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Ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes o Spanish
adolescen s in seconda y schools
Pila Rod iguez Ma inez, Ch is ian Roi h, An onio Jesús Segu a Sánchez &
Ana Ma ia López Na bona
To ci e his a icle: Pila Rod iguez Ma inez, Ch is ian Roi h, An onio Jesús Segu a
Sánchez & Ana Ma ia López Na bona (2023) Ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes o
Spanish adolescen s in seconda y schools, Cogen Social Sciences, 9:1, 2239542, DOI:
10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
© 2023 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup.
Published online: 30 Jul 2023.
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LAW, CRIMINOLOGY & CRIMINAL JUSTICE | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes o Spanish
adolescen s in seconda y schools
Pila Rod iguez Ma inez
1
*, Ch is ian Roi h
1
, An onio Jesús Segu a Sánchez
1
and
Ana Ma ia López Na bona
2
Abs ac : This a icle dis inguishes be ween a i udes owa ds ex emism and
a i udes owa ds iolence and illegal ac s. I ope a ionalizes bo h g oups o
a i udes based on he p oposed scales by Oze and Be elsen (2018), which
a e alida ed o he Spanish case. The combina ion o he wo se s o a i udes
a ou s he use o iolence o pu sue adical ideological, eligious, o poli ical
iews. The li e a u e on he subjec is e iewed, and he esul s o an explo a o y
s udy based on a ques ionnai e adminis e ed o adolescen s a ending 4 schools
in Alme ía and 1 in Mad id (n = 1170), ca ied ou in May 2022, a e p esen ed.
The esul s o wo mul iple eg essions on he indices o ex emism and p o-
iolen and illegal ac s, allow us o conclude ha he boys, he younges , o
o eign pa en s, o mo he s wi h a low educa ional le el, igh -wing, hose who
mos equen ly a end eligious cen es, show mo e ex emism, and p o-
iolence and illegal ac s a i udes. Those who belie e ha he e is disc imina ion
agains LGTBI+ people a e mo e ex emis bu no mo e p o- iolence. Finally,
hose who belong o poo amilies, use many social ne wo ks a day, and ha e
su e ed physical iolence show mo e p o- iolence a i udes and illegal ac s, bu
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
The au ho s a e PhDs in Sociology, Educa ion
and Psychology, and a e p o esso s a he
Uni e si y o Alme ía (and Málaga) whe e hey
each Gende and Mig a ion, Sociology,
Educa ional Theo y and Social Wo k. They ha e
published nume ous high-impac a icles. This
s udy is pa o a la ge in es iga ion. Two books
ha e been published in Spanish. The i s is
aimed a seconda y school eache s and is
en i led T ans o ming iolen ex emism
(Oc aed o Publishing House). The second book
collec s he esul s o he diagnosis and he
in e en ion and is en i led “In e en ion p o-
g am in adicaliza ion and iolence in adoles-
cen s. Diagnosis and implemen a ion in
educa ional cen e s” (Del a Publishing House)
PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Ou mul idisciplina y esea ch g oup
(In es igación In e nacional Compa ada) is in e -
es ed in explo ing cu en social p oblems and in
elabo a ing p oposals o in e en ion o ackle he
iden i ied issues. This a icle p esen s he esul s
o ou su ey on ex emis and p o- iolence a i-
udes o Spanish adolescen s in seconda y
schools. The main objec i e o ou esea ch is o
be e unde s and he de elopmen o dange ous
a i udes in eenage s in o de o de elop an
in e en ion p og amme o p e en ing hese
a i udes. Ou esea ch allowed us o iden i y
ce ain cha ac e is ics o young people which
inc ease he possibili y o de eloping ex emis
and p o- iolence a i udes, such as male gende ,
o eign pa en s, mo he s wi h a low educa ional
le el, igh -wing, hose who mos equen ly
a end eligious cen es, among o he s.
In e en ions aimed a p e en ing ex emis a i-
udes should ocus on adolescen s wi h hese
ea u es.
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
© 2023 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu-
ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on
which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in
a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
Recei ed: 10 Ap il 2023
Accep ed: 18 July 2023
*Co esponding au ho : Pila
Rod iguez Ma inez, Uni e sidad de
Allme ía. Ed.C Hum despacho 252, La
Cañada de San U bano s/n 04120,
Alme ía, Spain
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Re iewing edi o :
Heng Choon (Oli e ) Chan,
Depa men o Social Policy,
Sociology, and C iminology,
Uni e si y o Bi mingham, UK
Addi ional in o ma ion is a ailable a
he end o he a icle
Page 1 o 24
no mo e ex emism. These esul s sugges ha i is necessa y o p io i ize
ans o ming iolen ex emism, especially among he mos ulne able g oups.
Subjec s: In e na ional & Compa a i e Educa ion; Middle School Educa ion; Sociology o
Educa ion
Keywo ds: ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes; adolescen s; seconda y schools; Spain
1. In oduc ion
Violen ex emis iews and a i udes can mani es a ound a ange o issues, such as poli ics,
eligion, cul u al di e si y, sexual o ien a ion, o gende ela ions, p oducing poli ical and social
aliena ion. Such iews could be ca alys s o adicaliza ion, especially among he mos disad an-
aged g oups (T ujillo e al., 2006). No socie y, eligious communi y o wo ld iew is immune o such
iews, bu i is o pa icula conce n among adolescen s, as adolescence is a clea isk ac o o
in ol emen in adicaliza ion ac i i ies (UNESCO, 2016). As he 2020 UN epo Violence agains
Child en poin s ou , child en, especially adolescen s, a e mo e likely o engage in isky beha iou
and a i udes han adul s. Ad ances in unde s anding b ain ma u a ion and de elopmen s in
neu oscience ha e highligh ed ha adolescen s ake isks because hei inc eased appe i e o
no el y and sensa ion seeking p ecedes he g ow h o hei sel - egula o y compe ence and
cogni i e con ol sys em (UN, 2020, p. 9). In o he wo ds, adolescen s ha e no ye ully de eloped
hei cogni i e con ol sys em, and his makes i di icul o hem o con ol hei impulses o
de elop esis ance o pee p essu e. They a e expe iencing a phase o u bulence and eo ganiza-
ion, so ha we can say ha “adolescence pe se is a isk ac o o adicaliza ion” (Campelo e al.,
2018, p. 8). Rebellion and he desi e o di e en ia e om pa en s as a way o asse ing one’s
iden i y can be exploi ed h ough a mechanism o dehumaniza ion by hose who p omise
a communi y wi h s ic undamen alis ules, which asse s he exis ence o The T u h and
p omises a New Social Model (Doosje e al., 2013). Bu he inc ease o ex emis and p o- iolen
a i udes (Rozado & Kau mann, 2022) is no only ela ed o he ac ha hei bea e s a e
expe iencing adolescence. The e a e o he ac o s ha help o unde s and why some adolescen s
a e mo e ex emis and p o- iolen han o he s.
In his a icle we p esen he esul s o a esea ch on iolen ex emis a i udes o adolescen s
in he p o inces o Alme ía and Mad id (Spain). S ong mig a o y mo emen s cha ac e ize Spain,
and pa icula ly Alme ia. As a esul , i is wo h no ing he high pe cen age o o eigne s among
he esiden s. The o igin o he immig an s has changed o e ime, going om a p o incial o
in e p o incial mig a ion ha came o in eg a e he small ag icul u al business, o a cen al o
No h A ican immig a ion wi h ma ked ea u es o ma ginali y and e y di icul o quan i y. In he
p o ince o Alme ía, he immig an popula ion ep esen s mo e han 40% o he o al in some
locali ies, whe e h ee o he seconda y s a e schools whe e we ha e ca ied ou his s udy a e
loca ed, wi h he Mo occan g oup being he mos ep esen a i e since i cons i u es mo e han
90% o he immig an s in hese ag icul u al a eas. This a ea has been cha ac e ized by high bi h
a es ha oday ha e ended o homogenize wi h hose o he su ounding a ea, al hough hey a e
s ill sligh ly highe . As a esul , i has a e y young age s uc u e, wi h ageing a es among he
lowes in he coun y, wi h a high numbe o adolescen s abo e he a e age. One o he schools we
ha e included in his s udy is loca ed in Alme ia ci y and is public. In his case, he pe cen age o
adolescen s who a e child en o immig an s is lowe . The seconda y school in Mad id ha we ha e
included in he s udy is loca ed in a poo neighbou hood o he capi al and is a s a e- unded
p i a e school. In all o hem, he e is a high pe cen age o child en o immig an s, and he amilies
o he adolescen s belong o he middle o lowe -middle class. Bo h he p o ince o Alme ia and
he subu b o Mad id a e cha ac e ised by a high concen a ion o ulne able popula ions, cha -
ac e ised by low income, a e y high pe cen age o child en o immig an s in seconda y schools,
and a lack o social in eg a ion (Capo e & Nie o, 2017) which has led he au ho s o call hese
en i onmen s ulne able en i onmen s (Loba o e al., 2021, p. 52), in which people may emb ace
iolen g oups (Gomez e al., 2021), undamen alis and a - igh alike.
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
Page 2 o 24
Fu he o mig a o y wa es in Alme ía and Mad id, i is wo h highligh ing he impo an
economic down u ns which Spain (and Eu ope) has su e ed om 2007/2008 un il he cu en
economic c isis de i ed om he COVID-19 pandemic and he impac on young people and hei
amilies. The economic impac has been pa icula ly se e e on amily sa ings, and amilies´
s anda ds o li ing. Hence he impo ance o aking in o accoun he economic ac o on he
p ocess o you h adicaliza ion.
We explo e some socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o young people (gende , age, pa en s’
na ionali y, amily’s abili y o sa e money, mo he ’s le el o educa ion, a endance o eligious
wo ship cen es, poli ical ideology, numbe o social ne wo ks used on a daily basis), oge he wi h
hei pe cep ion o disc imina ion agains ce ain g oups (LGTBI+, poo amilies and immig an s)
and exposu e o physical iolence (poly ic imiza ion). A endance a eligious se ices and poli ical
ideology we e in oduced wi h he in en ion o de ec ing whe he he e was a signi ican adica-
lisa ion phenomenon among adolescen s. We will y o elucida e o wha ex en hese a iables
help o unde s and ex emis and p o- iolence and p o-illegal ac s and a i udes.
2. Violen ex emism
Violen ex emism e e s o he belie s and ac ions o people who suppo o use iolence o achie e
adical ideological, eligious, o poli ical iews. I b ings oge he wo aspec s: he endo semen o
ex emism and he accep ance o iolen means. Radicaliza ion can be unde s ood gene ically as he
p ocess o accep ance—and/o p ac ice—o ex emis ideology and ac ion, as wha de ines iolen
ex emism is he emphasis on he use o iolence as a means, a he han he ex eme iews
hemsel es (Neumann, 2013). Howe e , cogni i e adicaliza ion does no ha e o lead o beha iou al
adicaliza ion. Mo eo e , when we ocus on cogni i e adicaliza ion, ex emis a i udes need no
necessa ily lead o iolen a i udes. In addi ion, su e ing om o he physical iolence (in he pee
g oup, amily, e c.) may also in luence he p o- iolence a i udes o adolescen s, as we will see la e .
In ac , he concep s o adicaliza ion and ex emism a e exposed o ans o ma ions in poli ical,
economic, social and secu i y dynamics (Win e e al., 2020). The concep o adical ex emism o
iolen adicaliza ion has been widely used in ecen yea s in connec ion wi h inal beha iou s o
a e o is na u e (Abay Gaspa e al., 2020; Be ge , 2016), which has o do wi h an in en ion o use
he de ini ion as a con ibu ion o g ea e knowledge and i s p ac ical use in secu i y and de ence.
Bu i has also shown he need o p o ide a con incing de ini ion o he di e ence be ween
adicaliza ion as an a i ude and i s embodimen in ac ual iolen beha iou (Pugliese, 2018). Fo
no all ha m ul o iolen ac ions s em om iolen adicaliza ion, no all e o is ac ions emb ace
adical ideologies, and he e o e iolen adicaliza ion should no be con used wi h e o is
beha iou (F ancis, 2014; Ho gan, 2009; S ieghe , 2015).
The e is no single p o ile o pa hway o an indi idual o expe ience a p ocess o beha iou al adicalisa-
ion, no can we e en an icipa e he speed a which i occu s. No does he educa ional le el appea o be
a eliable p edic o o ulne abili y o adicalisa ion. Campelo e al. (2018) poin ou ha he e a e mac o-
en i onmen al ac o s ( ela ed o geopoli ics o eligiosi y), mic o-en i onmen al ac o s ( ela ed o
amily dys unc ion o being iends wi h adicalised indi iduals), and indi idual ac o s (psychological
ulne abili y, expe iences o abandonmen , psychia ic condi ions, pe sonal unce ain y and pe cei ed
social injus ice) ha , om a igge ing e en , lead o iolen beha iou al ex emism. The poin in he li e
cycle—adolescence - is a clea isk ac o o in ol emen in adicalisa ion ac i i ies.
Mo eo e , cogni i e adicaliza ion is a necessa y bu no su icien s ep o he ac i a ion o he
indi idual. In i sel , i does no mean ha all cogni i e adicaliza ion ends in iolen ac ions, in ac ,
in beha iou al adicaliza ion. Sageman (2017) main ains ha cogni i e adicaliza ion is an ideolo-
gical aspec ha main ains and de elops subsequen a i udes and subsequen ac ions in he
indi idual, e en i massi ely adicalized hinking does no esul in iolen ac ions. On he o he
hand, in he p ocesses o beha iou al adicaliza ion, such as hose ela ed o e o is g oups, he e
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
Page 3 o 24
is an a emp o p omo e a i udes o unde s anding and jus i ica ion o he iolen ac s ca ied
ou , which inc eases ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes (Rod iguez e al., 2022).
Cogni i e adicaliza ion is ela ed o beha iou al adicaliza ion also in he sense ha p o-
iolence a i udes a e ela ed o he expe ience ha indi iduals ha e wi h online iolence. A
his poin we would like o men ion he ole played by he public dissemina ion o iolen a i udes,
especially ha which occu s in social ne wo ks h ough ha e speech. In his line, K uglanski e al.
(2013) highligh s ha iolence is e iden in he con en o ha e speeches as an in e media e s ep
be ween cogni i e and beha iou al adicaliza ion.
Se e al au ho s ha e de eloped he idea ha iolence in social ne wo ks cons i u es an e ec i e
iolence ha goes beyond he cogni i e bu does no each he beha iou al, emaining a an inde e mi-
na e poin , appa en ly somewhe e in be ween. Following hese au ho s, Finkelho e al. (2000) de ined
iolence in social ne wo ks as h ea s and o ensi e ac s ha a e sen o pos ed agains a young pe son
o o he young people o see wi h agg essi e in en . In he same ein, Besley (2009) highligh s he
concep o mo al iolence o unde line he use o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies, by
indi iduals o g oups, o commi delibe a e, epea ed and clea ly hos ile ac s o mo ally ha m o he s. The
same is ue o he use o insul and h ea as a se ious mechanism o damage he image o a pe son o
collec i e (Hinduja & Pa chin, 2008, 2010; Ju o en & G oss, 2008; Li, 2008).
Kowalski e al. (2012), elabo a e on his s ep o cogni i e iolence de eloped on he in e ne as
di e en om adi ional iolen bullying o ou easons: 1) i can be done anonymously; 2) i can
be commi ed and su e ed a any ime; 3) i can c ea e he ea o losing in e ne access o
ic ims (who he e o e e use o epo hei a acke s); and 4) i e y o en gi es way o inac ion by
wi nesses. In he same ein, Boyd (2014) shows ha he e e yday use o social ne wo ks by
eenage s akes place because he e is easy access o online con en (especially h ough he use o
keywo ds), which allows o a shi om ease o c ea ing iolen con en o ac ual ha m caused
owa ds ic ims, e en i he con en is no pe cei ed as des uc i e, on many occasions, by he
young people who de elop i . In any case, he au ho s conclude ha he In e ne can ein o ce
ex emis ideologies h ough messages and na a i es, c ea ing a enues o adolescen s o join
ne wo ks whe e ex emis ideas a e sp ead, hus con ibu ing o he no maliza ion o iolen
beha iou (Ami e al., 2021; Hassan e al., 2020).
3. S udies abou ex emis and p o iolence a i udes in adolescen s
O e he las ew yea s some esea ch on ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes o adolescen s ha e
been ca ied ou in e na ionally. In he con ex o ou esea ch p ojec , he ollowing s udies,
ca ied ou in Belgium and Swi ze land, as well as a me a-analysis o esea ch on cogni i e and
beha iou al adicaliza ion seemed especially in e es ing, because, e en hough ocusing on sligh ly
di e en opics and using di e en me hodologies, hey o e impo an insigh s, which he design
o ou own su ey ook in o accoun .
These s udies di ec ly use—o a e inspi ed by - Moskalenko and McCauley’s (2009) scales on Ac i ism
and Radicalism. Moskalenko and McCauley (2009) in oduced he Ac i ism and Radicalism In en ion
Scales o unde s and how indi iduals mo e om poli ical a i udes and belie s o poli ical ac ion,
including poli ical iolence and e o ism. The Ac i ism In en ion Scale assesses eadiness o pa icipa e
in legal and no- iolen poli ical ac ion, whe eas he Radicalism In en ion Scale assesses eadiness o
pa icipa e in illegal o iolen poli ical ac ion. These a e wo co ela ed bu dis inguishable dimensions.
They es ed he scales in ad-hoc samples o U.S. and Uk ainian unde g adua es (n = 140 and 146), and in
an In e ne panel su ey ep esen a i e o he U.S popula ion (n = 429). They conclude ha he e a e wo
iews o he ela ion be ween ac i ism and adicalism. In he i s , he e is a single dimension o poli ical
ac ion ha uns om passi i y o ac i ism o adicalism. In he second, adicalism is an app aisal ha
jus i ies o e en equi es poli ical iolence as he only possible pa h o poli ical change. Only a small
mino i y ( om 11 % o 17%) o hose wi h ac i is in en ions ha e also adical in en ions. The au ho s
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
Page 4 o 24
conclude ha he pe pe a o s o poli ical iolence, including e o is iolence, a e he apex o a py amid
o sympa hize s and suppo e s.
F oun elke e al. (2019) explo ed he nexus be ween disc imina ion and adicaliza ion among
adolescen s and young adul s in Belgium. The au ho s assumed ha he e would be an associa ion
be ween disc imina ion based on poli ical iews and eligion/ ai h and suppo o iolen adica-
liza ion. Fu he mo e, hey hough ha a connec ion be ween expe iencing disc imina ion du ing
in e ac ions wi h he c iminal jus ice sys em and seeking employmen and endo semen o adical
ac ion would exis . The e o e, he au ho s ca ied ou a su ey in ended o iden i ying he men-
ioned con ex . 2,037 young adul s be ween he ages o 16 and 30, mainly s uden s in seconda y
schools in he F ench speaking B ussels Capi al Region, he Du ch speaking An we p ci y egion and
elsewhe e in Flande s pa icipa ed in he s udy. The sociodemog aphic da a o he pa icipan s
we e egis e ed, as well as hei answe s conce ning hei pe cei ed disc imina ion. Fu he mo e,
hei eplies o ques ions belonging o he Radicalism In en ion Scale (RIS) de eloped and ali-
da ed by Moskalenko and McCauley (2009) we e co ela ed o hese da a. Mo e han a hi d o all
pa icipan s (37.6%) epo ed expe iencing disc imina ion; among hem, mo e women han men
(41.1% s. 34.3%, espec i ely). A majo i y o Muslims (55.6 %) decla ed ha ing pe cei ed dis-
c imina ion, bu only 30.6% o hose who epo ed no being pa o any o he lis ed eligion. In
wha e e s o sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and adicaliza ion, F oun elke e al. (2019) indi-
ca e ha “men and esponden s who did no speak Du ch o F ench as hei i s language had
highe sco es as compa ed o women and hose who spoke one o he o icial languages’’ (p. 30).
The au ho s also ound a co ela ion be ween disc imina ion and adicaliza ion: “Expe iencing any
disc imina ion was associa ed wi h highe RIS sco es. The e was also an associa ion be ween
numbe o easons o disc imina ion and highe RIS sco es, wi h indi iduals epo ing i e o
mo e easons o disc imina ion ha ing highe sco es han hose epo ing ou o less” (p. 30).
Indi iduals who had pe cei ed disc imina ion due o poli ical iews showed he highes RIS sco es.
In he discussion, he au ho s highligh ha , whe eas he iden i ied ela ionship be ween ha ing
pe cei ed disc imina ion and a endency o suppo ing ex emis beha iou does no seem su p is-
ing, he lack o inding a ela ionship be ween disc imina ion based on eligion/ ai h and suppo
o adical ac ion in hei su ey seems su p ising. This esul is a leas alid in he con ex o
Belgium. Ha ing equally ound a posi i e ela ionship be ween ha ing g own up wi h a i s
language di e en o one o Belgium’s o icial languages and highe sco es on he RIS scale,
F oun elke e al. (2019) sugges enhancing e o s o ecognize linguis ic di e si y in Belgian
schools and os e ing language inclusion as an ido es o pe cep ions o disc imina ion ha
would consequen ly diminish in en ions o adical beha iou .
A Swiss esea ch g oup (Kamenowski e al., 2021) ecen ly p esen ed a s udy o eligion as an
in luencing ac o o igh -wing, le -wing and Islamis ex emism. The app oach o he au ho s
dis inguishes be ween eligious a ilia ion and eligious a achmen and ies o measu e he
in luence o hese wo ac o s on ex emis a i udes among young people. The su ey was ca ied
ou in 10 o Swi ze land’s 26 can ons and abo e all aimed a young people aged be ween 17 and
18 yea s. A o al numbe o 8,317 s uden s ook pa in he su ey; he gende a io was balanced
and he e was a high p opo ion o young people wi h a mig a ion backg ound (51.2%). The
analysis showed ha eligious a ilia ion co ela es o ex emis a i udes in di e en ways.
A “Ch is ian eligious a ilia ion is associa ed wi h a sligh ly highe accep ance o igh -wing
ex emis as well as Islamis -ex emis a i udes” (p. 13). Fu he mo e, being a Muslim is accom-
panied by an app o al o Islamis ex emism. In wha e e s o Muslim you h, he inding o he
su ey is ha he mo e eligious hey a e, he mo e impo an ex emis a i udes a e o hem.
Claiming eligious exclusi eness, as well as eligious in ole ance, is also accompanied by a highe
ag eemen wi h ex emis a i udes among Ch is ians and Muslims. Taking in o accoun gende ,
he s udy inds ha “male adolescen s a e mo e open o ex emis a i udes” (p. 14). On he o he
hand, he su ey could no iden i y a clea co ela ion be ween he associa ion wi h delinquen
iends and ex emism, which is o en men ioned in c iminological li e a u e ( o ins ance,
Wol owicz e al., 2021).
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This la e inding is no consis en wi h he esul s o ano he su ey ca ied ou in Swi ze land
(Ni e e e al., 2017). The au ho s o his s udy ied o examine he in luence o collec i e s ain on
suppo o iolen ex emism. The sample consis ed o a g oup o e hnically di e se Swiss
adolescen s; he analysis ocused on he da a collec ed in wo wa es o su eys conduc ed wi h
1,675 child en, o which a la ge p opo ion had a mig a ion backg ound. The heo e ical back-
g ound o he esea ch was he gene al s ain heo y, which s a es ha exposu e o di e en ypes
o s ain, such as in e ac ions pe cei ed as unjus , he emo al o posi i ely alued s imuli o
nega i e expe iences wi h pa en s, pee s, police, and employe s, can p oduce nega i e emo ions,
which demand co ec i e ac ion. Acco ding o his heo y, c ime is a ype o co ec i e ac ion ha
seeks o inju e, damage, o seek e enge on he p esumed sou ces o s ain (p. 759). The analysis
came o he conclusion ha collec i e s ain in he age g oup 15–17 yea s did no ha e a di ec
e ec on iolen ex emis a i udes. As he o he men ioned s udies also poin ed ou , males a e
mo e likely o suppo iolen ex emism. In his con ex , he au ho s s a e ha “adolescen s who
jus i y he use o iolence mo e gene ally and who dismiss he ‘bindingness’ and legi imacy o he
law a e mo e likely o suppo he use o iolence o achie e poli ical, social, o o he ideological
goals” (p. 778), i.e., eenage s, who jus i y iolence and ule b eaking a e mo e ulne able o
ex emis iolen pa hways, especially when ica iously exposed o condi ions o collec i e social
and economic s i e, con lic , and ep ession (p. 779).
Bliesene e al. (2021) ake a simila line o easoning in a s udy o he de elopmen o
ideological belie s, accep ance o iolence, and ex emis beha iou . A su ey conduc ed wi h
6,700 9
h
g ade s uden s om Ge many showed ha di e en ex emis ideologies ( igh -wing,
le -wing, Islamism) co a y on he le el o a i udes, accep ance o iolence and ex emis beha-
iou . Fu he analysis con i med ha a model o adicaliza ion pa e ns s a ing a he cogni i e
le el, ollowed by he accep ance o de ian means o achie e ideological goals, and inally leading
o ex emis ac s seems o be a easonable scien i ic assump ion.
A comp ehensi e me a-analysis by Wol owicz e al. (2021) s a es ha ac o s known o be
p edic i e o c iminal a i udes a e ela ed o adical a i udes. The c iminogenic ac o s also
poin o he use ulness and ele ance o c iminological pe spec i es in unde s anding and explain-
ing adicaliza ion. Fo example, ju enile delinquency, a c iminal his o y, con ac wi h he police,
low sel -con ol, h ill-seeking and isk- aking, simila pee s, de ian - adical pee s, mo al neu ali-
za ions (and dehumaniza ion) a e ac o s associa ed wi h sel -con ol heo y, social con ol heo y,
as well as social lea ning heo y, each o which ha e been sugges ed as use ul amewo ks o
unde s anding adicaliza ion. In addi ion, he au ho s conside i likely ha indi iduals who expe i-
ence a loss o sel -impo ance o a ious easons will seek o egain his impo ance, conside ing
iolence as a possible means.
A ela i ely small amoun o esea ch s udies he ac o s esponsible o adical beha iou .
Acco ding o he au ho s’ me a-analysis, he same ac o s iden i ied as causing adical a i udes
seem o play a ole; addi ionally, ac o s such as (male) gende , unemploymen and ecen job loss
a e men ioned. Simila ly, cu en and pas mili a y expe ience may be a ac o ha ca ies a highe
isk o p oducing adical beha iou . Howe e , Wol owicz e al. diagnose a lack o esea ch ha
sa is ac o ily explains why an indi idual wi h adical a i udes and in en ions becomes a pe son
who commi s adical ac s.
E en hough e e ing o di e en coun ies and ocusing on he co ela ion o pa ially di e en
ac o s wi h he de elopmen o a i udes in adolescen s, which could be classi ied as ex emis ,
p o- iolence and p o-illegal, he e iewed esea ch and me a-analysis hin a ques ions ha he
design o ou own ool had o ake in o conside a ion. Fi s , he ela ionship be ween holding
ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes and gende should be examined, because all s udies men ion
ha male adolescen s a e mo e likely o de elop such a i udes han hei emale pee s.
Fu he mo e, i seemed ecommendable o examine he con ex be ween eligious a ilia ion
and a achmen and he accep ance o ex emis a i udes. Nex o hese ac o s, we should be
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able o examine he co ela ion be ween expe iences o disc imina ion and ic imiza ion and he
likelihood o de eloping such a i udes. Regis e ing socio-demog aphic ac o s such as he educa-
ional and economical le el o he pa en s, as well as hei cul u al backg ound, also seemed
pa amoun .
4. Scales abou ex emism and p o- iolence a i udes
A se ies o s udies published by Moskalenko and McCauley (2009) on mechanisms o poli ical adicalisa-
ion and mobilisa ion has ecei ed conside able a en ion in he academic wo ld. In ou con ex i is
in e es ing ha he au ho s delibe a ely dis inguish be ween poli ical ac i ism and adicalisa ion. The
scales on ac i ism and adicalism which hey applied o adolescen s in he US and Uk aine allowed hem
o diagnose bo h a i udes as sepa a ed dimensions. Whe eas poli ical ac i ism e e s o he eadiness o
pa icipa e in legal and no- iolen ac ion, poli ical adicalism implies a willingness o pa icipa e in illegal
o iolen ac ion. E en hough sligh ly in e connec ed, bo h a i udes a e no he same; Moskalenko and
McCauley’s esea ch only ound a small mino i y o adolescen s who hold a he same ime ac i is and
adical in en ions. Acco ding o he au ho s’ py amid model, only a e y small g oup o indi iduals,
suppo ed by la ge g oups o suppo e s and sympa hize s, ecu s o poli ical iolence. Fu he ecen
esea ch de eloped hese undamen al ideas o he au ho s and se ed as a model o he design o ou
own su ey.
The F oun elke e al. (2019) scale con ained ou i ems ela ed o adical ac i ism and assessed an
indi idual’s willingness o engage in illegal and iolen beha iou on behal o hei g oup o o ganiza ion.
Kamenowski e al. (2021) ied o measu e ex emis a i udes ( igh -wing ex emism, le -wing ex e-
mism, and Islamis ex emism) wi h a di e en scale. Ni e e e al. (2017) measu ed suppo o iolen
ex emism de ined as a i udes ha “encou age, endo se, condone, jus i y, o suppo he commission o
a iolen c iminal ac o achie e poli ical, ideological, eligious, social, o economic goals” (Ni e e e al.,
2017, p. 757). In ou s udy we we e in e es ed in measu ing ex emis a i udes, bu also p o- iolence
a i udes, so we op ed o he scales p oposed by Oze and Be elsen (2018).
Oze and Be elsen (2018) highligh he impo ance o de eloping and alida ing wo gene ic scales o
empi ical esea ch on iolen adicaliza ion, pe aining o (1) endo semen o ex emism and (2) accep-
ance o iolen and/o illegal means. The main eason why hey p opose o analyse sepa a ely ex e-
mism and p o- iolence a i udes is ha , acco ding o hei opinion, phenomena such as “ e o ism”,
“ adicaliza ion” and “ex emism” ha e become inc easingly he objec o esea ch in he social sciences,
bu he co esponding e ms ha e no ye been exac ly de ined. In his, hei diagnosis is sha ed by Aus in
and Giessmann (2018, p. ii) who s a e ha “no uni ied o e en e y explici unde s anding exis s o how o
de ine he phenomena o iolen ex emism, a med adicaliza ion and e o is ac i i y.” Oze and
Be elsen (2018) insis on dis inguishing be ween ideology and iolen ac ion because he de elopmen
o adical a i udes does no necessa ily lead o ac ual ac s o e o ism; inso a , “ adicaliza ion can
gene ically be unde s ood as di e se p ocesses o g adually accep ing ex emis ideology and ac ion
(p. 1).” Thei concep o ex emis a i udes conside s hem ela ed o wo in e dependen dimensions: (1)
endo semen o comp ehensi e pe sonal and socie al change and (2) in ole ance owa d o he g oups o
ci izens objec ing o hese socie al changes. The cons uc ion o he wo scales is based on hei
assump ion ha ex emism in i sel is no accompanied by iolen and c iminal ac s, so ha mos
ex emis a i udes a e comple ely legal; he e o e, he accep ance o employing iolen /c iminal ac s
should be ope a ionalized independen ly om ex emism. This p ocedu e would allow, acco ding o he
au ho s, o dis inguish be ween ex emism wi hin and beyond he law, a oiding he con usion o legal
ex emism wi h ex emism employing illegal means.
Oze and Be elsen (2018) denomina ed hei scales (a) Ex emism Scale and (b) P o- iolence and
Illegal Ac s in Rela ion o Ex emism Scale. We ep oduce he wo scales in Tables 1 and 2 below. The i s
scale was de eloped o measu e he a i ude owa d comp ehensi e sociocul u al change and in ole -
ance owa d o he s h ough g oup dynamics, ollowing he men ioned de ini ion o ex emism. The i s
componen included li es yle and cul u e, socioeconomic ounding, and go e nmen al sys em, whe eas
he second componen e e ed o us- hem dis inc ion, de alua ion o o he s, b eakdown in delibe a ion,
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Table 1. I em o ex emism scale
1. Mos people in his coun y ha e a li es yle and cul u e ha is necessa y o change o ally.
2. I one can´ li e wi h he majo i y´s li es yle and cul u e, i is necessa y o c ea e a o ally di e en li es yle
and cul u e o onesel and ones
like-minded.
3. I is necessa y o o ally change he economic sys em ha is he basis o socie y.
4. Those who hink like me ha e o ho oughly change he ounda ion o ou own li e (economy, job,
consump ion, well-being). The es o he socie y can do wha hey wan .
5. I is necessa y o do away wi h he democ a ic o m o go e nmen i we wan o ha e a decen socie y.
6. Jus le he es o he socie y choose democ acy—I, and hose who hink like me, wo k o es ablish up
a di e en sys em in ou own milieu.
7. I, and hose who hink like me, in ac sha e no hing wi h he es o he socie y.
8. The e is only one way o li e he good and co ec li e.
9. I one doesn´ li e in ag eemen wi h he good and co ec li e, hen one has chosen o wi hd aw om he
communi y.
10. Those g oups in he socie y ha don´ suppo he good and co ec li e should be dep i ed o hei igh s.
11. I is a was e o ime o y o ind common solu ions wi h hose whose hough s abou li e a e comple ely
di e en han ou s.
12. I is w ong o make comp omises wi h wha onesel s ands o .
13. I is w ong and immo al o li e peace ully side by side wi h people who don´ li e he good and co ec li e.
14. In he end, he e mus be a con on a ion—one can´ o e e li e peace ully, side by side wi h people who
li e a comple ely di e en li e han hey a e obliga ed o li e.
Table 2. I ems o p o- iolence and illegal ac s
1. Using physical iolence is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing p ope condi ions
o hose wi h whom one eels a solida i y.
2. Using physical iolence is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing a new and be e
socie y.
3. Using physical iolence is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing p ope condi ions
o hose one is closely connec ed o.
4. Using physical iolence is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing espec o one’s
own igh s and secu i y.
5. Using physical iolence is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . p e en ing ep ession and
assaul o my people.
6. Using physical iolence is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . ad ancing a highe cause
(ideological, eligious).
7. B eaking he law is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing p ope condi ions o
hose wi h whom one eels a solida i y.
8. B eaking he law is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing a new and be e
socie y.
9. B eaking he law is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing p ope condi ions o
hose one is closely connec ed o.
10. B eaking he law is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . c ea ing espec o one’s own
igh s and secu i y.
11. B eaking he law is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . p e en ing ep ession and
assaul o my people.
12. B eaking he law is he only hing ha eally wo ks when i is a ma e o . . . p o ec ing a highe cause
(ideological, eligious).
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Table 4. Mean o ex emism and p o- iolence by sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ic (N = 1170)
Ex emism index (0 o 100) P o- iolence and illegal ac
index (0 o 100)
Sex
1=male
2= emale
31,74
27,44
23,4221,55
21,55
Age
12 29,29 21,68
13 31,56 18,83
14 32,44 21,28
15 30,26 20,52
16 28,01 19,99
17 29,44 20,47
18 27,80 17,15
19 32,91 18,32
Spanish o o eign pa en s (Fa he
o Ma he )
1=Spanish 27,72 18,38
2= o eign 33,54 19,31
Family sa ings le el
Spen sa ings o bo owed 29,55 21,30
Was i enough o was i possible
o sa e
29,94 19,84
Highes le el o educa ion
achie ed by he mo he
1=Canno ead o w i e 38,59 26,69
2= Can ead and w i e, bu has
no educa ion
38,93 29,02
3= P ima y educa ion 29,37 20,51
4= Seconda y educa ion 29,44 18,44
5= Uni e si y s udies 25,70 17,39
F equency o a endance o
eligious se ices
1=Mo e han once a week 37,82 29,05
2= Once a week 38,96 26,49
3= Once a mon h 34,97 24,71
4= Only on speci ic holidays 28,49 19,72
5= Once a yea 30,54 21,56
6= Less equen ly 29,04 18,16
7= Ne e , p ac ically ne e 27,99 18,14
Poli ical ideology
1=ex eme le 34,29 23,27
2= 25,96 18,89
3= 24,74 16,16
4= 28,16 18,36
5= 27,58 16,94
6= 29,59 19,33
7= 29,60 20,20
8= 34,14 23,32
(Con inued)
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Table 4. (Con inued)
Ex emism index (0 o 100) P o- iolence and illegal ac
index (0 o 100)
9= 30,05 23,44
10=ex eme igh ) Mean 43,62 37,03
Numbe o social ne wo ks used
daily
0= 36,44 24,14
1= 28,13 14,70
2= 30,23 18,86
3= 29,39 20,42
4= 29,41 19,86
5= 30,15 20,84
6= 34,58 28,52
7= 37,14 32,50
Index o di e si y o expe ienced
physical iolence
(poly ic imisa ion) (sou ces:
mo he , a he , pa ne , eache ,
pee g oup, unknown pe son)
0= did no ecei e physical
iolence
28,89 17,77
14,28= did ecei e iolence
om 1 sou ce
31,94 24,70
28,57=did ecei e iolence om
2 sou ces
29,81 23,41
42,85= did ecei e iolence
om 3 sou ces
33,60 25,51
57,14=did ecei e iolence om
4 sou ces
33,63 23,26
71,42=did ecei e iolence om
5 sou ces
29,52 23,61
85,71=did ecei e iolence om
6 sou ces
29,36 10,18
100= did ecei e iolence om
7 sou ces
- -
G oups ha su e disc imina ion in
he school: LGTBI+
Yes 31,35 20,19
No 28,30 20,06
G oups ha su e disc imina ion in
he school: child en o poo
amilies
Yes 33,66 22,78
No 29,31 19,74
G oups ha su e disc imina ion in
he school: child en o immig an s
Yes 30,16 19,77
No 29,76 20,25
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Co ela ion analysis be ween ES and PIARES is 0.628 and s a is ically signi ican a he le el o
0.01 (bila e al). This means ha bo h indexes ha e much in common bu a e no exac ly he same.
The e o e, we can conclude ha i is possible ha he a iables which explain bo h indexes (ES and
PIARES) could no be he same.
Table 4 shows he means o ES and PIARES o all he a iables in oduced in he analysis. Sex,
Age, Spanish o Fo eign Pa en s, Highes Le el o Educa ion achie ed by he Mo he , F equency o
A endance o Religious Se ices, Poli ical Ideology Sel posi ioning, Numbe o Social Ne wo ks
Used Daily, Index o Di e si y o Physical Violence Recei ed (Poly- ic imiza ion Index), and
Pe cei ed Disc imina ion in he School agains he ollowing social g oups: LGTBI+, Child en om
Low Income amilies, and Child en o Immig an s.
We ha e de eloped wo mul i a ia e linea eg ession models wi h all he a iables, one Model
o ES and he o he Model o PIARES. The F- a io in he ANOVA able o ex emism and p o-
iolence es s e eal ha he wo eg ession models show a good i o he da a. The independen
a iables p edic wi h s a is ical signi icance he dependen a iable, F(12, 1157) = 14,833, p
Table 5. E ec s o sociodemog aphic and a i udinal a iables on ex emism (dependen
a iable: Ex emism index
Independen a iable Non
s anda dized
coe icien s
S anda dized
coe icien s
- a io Sig.
B S d.
e o
Be a
Sex (1=male,2= emale) −4,114 1,006 -,116 −4,091 <,001
Spanish o o eign pa en s (1=Spanish,
2= o eign)
-,763 324 -,066 −2,354 019
Age (12 o 19) 3,900 1,106 108 3,527 <,001
Family sa ings le el (1=Spen sa ings o
bo owed,2=Was i enough o was i possible o
sa e)
-,842 1,056 -,022 -,797 426
Highes le el o educa ion achie ed by he
mo he (1=canno ead o w i e; 5=highe
educa ion)
−3,040 452 -,193 −6,719 <,001
F equency o a endance o eligious se ices
(1=mo e han once a week; 7=ne e ).
-,897 269 -,097 −3,335 <,001
Poli ical ideology (1=ex eme le , 10=ex eme
igh )
1,156 214 154 5,410 <,001
Numbe o social ne wo ks used daily ( om 0
o 7)
693 392 050 1,769 077
Index o di e si y o physical iolence ecei ed
( om 0 o 85.7)
046 035 037 1,297 195
G oups ha su e disc imina ion in he school:
LGTBI+ (1=Yes, 2= No)
−4,213 998 -,121 −4,220 <,001
G oups ha su e disc imina ion in he school:
child en o poo amilies (1=Yes, 2= No)
−3,705 1,512 -,070 −2,450 014
G oups ha su e disc imina ion in he school:
child en o immig an s (1=Yes, 2= No)
1,346 1,176 034 1,145 253
Cons an = 57,77
R2 Adjus ed =,133
F-Ra io = 14,82 p<.05
Du bin-Wa son = 1,976
n = 1170
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Table 6. E ec s o sociodemog aphic and a i udinal a iables on p o- iolence and illegal ac s
(Dependen a iable: p o- iolence and illegal ac s index)
Independen
a iables
Non s anda dized
coe icien s
S anda dized
coe icien s
- a io Sig.
B S d. e o Be a
Sex (1=male,
2= emale)
−6,702 1,175 -,163 −5,703 <,001
Spanish o
o eign pa en s
(=Spanish,
2= o eigne s)
-,811 378 -,060 −2,143 032
Age (12 o 19) 2,902 1,292 069 2,246 025
Family sa ings
le el (1=Spen
sa ings o
bo owed,
2=Was i
enough o was
i possible o
sa e)
−3,120 1,234 -,071 −2,529 012
Highes le el o
educa ion
achie ed by he
mo he
(1=canno ead
o w i e;
5=highe
educa ion)
−2,676 529 -,146 −5,061 <,001
F equency o
a endance o
eligious
se ices
(1=mo e han
once a week;
7=ne e ).
−1,021 314 -,095 −3,250 001
Poli ical
ideology
(1=ex eme le ,
10=ex eme
igh )
1,227 250 140 4,913 <,001
Numbe o
social ne wo ks
used daily ( om
0 o 7)
1,503 458 093 3,282 001
Index o
di e si y o
physical
iolence
ecei ed ( om 0
o 85.7)
136 041 094 3,311 <,001
G oups ha
su e
disc imina ion
in he school:
LGTBI+ (1=Yes,
2= No)
−1,039 1,167 -,026 -,891 373
(Con inued)
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< .0005 (i.e., he eg ession model is a good i o he da a). In he case o he p o- iolence index,
he independen a iables s a is ically signi ican ly p edic he dependen a iable, F (12, 1157) =
13,418, p < .0005 (i.e., he eg ession model is a good i o he da a). Table 5 p o ides he esul s
o he ES eg ession analysis and Table 6 o he PIARES eg ession.
I was hypo hesized (H2) ha boys would sco e highe han gi ls in ES and PIARES. Also, ha
adolescen s wi h a Fo eign pa en , hose who we e younge , hose om low sa ing amilies, hose
o mo he s wi h lowe le el o educa ion, hose who mo e equen ly a end eligious se ices,
hose who a e mo e on he igh o he poli ical ideology scale, and hose who use a highe numbe
o social ne wo ks on a daily basis would signi ican ly sco e highe in ES and PIARES han
adolescen s wi h a Spanish pa en , hose who we e olde , hose om high le el o sa ing amilies,
hose o mo he s wi h highe le el o educa ion, hose who less equen ly a end eligious
se ices, hose who a e mo e on he le o he poli ical ideology scale, and hose who use
a lowe numbe o social ne wo ks on a daily basis. This hypo hesis was la gely con i med, bu
no in e e y case. In he case o ES, he le el o sa ing o he amily was no s a is ically signi ican ,
no he numbe o social ne wo ks used on a daily basis.
Acco ding o H3, we should expec ha he ac o ha ing su e ed iolence (poly- ic imiza ion)
could imply highe sco es o he adolescen s in ES and PIARES. Ou analysis concludes ha poly-
ic imiza ion is s a is ically signi ican o explain PIARES. Howe e , poly- ic imiza ion is no s a is-
ically signi ican o explain ES.
H4 p oposed ha he ac o pe cei ing disc imina ions (agains LGTBI+ adolescen s, agains
child en o low-income amilies, and agains child en o immig an s) in seconda y school would
mean ha he adolescen would de elop mo e ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes. In his case,
ou analysis sugges ed ha he pe cep ion o disc imina ion agains child en o immig an s was
no s a is ically signi ican o ES and PIARES. Fu he mo e, in he case o PIARES, he pe cep ion o
disc imina ion agains child en o low-income amilies, and agains LGTBI+ adolescen s was no
s a is ically signi ican . On he con a y, he pe cep ion o disc imina ion agains he LGTBI+ g oup
Independen
a iables
Non s anda dized
coe icien s
S anda dized
coe icien s
- a io Sig.
B S d. e o Be a
G oups ha
su e
disc imina ion
in he school:
child en o poo
amilies (1=Yes,
2= No)
−2,883 1,767 -,047 −1,631 103
G oups ha
su e
disc imina ion
in he school:
child en o
immig an s
(1=Yes, 2= No)
1,071 1,374 023 780 436
Cons an = 43,88
R2 Adjus ed =, 122
F-Ra io = 13,81 p<.05
Du bin-Wa son = 1,942
n = 1170
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
Page 19 o 24
and agains child en o low-income amilies, inc eased he p obabili y o exp essing ex emis
a i udes.
8. Conclusion and discussion
Ou analysis has alida ed Oze and Be elsen (2018) wo scales (ES and PIARES) o adolescen s
om 12 o 19 yea s old in i e seconda y schools in Spain, 4 in he ci y o Alme ía and 1 in Mad id
(H1). This demons a es he consis ency and eliabili y o he scales, so we can say ha hey a e
a good ins umen o measu e ex emism and p o- iolence a i udes and illegal ac s. Bo h scales
ha e p o ed o be co ela ed in ou analysis bu no comple ely. Tha mean ha i is likely ha
some a iables we e no signi ican in he wo models. Also, he high co ela ion be ween bo h
scales sugges s he need o ans o m iolen a i udes, especially among hose who exp ess
ex emis a i udes.
This esea ch he e o e suppo s he need o measu e ex emis a i udes and p o- iolence and
illegal ac s sepa a ely. Al hough hese wo g oups o a i udes a e ela ed, hey should no be
con used. In e ec , he main p oblem o iolen ex emism is no only he ac ha people ha e
ex emis a i udes (which should no be a p oblem in democ a ic socie ies), bu ha in o de o
de end ex emis ideas, he use o iolence o he ca ying ou o illegal ac s is de ended and/o
jus i ied, as some au ho s poin ou (Neumann, 2013; Sageman, 2017). O en one hing leads o
he o he .
In he case o ES, he isk ac o s o iolen ex emism ocus on adolescen s wi h a o eign
pa en , hose who we e younge , hose o mo he s wi h lowe le el o educa ion, hose who mo e
equen ly a end eligious se ices, and hose who a e mo e on he igh o he poli ical ideology
scale. In he case o PIARES, he isk ac o s ocus on adolescen s wi h a o eign pa en , hose who
we e younge , hose om low sa ing amilies, hose o mo he s wi h lowe le el o educa ion,
hose who mo e equen ly a end eligious se ices, hose who a e mo e on he igh o he
poli ical ideology scale, and hose who use a highe numbe o social ne wo ks on a daily basis.
Poli ical ideology is signi ican in ou eg ession model, wi h mo e iolen a i udes being
obse ed in igh -wing posi ions. This could be explained by con ex ual causes cha ac e is ic o
he e i o y, which ac i a e mo e agg essi ely he posi ions o indi iduals who ha e sco ed o he
igh . The impo ance o he con ex is in ui ed in compa ison wi h o he con lic s whe e he
ac i a ed con ex coincided wi h le -wing posi ions, as in he case o he iolen le -wing mo e-
men s in he Basque Coun y and Na a e ha esul ed in a beha iou al adicaliza ion, no only
wi h ETA e o ism, bu wi h a ious g oups and ac ions inspi ed by a model o iolence oo ed in
he le -wing poli ical con ex and i s highly coinciding discou se o he cogni i e and beha iou al,
as shown by au ho s such as Muñoz Alonso (1982, 1985, 1986, 1988) o (Lle a e al., 2017, 2022).
Some a iables a e no signi ican in he wo models. Family economic s a us is signi ican in he
case o p o- iolence a i udes and illegal ac s, which co obo a es s udies indica ing ha p o-
iolence a i udes a e ound mo e in ulne able popula ions. Howe e , he economic le el o he
amily is no ele an in he eg ession model on ex emism, so we can say ha ex emis a i udes
a e mani es ed in all socio-economic g oups o adolescen s.
The inc eased use o social media has no implica ions o ex emis a i udes. Howe e , i is
signi ican o he de elopmen o p o- iolence a i udes and illegal ac s. These esul s possibly
indica e ha social ne wo k abuse leads adolescen s o de elop in ole an a i udes, which could
ha e consequences o he use o o line iolence.
Conce ning poly- ic imiza ion, i is s a is ically signi ican o explain PIARES bu no ES. Thus, he
expe ience o ha ing su e ed physical iolence helps o gene a e p o- iolence a i udes and illegal
ac s bu does no signi ican ly in luence ex emis a i udes. In his sense, i can be said ha
iolence gene a es iolen a i udes.
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
Page 20 o 24
Finally, ou analysis shows ha he pe cep ion o disc imina ion agains child en o immig an s
is no s a is ically signi ican o ES and PIARES. In he case o PIARES, he pe cep ion o disc imi-
na ion agains child en o low-income amilies, and agains LGTBI+ adolescen s is no s a is ically
signi ican , bu inc eases signi ican ly he p obabili y o exp essing ex emis a i udes (ES). The
pe cep ion o disc imina ion is no ela ed o he de elopmen o iolen a i udes, al hough i
leads adolescen s o de elop ex emis a i udes, pa icula ly in he case o disc imina ion agains
LGTBI+ people and child en om poo amilies.
T ans o ming a i udes ela ed o iolen ex emism among adolescen s and young people is an
in es men in he u u e. This s udy p o ides esul s ha could be used o de elop p og ams and
ac i i ies in seconda y schools. As Aus in and Giessmann (2018) poin ou , he e a e se e al
app oaches o add essing iolen ex emism: coun e ing iolen ex emism, p e en ing iolen
ex emism, and ans o ming iolen ex emism. Coun e ing Violen Ex emism (CVE) was ini ially
an imp o emen on inc easingly c i icized coun e e o ism app oaches ha ely on in elligence
ga he ing and a ep essi e epe oi e (Bhui e al., 2012; Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme,
Uni ed Na ions O ice on D ugs and C ime, Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2014). CVE has e ol ed in o
a secu i y- ocused app oach o ackling ex emis iolence, which uses a ple ho a o ools and
en y poin s, bu emains oo ed in a “ha d” app oach o powe . Second, P e en ing Violen
Ex emism (PVE) was i s in oduced in he 2015 UN Plan o Ac ion p esen ed by hen UN
Sec e a y-Gene al Ban Ki-moon. The emphasis is on iden i ying and add essing push and pull
ac o s, add essing s uc u al oo causes and s eng hening indi idual and communi y esilience.
Thi dly, i highligh s he ecen in oduc ion o T ans o ming Violen Ex emism (TVE), which
s esses he need and possibili y o changing ac o s, and hei means o iolence, a he han
only s eng hening secu i y o esilience o p o ec and p e en Thus, i is conside ed ha he
easons and mo i a ions ha lead an adolescen o be a ac ed o iolen ex emis mo emen s
can be ans o med in o a di e en kind o agency o engagemen . I is abou al e ing he
dynamics ha lead o ex emis iolence. Fo he ield o Online Dis up i e Technologies he e
a e also some in e es ing p oposals (Ami e al., 2022).
By and la ge we can say ha he indings o ou esea ch do no con adic he esul s o he
in e na ional s udies which we ha e e iewed bu add speci ic knowledge wi h ega d o he
co ela ion be ween ac o s ha ha e no been aken in o accoun o ha e been examined wi h
di e en accen ua ions in hose in es iga ions. In he same ein as Oze and Be elsen (2018), he
esul s o ou s udy sugges ha i is in e es ing o di e en ia e be ween ex emis and p o-
iolence a i udes. In addi ion, we poin ou he g oups which need ou special a en ion: boys,
young people, child en o o eign pa en s, mo he s wi h e y low le els o educa ion, hose who
a end eligious se ices equen ly, hose on he ex eme igh , hose who use many social
ne wo ks, and hose who ha e su e ed physical iolence.
9. Limi a ions
Ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes a e beginning o be s udied bo h in Spain and in e na ionally.
The e a e some limi a ions hough. Fi s , conce ning he design o he esea ch p ojec , ou
ques ionnai e was designed o a pa icula age g oup, and he da a collec ion was geog aphically
limi ed. The e o e, ou indings canno be gene alized. We need mo e s udies ha con ain ep e-
sen a i e samples o he en i e adolescen popula ion, and e en o he adul popula ion.
Ano he limi a ion has o do wi h he design o he ques ionnai e. Since we wan ed o de elop
a ques ionnai e ha adolescen s could answe in 30 minu es a mos , and he ba e ies o ques-
ions o measu e ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes we e ime-consuming, we could no in o-
duce mo e ques ions ha would ha e gi en us mo e in o ma ion abou he expe ience o physical
iolence o he use o social ne wo ks. Fu he mo e, we did no look in o he co ela ion be ween
he associa ion wi h delinquen iends and ex emism, e en hough i is a ac o which is
equen ly men ioned in s udies ca ied ou om he poin o iew o secu i y. We also had
di icul ies in in oducing he ques ion o he economic s a us o he adolescen s’ amilies.
Rod iguez Ma inez e al., Cogen Social Sciences (2023), 9: 2239542
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311886.2023.2239542
Page 21 o 24
Teenage s o en igno e hei pa en s’ income ange, so ha i only was possible o es ablish he
app oxima e economic s a us o he amily.
In sum, we conside ha he esul s o ou s udy should be conside ed as explo a o y bu
con ibu e o ad ancing knowledge abou ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes and illegal ac s.
I is impo an o de elop u u e empi ical and heo e ical esea ch on hese phenomena o be e
unde s and, p e en , and ans o m hem.
10. Resea ch e hics s a emen
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e espec ed he laws, ules and egula ions o hei communi y
( he p esen wo k has he ce i ica e o he e hics commi ee o he Uni e si y o Alme ia, which is
consis en wi h he e hical s anda ds a icula ed in he 1964 Decla a ion o Helsinki and i s
subsequen amendmen s and Sec ion 12 (“In o med Consen ”) o he ASA’s Code o E hics).
Also, o school ( h ough he pe mission o pa icipa e in he esea ch o adolescen s by pa en s
and school), wo k and coun y. Du ing he esea ch p ocess, he esea che s ha e beha ed wi h
in eg i y, ideli y, and hones y. The e o e, we openly assume esponsibili y o ou ac ions and will
only en e in o ag eemen s ha we in end o keep.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s o his a icle would like o hank hei
colleagues in he In e na ional Compa a i e Resea ch
g oup o he suppo ecei ed in he nume ous g oup
discussions whe e he issues being explo ed he e ha e
eme ged.
Funding
Resea ch p ojec Diagnós ico e in e ención en adolescen es
en iesgo de adicalización iolen a en la zona del ponien e
alme iense: hacia una cul u a de la paz (Diagnosis and in e -
en ion in adolescen s a isk o iolen adicaliza ion in he
a ea o wes e n Alme ia: owa ds a cul u e o peace), UAL-
FEDER, code: UAL2020-SEJ-C1947 This s udy is published
wi h unding om p ojec PID2021-127113OB-I00 (Minis y
o Science and Inno a ion, Go e nmen o Spain).
Au ho de ails
Pila Rod iguez Ma inez
1
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
ORCID ID: h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6347-9117
Ch is ian Roi h
1
An onio Jesús Segu a Sánchez
1
Ana Ma ia López Na bona
2
1
Uni e sidad de Alme ía, Alme ía, Spain.
2
Uni e sidad de Málaga, Alme ia, Spain.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Ci a ion in o ma ion
Ci e his a icle as: Ex emis and p o- iolence a i udes o
Spanish adolescen s in seconda y schools, Pila Rod iguez
Ma inez, Ch is ian Roi h, An onio Jesús Segu a Sánchez &
Ana Ma ia López Na bona, Cogen Social Sciences (2023),
9: 2239542.
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