ed, when he e a e
no enough psychological esou ces o deal wi h hem in job
se ings (Bakke and Deme ou i, 2007). The same is ue in
he pa en ing con ex : when he balance be ween pa en al isks
and esou ces ch onically leans o he nega i e side, pa en s
a e a high isk o pa en al bu nou (Roskam e al., 2017;
Mikolajczak and Roskam, 2018).
Pa en al Bu nou
Bu nou is a diso de ha is associa ed wi h ch onic s ess.
Howe e , he p oblem is no limi ed o ac o s inc easing s ess
bu o lack o esou ces o deal wi h i . This is he sus ained
imbalance be ween s ess and esou ces ha cha ac e izes he
bu nou synd ome. Acco ding o his iew, pa en al bu nou
is conside ed a singula and con ex ualized synd ome esul ing
om a ch onical imbalance o isks (e.g., poo child ea ing,
nume ous pa en al du ies, and pe ec ionism) o e esou ces
(e.g., posi i e copa en ing, ex e nal suppo , high emo ional
in elligence, e c.) in he ield o pa en ing (Mikolajczak e al.,
2018, 2019).
The demand o isk ac o s would in ensi y pa en al bu nou .
One example o such a s esso is pa en al pe ec ionism,
which has been p o en o be de imen al o pa en al bu nou .
A s udy conduc ed by So kkila and Aunola (2020) in ol ing
mo e han 1,500 Finnish pa en s de e mined ha socially
p esc ibed pe ec ionism, demanded by signi ican o he s in
he indi idual en i onmen h ough imposi ion o e y high-
pe o mance expec a ions and he endency o ha shly judge
he esul s (Fle and Hewi , 2002), cons i u es a isk ac o .
Simila esul s we e ob ained by Kawamo o e al. (2018) in a
s udy se led in Japan wi h 1,200 pa icipan s, in which pa en al
pe ec ionism was a s ong s esso con ibu ing o pa en al
bu nou . Resou ces, on he o he hand, would lowe pa en al
bu nou . Fo example, emo ional compe ences, as he abili y
o p ocess in o ma ion abou one’s own emo ions and hose
o o he s, enabling people o pay a en ion, use, unde s and,
and manage hei emo ions (Maye and Salo ey, 1997) plays
a p o ec i e ole o pa en al bu nou . The s udy o Lin e al.
(2021) wi h wo independen samples (i.e., Poland and Belgium)
shed ligh on he key ole played by emo ional compe ences
bu e ing he e ec o pa en al pe ec ionism on pa en al
bu nou . Mikolajczak and Roskam (2018) p oposed a Balance
be ween Risk and Resou ces (BR2) heo y in which “pa en al
bu nou de elops when pa en al esou ces a e insu icien o
mee he demands (wha e e hey a e)” (p. 2). While esou ces
and isks play opposi e oles wi h ega d o pa en al bu nou ,
he absence o one o hem does no equa e o he p esence
o he o he . Fo example, he absence o denig a ion by
he pa ne does no mean ha he pa en has he suppo
o he pa ne . And a isk does no necessa ily ha e o be
o se by he co esponding esou ce bu can be o se by one
o mo e o he esou ces. Fo example, he lack o pa ne
suppo may be compensa ed o by social suppo o by
he child en’s au onomy. Pa en al bu nou is hus he esul
o an imbalance be ween se e al ac o s and o isk no
compensa ed by su icien esou ces o cope wi h i . In a wo-
wa e longi udinal s udy conduc ed o e 900 pa en s, esul s
highligh ed ha he BR2 amewo k p edic ed pa en al bu nou
(Mikolajczak and Roskam, 2018).
Pa en al exhaus ion is he co e symp om o pa en al bu nou .
Pa en s expe ience i edness a e e y aspec o hei daily ou ine
o a ending o hei child en. The emo ional d ain is such ha
hey o en see hemsel es eaching hei limi s. Ano he symp om
is he emo ional dis ancing om hei child en. Pa en s also
p og essi ely educe hei in ol emen in pa en ing, while hei
ela ionship wi h hei child en su e s; in e ac ions dec ease
and a e limi ed mos ly o unc ional/ins umen al aspec s a he
de imen o emo ions. Ano he symp om is he loss o eeling o
accomplishmen as a pa en : being ed up wi h pa en ing, pa en s
can no longe s and hei ole, and ime wi h hei child en is
no longe app ecia ed. All hese symp oms and s a es ep esen a
con as ing iew o he pa en al sel , i.e., p e ious eelings owa d
pa en ing (Roskam e al., 2018).
Pa en al bu nou should no be ega ded as ypical pa en al
s ess (Roskam e al., 2017;Kawamo o e al., 2018;Lebe -
Cha on e al., 2018;Van Bakel e al., 2018;B ianda e al.,
2020). I esul s om emendous pa en al s ess, as a long-las ing
esponse (Mikolajczak and Roskam, 2018). In a c oss-cul u al
s udy ga he ing 42 coun ies ac oss he wo ld, he p e alence o
pa en al bu nou a ied om 0 o mo e han 8% (Roskam e al.,
2021), e en a e con olling o sample size and sex imbalance.
Poland (7%), Belgium (7.9%), and he Uni ed S a es (8.4%) we e
he coun ies wi h he highes le els o pa en al bu nou . I is
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
also no compa able o o he o ms o bu nou , such as job
bu nou , gi en ha hese wo cons uc s ha e low o mode a e
co ela ions (Roskam e al., 2017;Kawamo o e al., 2018;Van
Bakel e al., 2018). Finally, al hough pa en al bu nou can lead
o dep ession, i is no he same as dep ession (Kawamo o e al.,
2018;Van Bakel e al., 2018;Sánchez-Rod íguez e al., 2019).
Pa en al bu nou is a pa icula synd ome, which is con ex -
speci ic (Mikolajczak e al., 2020).
The bu nou synd ome ma e s because is associa ed wi h
nume ous nega i e ou comes, e.g., psychopa hology symp oms
(Mesman and Koo , 2001). In he pa en hood ield, he bu nou
synd ome has a - eaching consequences. Recen s udies sugges
ha i has ha m ul e ec s o he pa en , in pa icula suicidal
hough s. Suicidal idea ions a e associa ed wi h p o ound eelings
o hopelessness. Indi iduals do no belie e ha hei p oblems
could be sol ed, and consequen ly, he e is no way ou om
su e ing. Because he pa en al ole can ne e be le behind
and pa en s can ne e esign, medium o la ge associa ions
be ween pa en al bu nou , and escape and suicidal idea ions ha e
been ound (Mikolajczak e al., 2018). Pa en al bu nou also has
dele e ious consequences on child en (Mikolajczak e al., 2018,
2019). Medium o la ge associa ions be ween pa en al neglec
and pa en al iolence owa d child en and pa en al bu nou we e
epo ed (Mikolajczak e al., 2018). Bu ned-ou pa en s a e so
exhaus ed ha hey no longe ake ca e o hei child en, despi e
unde s anding hei needs. Wi h emo ional dis ance and loss o
accomplishmen in pa en ing, e bal o physical iolence owa d
child en also inc eases (Blancha d e al., 2020;Hanso e e al.,
2021). The dele e ious consequences o bu nou highligh he
need o eliable measu es in each speci ic con ex , ei he job o
pa en ing, as app op ia e.
Assessmen o Pa en al Bu nou
Pelsma e al. (1989) in oduced pa en al bu nou measu emen
by ad oca ing ha he Maslach Bu nou In en o y (MBI,
Maslach e al., 1986) migh be a good ounda ion o cons uc ing
a measu e o pa en al bu nou . His in ui ion was pa ially
suppo ed, and he did no pu sue he in es iga ion. I ook
a ound 20 yea s un il his wo k gained ecogni ion. In 2007,
No be g, who was hen wo king a a child en’s hospi al, no iced
ha pa en s o se e ely ill child en p esen ed bu nou symp oms.
No be g’s eam hen explo ed his issue o e he nex 7 yea s
using he Shi om–Melamed Bu nou Ques ionnai e (SMBQ,
Melamed e al., 1992). The SMBQ is a 14-i em ques ionnai e
consis ing o en con ex - ee i ems and ou job- ela ed i ems.
Al hough p elimina y suppo o he no ion o pa en al bu nou
could be ound in hese s udies, skep ics could a gue ha ha ing
an ill child made pa en s a isk o de elop job bu nou .
Roskam e al. (2017) we e he i s au ho s o alida e a speci ic
ins umen o assessing pa en al bu nou . They we e he i s o
adap Maslach Bu nou In en o y© (MBI, Maslach e al., 1986)
so ha all chosen i ems e e ed speci ically o he pa en ing
domain. The “depe sonaliza ion” subscale did no wo k in he
pa en al con ex and he au ho s eplaced i wi h an emo ional
dis ancing subscale. Thei de elopmen and alida ion s udies
esul ed in he Pa en al Bu nou In en o y (PBI, Roskam e al.,
2017), a 22-i em measu e o pa en al bu nou encompassing
h ee ac o s: pa en al exhaus ion, emo ional dis ancing om he
child en, and educed pa en al e ec i eness, alongside lack o
ul illmen . The app oach used o de elop he Pa en al Bu nou
In en o y was deduc i e since i was based on he MBI. This
esul ed in unanswe ed ques ions abou he h ee dimensions
hey p oposed o depic pa en al bu nou .
Roskam e al. (2018) used he induc i e me hod o
deepen he concep ualiza ion and measu emen o pa en al
exhaus ion. Fo his pu pose, colleagues who we e obli ious
o he a o emen ioned h ee-dimensional s uc u e analyzed
es imonies om a la ge sample o Anglo-Saxon and ancophone
exhaus ed pa en s, based on he In e p e a i e Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA) (Hube and Aujoula , 2018). F om he IPA, 50
i ems anspi ed which we e educed o 23 i ems a e ac o
analysis, hus esul ing in he Pa en al Bu nou Assessmen
(PBA). This ques ionnai e co e s ou dimensions, wo o which
a e iden ical o hose o he PBI, i.e., Emo ional Exhaus ion in
he pa en al ole and Emo ional Dis ancing om one’s child en,
and he o he wo dis inc , i.e., Feelings o Being Fed Up, and
Con as in pa en al sel . Because o i s heo e ical backg ound,
psychome ic p ope ies, and open access, he PBA is conside ed
a quali y ins umen o assessing Pa en al Bu nou .
Measu emen Equi alence Ac oss
Coun ies
One o he main pu poses o c oss-cul u al esea ch is o compa e
psychological cons uc s be ween dis inc g oups. A measu e
ha has been deemed psychome ically sound in one cul u al
se ing is o en assumed o be ansla able o use in ano he
cul u al con ex , bu his assump ion may be misleading and
needs o be o mally es ed. Cu en ly, he only e idence o
he c oss-cul u al equi alence o he PBA cons uc has been
ound be ween F ench- and English-speaking samples in Wes e n
coun ies (Roskam e al., 2018). This does no exclude he
possibili y ha pa en al bu nou may a y, bo h s uc u ally and
exp essi ely, ac oss coun ies o cul u es. An impo an challenge
in he la ge-scale assessmen s commonly used in c oss-cul u al
esea ch is o e i y ha he collec ed sel - epo ed da a measu e
he objec o in e es in he same way, i espec i e o he mac o-
con ex . Due o di e ences in language and cul u al esponse
biases, pa icipan s in e p e ce ain wo ds in di e en ways. As a
esul , hei unde s anding o he in ended meaning o a ques ion
changes, and esponden s may a ibu e di e en meanings o an
ins umen , unde mining he compa abili y o cons uc s ac oss
cul u es (Ma kus and Ki ayama, 1991;Ru kowski and S e ina,
2014).
The Cu en Resea ch
The cu en esea ch aims o e alua e he psychome ic
p ope ies o he Spanish e sion o he PBA. In o de o es
he alidi y o i s in e nal s uc u e, we i s conduc ed an
explo a o y analysis using an Explo a o y S uc u al Equa ion
Modeling (ESEM) amewo k (Ma sh e al., 2010). ESEM is
an in e es ing al e na i e app oach o classical Con i ma o y
Fac o ial Analysis (CFA) commonly used in p e ious s udies
(e.g., Aunola e al., 2020;Sodi e al., 2020;Szczygieł e al., 2020;
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
Roskam e al., 2021). In CFA, he in luence exe ed on a gi en
i em by dimensions o he han he one(s) o which his i em
belongs can be hidden (Ma sh e al., 2010). In p e ious PBA
alida ion s udies, he p esence o high in e ac o ial co ela ions
(>0.90) was no explici ly add essed, which migh ep esen a
h ea o mul icollinea i y (B own, 2015). When o e laps occu ,
in e p e ing ac o s as independen en i ies may be no longe
app op ia e. Ano he eason o implemen ing ESEM is ha ,
om a concep ual poin o iew, he good i indices ound o a
cul u ally-in a ian model in di e en coun ies do no gua an ee
ha his model is he bes ep esen a ion o pa en al bu nou in
each coun y.
Fo hese easons, we examined whe he a bi ac o model o
he PBA could be applied o he sample o Spanish-speaking
pa en s. Bi ac o modeling assumes ha he co ela ions be ween
ac o s a e explained by he p esence o a gene al ac o (Reise,
2012). The analysis simul aneously models he in luence o
speci ic (o hogonal) ac o s and a gene al ac o on a se o i ems.
This echnique p o ides e en mo e solid e idence ega ding he
ele ance o a gene al ac o (Pa en al Bu nou in he cu en
s udy) compa ed o a second-o de hie a chical model. Hence,
bi ac o modeling in ESEM es s he di ec in luence o he
gene al ac o on he i ems, whe eas second-o de hie a chical
modeling es s he in luence o he gene al ac o on he
i ems indi ec ly h ough he i s -o de ac o s (Cani ez, 2016).
Figu e 1 depic s he concep ual model o he gene al measu e o
pa en al bu nou .
We hen es ed measu emen in a iance ac oss gende s and
coun ies (A gen ina, Chile, Cos a Rica, Cuba, Ecuado , Pe u,
Spain, and U uguay), and we examined mean di e ences. Based
on p e ious esea ch (Pé ez-Díaz and Oya ce Cádiz, 2020;
Roskam and Mikolajczak, 2020), pa en al bu nou was expec ed
o be highe among mo he s han a he s. In an explo a o y way,
we es ed he mean di e ences ac oss coun ies ega ding he
o al sco e o pa en al bu nou . Finally, o ob ain e idence o
alidi y o he ela ionship o he PBA wi h o he heo e ically
ela ed a iables, p edic i e alidi y was es ima ed by es ing
associa ions be ween pa en al bu nou and h ee speci ic e ec s
o his cons uc , i.e., escape and suicidal idea ions, pa en al
neglec , and pa en al iolence owa d one’s child en, in wo
coun ies displaying di e en mean le els o pa en al bu nou ,
i.e., Chile and Ecuado .
GENERAL METHOD
O e iew
The wo s udies we e pa o he In e na ional In es iga ion o
Pa en al Bu nou (IIPB), a 42-coun y s udy o pa en al bu nou
a ound he globe (Roskam e al., 2021). An ins i u ional e iew
boa d p o ided e hical clea ance o he esea ch in each coun y
[i.e., Spain (Bioe hics Commi ee om The Na ional Dis ance
Educa ion Uni e si y); Pe ú (The Resea ch Commi ee o he
San Ma ín de Po es Uni e si y); Chile (E hics Commi ee om
he Au onomous Uni e si y o Chile, 71–18); U uguay (E hics
Commi ee o he Facul y o Psychology o he Uni e si y o
he Republic); Ecuado (Ins i u ional Re iew Commission o
he Ca holic Uni e si y o Ecuado ); Cuba (Resea ch E hics
Commi ee o he Facul y o Psychology o he Uni e si y
o Ha ana, Dossie N-3); and Cos a Rica (Scien i ic E hics
Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Cos a Rica, N93 VI-1071-
2018)]. No e ha in A gen ina, no e hical clea ance was equi ed
o he esea ch.
Bo h s udies complied wi h APA e hical s anda ds ega ding
he ea men o human subjec s. The inclusion c i e ium o
he IIPB s udy was ha ing a leas one child s ill li ing a
home. In he cu en s udy, we in oduced wo addi ional c i e ia
o he inclusion o he pa icipan s. Pa en s we e equi ed o
ha e been bo n and esided in he same coun y whe e he
da a collec ion ook place. Pa en s signed an in o med consen
allowing wi hd awal a any momen . We also assu ed pa icipan s
ha he da a would emain anonymous.
In S udy 1, a common su ey, made up o sociodemog aphic
cha ac e is ics and he measu e o pa en al bu nou (i.e.,
PBA), was used in he eigh included coun ies. The Spanish
e sion o he PBA was p oduced using ansla ion/back-
ansla ion p ocedu es by he Hispanic membe s o he IIPB
conso ium. Mino coun y-speci ic language modi ica ions we e
implemen ed. Pa icipan s comple ed he su ey online (in
A gen ina, Chile, and Ecuado ), on pape (in Cuba and U uguay),
o bo h (in Cos a Rica, Pe u, and Spain). The online e sion was
adminis e ed using he Qual ics pla o m. In o ma ion abou
he s udy was dissemina ed h ough social media (Facebook,
LinkedIn, and Ins ag am), by wo d o mou h o h ough an
o icial email in i a ion sen by he esea che s. Fo he pape -
and-pencil e sion, pa icipan s we e ec ui ed h ough pa en s’
associa ions, as well as p i a e and public schools. The da a we e
mos ly collec ed in u ban zones o he capi al in each coun y.
S udy 2 was based on a second da a collec ion in Chile and
Ecuado . The su ey comp ised measu es o pa en al bu nou ,
escape, suicidal idea ions, pa en al neglec , and pa en al iolence
owa d one’s child en. All pa icipan s comple ed he su ey
online using he Qual ics pla o m. We implemen ed a snowball
sampling echnique. As in S udy 1, he da a we e p ima ily
collec ed in u ban zones o he capi al in each coun y.
In he sec ion “Gene al Me hod” as well as in he “Me hod”
sec ions o S udy 1 and S udy 2, we epo ed how we made
su e ha he s a is ical analyses we e app op ia e o he sample
sizes in each pa icipa ing coun y, all da a inclusion c i e ia (all
being es ablished p io o da a analysis), he measu es used in
he wo s udies, and all he s a is ical analyses we pe o med. We
epo ed exac p alues, e ec sizes, and 95% con idence in e als
o in e en ial analyses.
Da a Analyses
In S udy 1, we used a bi ac o ESEM model o e alua e how
adjus ed he pa en al bu nou measu emen model is. The
assump ions o he bi ac o model a e ha he speci ic ac o s a e
o hogonal o each o he and ha he p esence o a gene al ac o
explains be e he co ela ions be ween hem. We p elimina ily
es ed he bi ac o model s uc u e o he PBA in each coun y
sample independen ly. Following ha , we pe o med ESEM o
inspec he bi ac o model on he pooled sample.
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
FIGURE 1 | The concep ual bi ac o model o pa en al bu nou .
Se e al i ems showed de ia ion om no mali y, as hei
skewness and ku osis p o ed. This is expec ed, as men al
heal h indica o s usually ea u e an asymme ic dis ibu ion.
A posi i ely skewed dis ibu ion o hese pa en al bu nou
i ems is he e o e concep ually sound. We used maximum
likelihood es ima ion wi h obus (Hube -Whi e) s anda d
e o s and a scaled es s a is ic (MLR) as he es ima ion
me hod while elying on s anda d i indices o asce ain
he adequacy o he Bi ac o ESEM model: he Sa o a-
Ben le scaled chi-squa e s a is ics (S-Bχ2; Sa o a and Ben le ,
1991), he Tucke -Lewis index (TLI), he compa a i e i
index (CFI), he oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion
(RMSEA), and he s anda dized oo mean squa e esidual
(SRMR). Should he CFI and TLI alues each 0.90 o mo e,
hey a e conside ed adequa e, and alues o RMSEA and
SRMR ≤0.8 a e p e e ed (Hu and Ben le , 1999). These
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
analyses we e execu ed wi h he so wa e Mplus e sion 7
(Mu hén and Mu hén, 1998-2015).
The i indices do no epo on he s eng h o he gene al
ac o . Thus, complemen a y indica o s we e implemen ed o
e alua e he s eng h o he gene al ac o , i.e., he gene al
hie a chical omega (ωh;Zinba g e al., 2006), and he explained
common a iance (ECV; Sij sma, 2009). Values g ea e han 0.70
and 0.60, we e espec i ely expec ed (Reise e al., 2013), while
alues g ea e han 0.30 o he hie a chical omega pe dimension
(ωhs) mean he in e p e abili y o he ac o s (Smi s e al., 2015).
When es ing o measu emen in a iance, we used a se
o models whe e cons ain s we e inc emen ally in oduced
h ough a s epwise mul iple g oup analysis (MG-ESEM).
Fi s , he pa en al bu nou model was assessed o con igu al
in a iance. Second, i em ac o loadings we e es ed in a me ic
in a iance model. Thi d, scala in a iance was e i ied wi h he
in e cep s se as equal ac oss g oups. Finally, e o a iances we e
cons ained o be equal ac oss g oups. A CFI dec ease wi hin he
es ablished limi s (1CFI ≤-0.01), RMSEA and SRMR indices
wi hin ce ain h esholds (1RMSEA ≤0.015; 1SRMR ≤0.030)
con i ms measu emen in a iance (Cheung and Rens old, 2002;
Chen, 2007). No e ha measu emen in a iance ac oss gende s
was es ima ed on he pooled sample, a he han in each o he
coun ies because o he small sample size o a he s, and o a
lesse ex en , o mo he s in some coun ies.
To e alua e gende and coun y- ela ed PBA mean
di e ences, he la en mean o he e e ence g oups (Chile
o coun ies and a he s o gende ) was se o ze o wi hin
he amewo k o he scala in a iance model. In his sense,
he s a is ical signi icance o he mean di e ence o each
sample compa ed o he e e ence g oup was assessed in each
analysis, ei he ac oss coun ies o gende s. The e o e, a la en
mean di e ence (LMdi ) g ea e han ze o indica ed ha he
compa ison g oup had a highe mean han ha o he e e ence
g oup (B own, 2015). To calcula e whe he he la en means o
he compa ison g oup di e ed signi ican ly om he baseline,
we calcula ed c i ical a ios (CRs) by di iding he es ima e by i s
s anda d e o . When he CR was abo e 1.96, he di e ence was
s a is ically signi ican . To calcula e whe he he la en mean o
he compa ison g oup di e ed signi ican ly om he baseline,
we calcula ed c i ical a ios (CRs) by di iding he es ima e by
i s s anda d e o . When he CR was abo e 1.96, he di e ence
was s a is ically signi ican (By ne, 2013). We supplemen ed
he compa isons wi h Cohen’s d measu e o e ec size wi h
con idence in e als, whe e alues less han 0.20 indica ed an
insigni ican e ec size, be ween 0.20 and 0.50 a small magni ude,
be ween 0.50 and 0.80, mode a e; and g ea e han 0.80, la ge
(Fe guson, 2009).
In S udy 2, he p edic i e alidi y o he PBA was es ima ed
using bi a ia e co ela ions be ween he gene al ac o o he PBA
on he one hand, and escape and suicidal idea ions, pa en al
neglec , and pa en al iolence owa d one’s child en on he
o he hand. Con idence in e als o co ela ion coe icien s
we e calcula ed.
We es ima ed he eliabili y o he scales used in he cu en
esea ch by compu ing he C onbach’s alpha (α) and McDonald’s
omega coe icien (ω). A hie a chical omega (ωh) was also
calcula ed wi hin he amewo k o he bi ac o model (Rod iguez
e al., 2016). While C onbach’s alpha is based on he co ela ions
be ween es i ems, model-based coe icien s like omega a e a he
based on he la en s uc u e o he es . C onbach’s alpha can
be o e es ima ed because all he sha ed a iance be ween i ems
coun s owa d he coe icien . In con as , omega bypasses his
ca ea , due o es ima ing eliabili y on he ac o ial loads, hus o
he cons uc in he analysis.
STUDY 1
Pa icipan s
The ini ial sample (N= 2,502) encompassed pa icipan s om
A gen ina, Chile, Cos a Rica, Cuba, Ecuado , Pe u, Spain, and
U uguay. O hese, 1,869 (74.7%) we e women and 633 (25.3%)
we e men. Thei age anged om 17 o 78 (M= 38.03, SD = 8.49).
Howe e , since one o he aims o he s udy is a mul ig oup
analysis and due o he absence o con e gence, h ee samples
we e excluded (A gen ina, Cuba, and U uguay a e ini ial
p ocessing). Simila ly, Ecuado ’s da a om S udy 1 we e eplaced
by S udy 2 due o he la ge sample size.
Wi h his inal sample (N= 1,979) he majo i y o pa icipan s
we e women (1,588, 80.2%). Thei age anged om 17 o 78 yea s
(M= 38.43, SD = 8.09). The numbe o child en anged om
1 o 9 (M= 1.79, SD = 0.88). Table 1 displays demog aphic
in o ma ion o pa icipan s in each coun y.
Measu es
Pa en al Bu nou
Pa en al bu nou was assessed by he Pa en al Bu nou
Assessmen (PBA, Roskam e al., 2018), a 23-i em sel - epo . The
ins umen encompasses ou dimensions: Emo ional Exhaus ion
[nine i ems; e.g., “I ha e ze o ene gy o looking a e my
child( en)”], Con as (six i ems; e.g., “I’m ashamed o he pa en
ha I’ e become”), Feelings o Being Fed Up ( i e i ems; e.g.,
“I eel like I can’ cope as a pa en ”), and Emo ional Dis ancing
[ h ee i ems; e.g., “I’m no longe able o show my child( en) how
much I lo e hem”]. I ems a e a ed on 7-poin Like scales:
ne e (0), a ew imes a yea o less (1), once a mon h o less
(2), a ew imes a mon h (3), once a week (4), a ew imes a week
(5), e e y day (6). C onbach’s alphas epo ed in he o iginal PBA
e sion we e high, anging om 0.77 o 0.94. Spanish PBA scale
can be ound in Supplemen a y Ma e ial.
Resul s
Pa en al Bu nou Assessmen I em Desc ip ion and
Fac o Analysis
The mean o he i ems was Mmean = 1.09 ( ange: 0.38–2.64) and
he s anda d de ia ion was SDmean = 1.44 ( ange: 1.04–1.99).
Se e al i ems we e posi i ely skewed [MSk = 1.84, ange (0.22–
3.42)] and showed high ku osis [Mk= 3.55, ange (−1.27 o
12)]. Me hods o es ima ion which do no equi e no mali y we e
applied, as men ioned in he “Da a Analyses” sec ion. Due o he
complexi y o he ESEM app oach and he numbe o pa ame e s
o be es ima ed, he model could no con e ge in h ee samples,
so hey we e emo ed om he analyses.
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
TABLE 1 | Demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he samples in S udy 1.
N nWomen nMen Mean age
(SD)
Mean
ageWomen
(SD)
Mean
ageMen
(SD)
Educa ional le el (yea s o educa ion) Numbe o
child en
12 yea s
(compulso y
educa ion)
17 yea s
(uni e si y
deg ee)
>18 yea s
(pos g adua e
deg ee)
Mean [Range]
A gen ina 176 118 58 39.95
(9.88)
40.43 (9.23) 38.97 (11.04) 32 (18.1%) 79 (44.6%) 65 (37.3%) 2.35 [1–8]
Chile* 718 641 77 36.89
(6.01)
36.49 (5.70) 40.25 (7.38) 25 (5.2%) 273 (41.9%) 420 (52.9%) 1.79 [1–9]
Cos a Rica* 234 14 94 37.68
(8.15)
35.66 (6.98) 40.69 (8.85) 29 (16.6%) 102 (41.5%) 103 (41.9%) 1.59 [1–5]
Cuba 240 137 103 40.04
(10.24)
39.96 (10.32) 40.16 (10.19) 143(59.6%) 71 (29.6) 26 (10.8%) 1.70 [1–4]
Ecuado ** 146 102 44 32.45
(7.51)
32.27 (7.34) 32.86 (7.96) 9 (6.2%) 69 (47.3%) 68 (46.6%) 1.64 [1–5]
Pe u* 368 265 103 40.22
(10.84)
38.97 (9.89) 43.815 (12.34) 99 (30.6%) 144 (57.8%) 125 (11.6%) 1.93 [1–5]
Spain* 333 287 46 41.10
(7.86)
40.80 (7.80) 42.98 (8.09) 104(32.4%) 133 (43.1%) 96 (24.5%) 1.74 [1–6]
U uguay 287 179 108 35.02
(6.42)
34.23 (5.80) 36.36 (7.16) 150(50.7%) 90 (33.1%) 47 (16.2%) 1.60 [1–6]
*Deno es da a se s in ol ed in s udy 1 and **Fo he case o Ecuado we used da ase o s udy 2.
TABLE 2 | Bi ac o ESEM model and eliabili y pe coun y and gende .
GF EX CO SA ED
S-Bχ2[148] CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR ECV ωhωhs ωhs ωhs ωhs ω α
[90% IC] [95% IC]
Coun ies
Chile 410.519** 0.964 0.939 0.050 0.017 0.823 0.930 0.103 0.181 0.061 0.176 0.900 0.961
[0.044–0.055] [0.0957–0.964]
Ecuado 317.956** 0.916 0.857 0.068 0.025 0.837 0.944 0.016 0.203 0.040 0.147 0.894 0.957
[0.060–0.077] [0.952–0.963]
Cos a Rica 257.012** 0.965 0.940 0.056 0.020 0.821 0.926 0.207 0.040 0.107 0.087 0.905 0.963
[0.044–0.067] [0.956–0.968]
Pe ú 302.643** 0.927 0.874 0.053 0.025 0.803 0.913 0.046 0.269 0.065 0.161 0.869 0.942
[0.045–0.062] [0.934–0.949]
Spain 256.985** 0.967 0.944 0.047 0.019 0.811 0.932 0.012 0.320 0.060 0.128 0.895 0.957
[0.037–0.057] [0.952–0.963]
To al Sample 542.044** 0.976 0.958 0.037 0.014 0.829 0.929 0.070 0.231 0.065 0.122 0.958 0.958
[0.033–0.040] [0.955–0.960]
Gende
Fa he s 249.703** 0.949 0.913 0.042 0.025 0.750 0.882 0.109 0.332 −0.147 0.109 0.862 0.929
[0.033–0.051] [0.920–0.937]
Mo he s 509.523** 0.974 0.956 0.039 0.015 0.830 0.931 0.065 0.229 0.055 0.134 0.894 0.959
[0.036–0.043] [0.956–0.961]
S-B χ2, Sa o a Ben le chi-squa ed; CFI, Compa a i e Fi Index; TLI, Tucke –Lewis index; RMSEA, Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion; SRMR, S anda dized Roo
Mean Squa e Residual; ECV, Explained Common Va iance; GF, Gene al Fac o ; EX, Exhaus ion; CO, Con as ; SA, Sa u a ion; DE, Emo ional Dis ancing; ωh, Gene al
Omega hie a chical; ωhs, Omega hie a chical pe dimension; α, C onbach’s alpha.
**p <0.01.
The bi ac o ESEM model was es ima ed in he i e
emaining samples and he pooled sample (N= 1,979).
Fi indices we e good, as displayed in Table 2. Mo eo e ,
he magni ude o he desc ip i e indica o s associa ed wi h
he bi ac o analysis (ECV, ωh, and ωhs) demons a ed he
s eng h o he gene al ac o ac oss coun ies and gende s
(see Table 3). In addi ion, as shown in Table 3, he
s anda dized ac o loadings anged om 0.57 o 0.81 o
he gene al ac o o Pa en al Bu nou in he pooled sample
(N= 1,979).
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
TABLE 3 | Fac o loadings o he bi ac o ESEM model in he pooled sample.
GF EX CO SA ED
EX1 0.574 0.453 −0.053 −0.160 −0.134
EX2 0.736 0.435 −0.007 −0.025 −0.143
EX3 0.696 0.381 0.025 −0.003 0.008
EX4 0.698 0.235 −0.038 −0.057 0.075
EX5 0.767 0.097 0.031 0.347 −0.083
EX6 0.772 0.235 −0.074 −0.062 −0.010
EX7 0.780 0.096 −0.105 −0.036 0.010
EX8 0.802 0.012 −0.138 −0.122 0.030
EX9 0.813 −0.047 0.005 −0.035 0.122
CO1 0.616 0.283 0.244 0.067 0.027
CO2 0.652 0.234 0.400 0.090 0.229
CO3 0.700 0.075 0.399 0.067 0.167
CO4 0.713 −0.214 0.492 0.040 −0.058
CO5 0.663 −0.194 0.466 −0.037 −0.127
CO6 0.726 −0.133 0.374 0.001 0.153
SA1 0.712 0.037 0.080 0.520 −0.017
SA2 0.743 0.344 −0.110 -0.082 −0.102
SA3 0.619 −0.079 0.035 0.125 −0.009
SA4 0.810 0.172 −0.098 0.022 −0.073
SA5 0.732 −0.152 0.066 0.437 −0.071
ED1 0.606 −0.104 0.084 −0.006 0.249
ED2 0.581 −0.219 0.284 0.022 0.241
ED3 0.665 −0.109 0.129 −0.109 0.347
Fac o loadings in bold belong o he heo e ical ac o . GF, Gene al Fac o ; EX,
Exhaus ion; CO, Con as ; SA, Sa u a ion; ED, Emo ional Dis ancing.
TABLE 4 | Goodness-o - i indices o measu emen in a iance o he PBA bi ac o
ESEM model ac oss coun ies and gende .
S-Bχ2d RMSEA 1RMSEA CFI 1CFI SRMR 1SRMR
Ac oss Coun ies
Con igu al 1.602.712 740 0.054 0.953 0.021
Me ic 1.767.875 1100 0.039 −0.014 0.963 −0.01 0.040 0.019
Scala 1.980.609 1172 0.042 0.003 0.956 −0.007 0.042 0.002
E o 2.168.826 1264 0.043 0.001 0.95 −0.006 0.053 0.011
Ac oss Gende
Con igu al 769.355 296 0.040 0.969 0.017
Me ic 846.208 386 0.035 −0.005 0.970 0.001 0.028 0.011
Scala 890.556 404 0.035 0.000 0.968 −0.002 0.029 0.001
E o NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC
RMSEA, Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion; CFI, Compa a i e Fi
Index; SRMR, S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual; S-Bχ2, Sa o a
Ben le chi-squa ed; d , Deg ees o eedom; 1RMSEA, Roo Mean Squa e
E o o App oxima ion Di e ence Tes ;1CFI, Compa a i e Fi Index Di e ence
Tes ; 1SRMR, S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual Di e ence Tes ;
NC, No Con e gence.
Measu emen In a iance o Pa en al Bu nou Bi ac o
Explo a o y S uc u al Equa ion Modeling Model
Ac oss Coun ies
We used he Chilean sample as he e e ence g oup. As shown
in Table 4, he i indices suppo con igu al in a iance. Unde
TABLE 5 | Compa isons ac oss e e ence and compa ison coun ies.
LMdi SE CR d (95% CI)
Cos a Rica −0.191 0.090 −2.122* 0.28 [0.13–0.43]
Ecuado −0.315 0.097 −3.247* 0.32 [0.19–0.45]
Pe u −0.506 0.102 −4.961* 0.45 [0.32–0.57]
Spain −0.142 0.077 −1.844 0.18 [0.05–0.31]
LM, La en means; LMdi , di e ence ela i e o he mean o his e e en g oup;
* deno es C i ical Ra io alue la ge han 1.96 indica ing s a is ically signi ican
di e ences in he LM; d, Cohen’s d; CI, con idence in e al.
he cons ain o equal ac o loadings, he model i did no
signi ican ly wo sen, p o iding e idence o me ic in a iance. In
he nex s ep, when in e cep s we e cons ained, scala in a iance
was e idenced. Finally, e o in a iance was a ained.
Measu emen In a iance o Pa en al Bu nou Bi ac o
Explo a o y S uc u al Equa ion Modeling Model
Ac oss Gende s
We used a he s as he e e ence g oup. Acco ding o he
a ia ion obse ed in he CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR i indices,
an accep able deg ee o ac o ial in a iance was ound up o he
scala le el (see Table 4).
Mean Di e ences Ac oss Coun ies
La en means, s anda d e o s, e ec sizes, and la en means
compa isons ac oss coun ies a e p esen ed in Table 5. Signi ican
di e ences in he le el o Pa en al Bu nou we e ound be ween
he i e Spanish-speaking coun ies. In pa icula , Chile had he
highes pa en al bu nou sco e, whe eas Pe u had he lowes .
Mean Di e ence Ac oss Gende s
Pa en al bu nou gene al la en mean o a he s was se o be 0,
and as expec ed, we ound gende - ela ed di e ences in pa en al
bu nou . Mo he s displayed highe sco e han a he s on he
Pa en al Bu nou gene al ac o (LMdi = 0.545, SE = 0.046), wi h
a signi ican C i ical Ra io (CR = 11.85) bu wi h a small e ec size
(d= 0.32).
Reliabili y Indexes
The coe icien s ound o he scales used in he cu en s udy
we e high (see Table 2).
STUDY 2
Pa icipan s
The o al sample (N= 1,171) encompassed pa icipan s om
Chile (N= 845) and Ecuado (N= 326). O hese, 1,044 (89.2%)
we e women and 125 (10.8%) we e men. Thei age anged om
19 o 66 (M= 37.99, SD = 7.08). The numbe o child en li ing
a home anged om 1 o 8 (M= 1.81, SD = 0.87); he mean
age o he oldes child was 9.51 (SD = 7.40), and he mean age
o he younges child was 6.03 (SD = 6.30). Table 6 shows he
demog aphic in o ma ion o pa icipan s in each coun y.
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Man ique-Millones e al. Psychome ic P ope ies o Spanish PBA
TABLE 6 | Demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he samples in s udy 2.
N nWomen nMen Mean age
(SD)
Mean
ageWomen (SD)
Mean
ageMen (SD)
Educa ional le el (yea s o educa ion) Numbe o
child en
12 yea s
(compulso y
educa ion)
17 yea s
(uni e si y
deg ee)
>18 yea s
(pos g adua e
deg ee)
Mean [Range]
Chile 845 789 54 38.08
(6.70)
37.94 (6.62) 40.04 (7.60) 29 (3.4%) 321 (38.08%) 493 (58.52%) 1.78 [1–5]
Ecuado 326 255 71 37.79
(7.99)
37.09 (7.46) 40.32 (9.27) 41 (11.9%) 128 (40%) 157 (48.1%) 1.87 [1–8]
TABLE 7 | Means, s anda d de ia ions, and Pea son co ela ions wi h con idence in e als be ween PBA gene al ac o and measu es o escape and suicidal idea ions,
pa en al neglec , and pa en al iolence owa d one’s child en.
M SD Range 1 2 3 4
1. Escape, suicidal idea ions 9.79 4.48 7–40 −0.33** 0.34** 0.56**
[0.28, 0.38] [0.29, 0.39] [0.52, 0.60]
2. Pa en al neglec 28.54 12.74 17–136 −0.59** 0.45**
[0.55, 0.63] [0.40, 0.49]
3. Pa en al iolence 21.86 8.64 15–120 −0.33**
[0.28, 0.38]
4. PBA gene al ac o 28.67 25.60 0–133 −
M, Means; SD, S anda d De ia ions. Values in b acke s indica e 95% con idence in e al o each co ela ion, **p <0.001.
Measu es
Pa en al Bu nou
Pa en al bu nou was measu ed using he Spanish e sion o he
PBA, as p e iously p esen ed and desc ibed in S udy 1.
Escape and Suicidal Idea ions
Escape and suicidal idea ions we e e alua ed by a se en-i em
ques ionnai e (e.g., “I ha e hough s abou lea ing my amily”)
a ed on a 7-poin scale o equency, i.e., ne e (1), less han
once a mon h (2), abou once a mon h (3), wo o h ee imes
a mon h (4), once a week (5), se e al imes a week (6), e e y day
(7) (Mikolajczak e al., 2018). We ob ained he escape and suicidal
idea ions sco e by adding he se en i em sco es. In he cu en
s udy, he C onbach’s alpha was 0.83 [0.81, 0.84], and Omega’s
coe icien (ω) was 0.86 [0.80, 0.90].
Pa en al Neglec
Neglec ul beha io owa d one’s child en was e alua ed wi h
he Pa en al Neglec Scale (Mikolajczak e al., 2018), a 17-i em
ques ionnai e (e.g., “I don’ ca e abou my child’s schooling and
u u e”) a ed on an 8-poin scale o equency, i.e., ne e (1),
less han once a mon h (2), abou once a mon h (3), a ew imes
a mon h (4), once a week (5), se e al imes a week (6), e e y
day (7), and se e al imes a day (8). The pa en al neglec sco e
was ob ained by adding he 17 i em sco es. In he cu en s udy,
C onbach’s alpha was 0.88 [0.87, 0.89], and Omega’s coe icien
(ω) was 0.88 [0.86, 0.91].
Pa en al Violence
Pa en al Violence was e alua ed wi h he Pa en al Violence Scale
(Mikolajczak e al., 2018), a i een-i em ques ionnai e a ge ing
e bal iolence [e.g., “I say hings o my child en ha I hen
eg e (insul s, idiculous nicknames, e c.)”], physical iolence
(e.g., “I some imes spank o slap my child”), and psychological
iolence (e.g., “I ell my child en ha I will abandon hem i hey
a e no good”). I ems a e a ed on an 8-poin scale o equency,
i.e., ne e (1), less han once a mon h (2), abou once a mon h
(3), a ew imes a mon h (4), once a week (5), se e al imes a
week (6), e e y day (7), and se e al imes a day (8). The pa en al
iolence sco e was ob ained by adding he 15 i em sco es. In
he cu en s udy, C onbach’s alpha was 0.86 [0.85, 0.88], and
Omega’s coe icien (ω) was 0.86 [0.80, 0.90].
Resul s
Table 7 shows he co ela ions be ween he o al sco e o
he PBA on he one hand, and escape and suicidal idea ions,
pa en al neglec , and pa en al iolence owa d one’s child en on
he o he hand. We ound e idence o he p edic i e alidi y
o he PBA – indeed, we pe ec ly eplica ed he medium o
la ge associa ions p e iously epo ed wi h bo h F ench and
English-speaking samples o pa en s (Mikolajczak e al., 2018). In
pa icula , we ound la ge co ela ions be ween pa en al bu nou
and escape and suicidal idea ions. We also ound medium
co ela ions be ween pa en al bu nou and bo h pa en al neglec
and pa en al iolence.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
This esea ch aimed o e alua e he psychome ic p ope ies
o he Spanish e sion o he PBA. We collec ed da a in
eigh Spanish-speaking coun ies (i.e., A gen ina, Chile, Cos a
Rica, Cuba, Ecuado , Pe u, Spain, and U uguay). In S udy
1, we analyzed he in e nal s uc u e o he PBA using he
ESEM app oach conside ed as he combina ion o he bes
componen s o CFA and con en ional EFA. P e ious esea ch
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 9Ap il 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 827014
