Brain Signatures of Embodied Semantics and Language: A Consensus Paper

REVIEW ARTICLE
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Lau a Bech old
Ins i u e o Expe imen al
Psychology, Depa men
o Biological Psychology,
Hein ich-Heine Uni e si y
Düsseldo , Ge many
[email p o ec ed]
KEYWORDS:
embodied cogni ion; EEG;
p iming; language lea ning;
seman ic p ocessing; i ual
eali y
TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Bech old, L., Cospe , S.
H., Malyshe skaya, A.,
Mon e inese, M., Mo ucci,
P., Niccolai, V., Repe o, C.,
Zappa, A., & Sh y o , Y. (2023).
B ain Signa u es o Embodied
Seman ics and Language: A
Consensus Pape . Jou nal o
Cogni ion, 6(1): 61, pp. 1–40.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.5334/
joc.237
B ain Signa u es o Embodied
Seman ics and Language:
A Consensus Pape
LAURA BECHTOLD
SAMUEL H. COSPER
ANASTASIA MALYSHEVSKAYA
MARIA MONTEFINESE
PIERMATTEO MORUCCI
VALENTINA NICCOLAI
CLAUDIA REPETTO
ANA ZAPPA
YURY SHTYROV
*Au ho a ilia ions can be ound in he back ma e o his a icle
ABSTRACT
Acco ding o embodied heo ies (including embodied, embedded, ex ended, enac ed,
si ua ed, and g ounded app oaches o cogni ion), language ep esen a ion is
in insically linked o ou in e ac ions wi h he wo ld a ound us, which is e lec ed in
speci ic b ain signa u es du ing language p ocessing and lea ning. Mo ing on om he
o iginal i al y o embodied s. amodal heo ies, his consensus pape add esses a
se ies o ca e ully selec ed ques ions ha aim a de e mining when and how a he
han whe he mo o and pe cep ual p ocesses a e in ol ed in language p ocesses.
We co e a wide ange o esea ch a eas, om he neu ophysiological signa u es
o embodied seman ics, e.g., e en - ela ed po en ials and ields as well as neu al
oscilla ions, o seman ic p ocessing and seman ic p iming e ec s on conc e e and
abs ac wo ds, o i s and second language lea ning and, inally, he use o i ual
eali y o examining embodied seman ics. Ou common aim is o be e unde s and
he ole o mo o and pe cep ual p ocesses in language ep esen a ion as indexed by
language comp ehension and lea ning. We come o he consensus ha , based on
seminal esea ch conduc ed in he ield, u u e di ec ions now call o enhancing he
ex e nal alidi y o indings by acknowledging he mul imodali y, mul idimensionali y,
lexibili y and idiosync asy o embodied and si ua ed language and seman ic p ocesses.
2Bech old e al.
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DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
The embodimen and g ounded amewo ks (Ba salou, 2008) p opose an al e na i e iew
o language p ocessing o he ea lie amodal app oach (Fodo , 1985). Amodal app oaches
assume wo d meanings a e symbolic and he eby sepa a ed om senso imo o subs a es
and indi idual expe ience. Fo his consensus pape , we g ouped he so-called 4Es ( ha is,
embodied, embedded, ex ended, enac ed cogni ion) as well as g ounded cogni ion unde he
umb ella e m embodied cogni ion, despi e di e ences be ween he esea ch a eas o which
hese e ms e e . Embodied cogni ion links he symbolic and he pe cep ually ounded as well
as implici pe sonal aspec s o wo d meaning. The obse a ion ha senso y and mo o neu al
sys ems a e di ec ly engaged in language comp ehension (Ba salou, 2008) upg aded and
expanded he ole o physical (including bodily) e e ences o linguis ic con ex , he eby poin ing
o he implici expe ien ial aspec s o wo d meanings. Fu he mo e, he iew ha pe cep ion o
he eal wo ld ( o example, h ough isual inpu ) a ec s wo d p ocessing esul ed in a si ua ed
app oach o language p ocessing whe ein a wide spec um o con ex - ela ed ea u es could
in luence language unde s anding: acous ic-phone ic, syn ac ic, seman ic, p agma ic as well
as a o dances, social in o ma ion and en i onmen (Spi ey and Hü e, 2016). Unde s anding
how he combina ion o hese di e en sou ces a ec b ain ac i i y and beha io in language
p ocesses challenges esea ch.
In e ac ions be ween pe cep ual/mo o and seman ic phenomena suppo embodied
heo ies. Simply pu , i linguis ic ep esen a ion is – a leas pa ially – embodied, hen
pe cep ual and mo o p ocesses should in luence how language is p ocessed (and ice
e sa), leading o acili a ion o in e e ence. Valida ing and assessing he neu al bases o
such pe cep uomo o -seman ic in e ac ions allows unde s anding he ole he body and
e i onmen play in language p ocesses. This also ep esen s a undamen al s ep owa ds
biologically plausible heo ies o embodied seman ics.
The aim o he pape is no o p o ide a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew in o de o ei e a e
e idence o embodied iews o language p ocessing pe se. Ins ead, we discuss a selec ion
o a ailable empi ical indings in o de o answe a se o speci ic heo e ical and p ac ical
ques ions (see Figu e 1 o an o e iew) conce ning he b ain signa u es o embodied and
Figu e 1 O e iew o he
add essed main ques ions.
3Bech old e al.
Jou nal o Cogni ion
DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
si ua ed language p ocessing. We ha e paid special a en ion o c i ical issues ela ed o he
in e p e a ion o no el insigh s and me hodologies ha examine he sub le ies o pe cep ual-
mo o -seman ic in e ac ions, as well as u u e di ec ions o be explo ed. The sec ions can be
ead as s andalone sec ions, each ending wi h a special ocus on u u e di ec ions. In he inal
conclusion, we a emp o connec hese selec ed puzzle pieces o he bigge pic u e. Please
no e ha he au ho s o his consensus pape e ain om a mili an all-o -no hing iew on
embodimen and suppo a mode a e app oach, lea ing oom o a lexible in ol emen o
si ua ed and embodied mechanisms in language p ocesses.
WHAT KIND OF NEURAL EVIDENCE IS THERE FOR EMBODIED
SEMANTICS?
Unde s anding he neu al bases o embodied seman ic p ocessing equi es he iden i ica ion o
he neu obiological ma ke s ha can be associa ed wi h senso imo o simula ion o linguis ic
meanings. This is a undamen al s ep owa ds de eloping heo ies o how embodied seman ics
is implemen ed a he le el o neu al ci cui s, as well as o make explici p edic ions abou he
ou comes o expe imen s. In his sec ion, we will e iew indings om di e en neu oimaging
echniques ha ha e con ibu ed o he iden i ica ion o dis inc neu al indices o senso imo o
simula ion. Fo each me hodological app oach, we will add ess candida e mechanisms
unde lying he simula ion o bo h he senso imo o (e.g., ec ui men o he mo o sys em)
and pu ely senso y (e.g., ec ui men o he isual sys em) aspec s o linguis ic meanings.
Neu oana omically, a numbe o indings suppo ing embodied meaning ep esen a ions
ha e p ima ily been based on a localiza ion app oach, aimed a es ima ing co ical s uc u es
ac i a ed du ing wo d comp ehension ou side co e language a eas. Such s udies, o ins ance,
showed ha accessing he meaning o linguis ic ma e ial is suppo ed by he senso imo o
sys em. Fo example, a numbe o expe imen s showed ha e ec o -speci ic co ical p emo o
and p ima y mo o egions a e ec ui ed when indi iduals p ocess wo ds o sen ences e e ing
o ac ions ca ied ou wi h di e en body pa s (Aziz-Zadeh e al., 2006; Boulenge e al., 2009;
Ge e al., 2018; Hauk e al., 2004; Kemme e e al., 2008; Rüschemeye e al., 2007; Te aman i
e al., 2005; bu see Pos le e al., 2008). Simila ly, senso y b ain egions we e also ound o
ac i a e du ing seman ic p ocessing. Fo example, p ocessing wo ds whose meaning is
associa ed wi h audi o y expe iences (e.g., elephone) led o a la ge b ain ac i a ion in audi o y
a eas compa ed o he p ocessing o wo ds deno ing isual ea u es (e.g., moon; Kie e e al.,
2008). Simila ly, wo ds e e ing o so-called mul imodal concep s, ha is, concep s ha can
be expe ienced h ough di e en modali ies (e.g., playing) ac i a e di e en modali y-speci ic
ne wo ks (i.e., isual and ac ion- ela ed; Van Dam e al., 2012).
These la e indings ha e led esea che s o ask how seman ic in o ma ion dis ibu ed ac oss
di e en ne wo ks becomes in eg a ed in o cohe en ep esen a ions. S udies a ge ing
his ques ion ha e hypo hesized he exis ence o con e gence zones (Ba salou e al., 2003;
Damasio e al., 2004) and one o se e al seman ic hubs (Pa e son e al., 2007), ha is, cen al
p ocessing nodes ha uni y in o ma ion om mul iple ne wo ks in o a cohe en seman ic
ep esen a ion. By means o a neu ocompu a ional model i was shown ha dis ibu ed
ci cui s in hub a eas can link mo o and senso y seman ic in o ma ion (Tomasello e al., 2017);
he au ho s sugges ed ha seman ic p ocessing is dis ibu ed ac oss ca ego y-gene al hubs
as well as ca ego y-speci ic a eas. Among o he s, he an e io empo al lobe (Lambon Ralph e
al., 2010) and he pa ahippocampal gy us (Eps ein & Kanwishe 1998) ha e been p oposed as
candida e egions o bind and coo dina e mul iple ep esen a ions. Ye , he exac con ibu ion
o hese egions o seman ic p ocessing and he mechanisms ha unde pin i emain poo ly
unde s ood.
O e all, he neu oimaging s udies men ioned abo e (along wi h many o he s) p o ide some
suppo o he claim ha , a leas in some con ex s, concep ual language ep esen a ions and
senso imo o p ocesses a e based on pa ially o e lapping b ain esou ces. Ye , o wha ex en
he senso imo o sys em suppo s meaning p ocessing is s ill ma e o deba e. Mo eo e ,
he unde lying compu a ions pe o med by senso imo o egions should s ill be a leas o
some deg ee dis inc o language s. senso imo o p ocessing. Thus, one u u e challenge o
embodied seman ics heo ies is o explain he dynamics ha allow a gi en b ain egion o
ca y bo h concep ual and senso imo o p ocessing. Recen in es iga ions o isual p ocessing
4Bech old e al.
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DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
and image y using lamina unc ional magne ic esonance imaging ( MRI), a neu oimaging
ool capable o s uc u al esolu ion a le el o co ical laye s, ha e shown ha bo om-up
senso y signals ( isual inpu ) and in e nally gene a ed signals (e.g., isual image y) a e
dis ibu ed ac oss di e en lamina p o iles (Law ence e al., 2018). Ex ending hese cases o
language p ocessing, senso imo o simula ion signals gene a ed du ing wo d comp ehension
could be dissocia ed om senso y p ocessing in e ms o hei lamina p o ile. Fu u e s udies
using imaging echniques wi h lamina - esol ed esolu ion a e needed o assess how he
same co ical ci cui can p ocess bo h senso y inpu and s o e wo d meanings a he same
ime. Simila ly, compa ing he p ocessing o he same s imulus con en p esen ed in di e en
modali ies (i.e., linguis ic and senso y) wi h ime- esol ed echniques may p o ide no el insigh s
abou he di e ences ha cha ac e ize he seman ic engagemen om he pe cep ual-mo o
one (e.g., Gia i e al., 2020).
Elec oencephalog aphy ([EEG]; Alemanno e al., 2012; Mo eno e al., 2015; an Elk e al.,
2010), magne oencephalog aphy ([MEG]; Niccolai e al., 2014) as well as elec oco icog aphy
(Canol y e al., 2007) s udies ha e a emp ed o ind elec ophysiological ma ke s o embodied
seman ics by looking a he oscilla o y p ope ies o he b ain signal accompanying lexical-
seman ic language p ocessing. Resea ch conce ning mo o simula ion has so a ocused on
embodied p ocesses ela ed o he isual o audi o y p esen a ion o single e bs o e bs
embedded in sen ences and associa ed wi h mo o expe ience. O e all, esul s poin o a speci ic
ole o oscilla o y b ain signals in ce ain equency bands (i.e., alpha, be a, and closely ela ed
mu- hy hm) in implemen ing senso imo o simula ions. In pa icula , be a desynch oniza ion
(powe supp ession wi hin he 13–30 Hz equency ange) was sugges ed as a candida e
mechanism suppo ing he eac i a ion o mo o expe ience du ing seman ic p ocessing, gi en
i s well-known ole in p epa a ion and execu ion o mo emen s (Babiloni e al., 2002; Doyle e
al., 2005; Koelewijn e al., 2008; P u schelle & Lopes da Sil a, 1999) as well as in isome ic
con ac ion o di e en body muscles (Tecchio e al., 2008). This has encou aged s udies o
in es iga e be a oscilla ions in he con ex o linguis ic ac ion p ocessing in o de o de e mine
whe he his ac i i y pa e n may cons i u e a neu ophysiological ma ke o embodimen
p ocesses in o he senso y modali ies as well (e.g., audi o y, see Niccolai e al., 2020). Resul s
showed ha loud ac ions induced signi ican ly s onge be a powe supp ession compa ed o
quie ac ions in he le audi o y co ex.
Along wi h be a supp ession, he supp ession o mu (8–13 Hz) hy hm, ound o e he
senso imo o co ex, is hough o e lec neu al ac i i y in he mo o and p emo o co ex and
be associa ed wi h pe o ming and obse ing mo emen (Cae ano e al., 2007; P u schelle
& Lopes da Sil a, 1999), mo o image y (Ma sumo o e al., 2010), and, impo an ly, ac ion
language p ocessing (Fa gie e al., 2012). Fo ins ance, mu supp ession has been obse ed du ing
he p ocessing o ac ion- ela ed sen ences, du ing he e ie al o lexical-seman ic in o ma ion
( an Elk e al. 2010), and in p iming asks using ac ion wo ds in i s and second languages
(Vuko ic & Sh y o , 2014). Soma o opic mu supp ession has been obse ed while pa icipan s
ead single e bs ela ed o he body (Niccolai e al., 2014); c ucially, ac ion language appea s
o p oduce g ea e mu supp ession compa ed o abs ac language (Alemanno e al., 2012;
Mo eno e al., 2015). Howe e , a consensus has ye o be eached ega ding he unc ional
in e p e a ion o mu-band ac i i y supp ession. Whe eas some p e ious s udies associa ed i
wi h mo o -co ex ac i i y, he mu equency band (8–13 Hz) o e laps wi h he alpha equency
band (8–12 Hz). While some au ho s claim ha he wo hy hms may be con ounded (Hobson
& Bishop, 2016), o he s a gue ha mu equency e lec s he unc ional s a e o he mo o and
p emo o co ex and can be dissocia ed om occipi al alpha by i s on o-cen al opog aphy
(Mo eno e al., 2015) and mo o -co ex localiza ion o i s sou ces (Vuko ic & Sh y o , 2014).
Conce ning he gene a ion o pe cep ual ( a he han mo o ) simula ion, a candida e mechanism
o implemen he simula ion o pe cep ually based concep s (e.g., ed o iangle) migh be
e lec ed by alpha-band oscilla ions. In isual pe cep ion, inc eases o alpha synch oniza ion
in occipi al egions ha e been la gely associa ed wi h op-down objec -knowledge ac i a ion
and main enance du ing a en ion, p edic ion, and wo king memo y asks (Wo den e al.,
2000; Snyde and Foxe, 2010; Maye e al., 2015; Jensen e al., 2002). Alongside i s well-known
ole as inhibi o y il e , cu en models o alpha oscilla ions posi ha enhancemen o neu al
alpha synch oniza ion migh e lec selec i e ampli ica ion o neu al ep esen a ions o objec
ca ego ies in ask- ele an senso y egions (Pal a & Pal a, 2007; Klimesch, 2012; an Ke koe le
5Bech old e al.
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e al., 2014; Mo e al., 2011). Unde his accoun , neu al alpha synch oniza ion migh e lec
a candida e mechanism o also implemen language-media ed pe cep ual simula ions.
Al hough enhancemen s o neu al alpha synch oniza ion ha e no been epo ed ubiqui ously
du ing wo d p ocessing, hey ha e been consis en ly ound in s udies ha used pa adigms in
which senso y p ocesses a e in ol ed in language comp ehension (e.g., wo d-pic u e ma ching
ask, sen ence-shape e i ica ion ask). Such asks a e pa icula ly sui ed o assess he neu al
unde pinnings o embodied seman ic p ocessing, as hey equi e pa icipan s o men ally
simula e he pe cep ual con en o a gi en wo d o u e ance o de ec o ecognize i s e e en .
Fo ins ance, EEG s udies ha e shown ha p ocessing spoken and w i en language ma e ial
can acili a e he ecogni ion o objec ca ego ies and ambiguous images (Samaha e al., 2018;
Mo ucci e al., 2021). C ucially, his acili a ion is associa ed wi h an inc ease in pos e io alpha
synch oniza ion in he ime in e al be ween he cue and he a ge image. The ampli ude o
alpha oscilla ions also seems ele an o objec ecogni ion p ocesses, as i co ela es wi h
eac ion imes and ea ly e en - ela ed componen s such as he P1 (Samaha e al., 2018; Maye
e al., 2015). These indings p o ide some suppo o he ac ha alpha oscilla ions migh
e lec a mechanism o ca y language-gene a ed objec ep esen a ions in isual egions,
mi o ing he compu a ional ole ha alpha wa es play in isual pe cep ion (Pal a & Pal a,
2007; Klimesch, 2012; an Ke koe le e al., 2014; Mo e al., 2011).
Oscilla o y signa u es o si ua ed/embodied linguis ic p ocesses ha e also been ound o mo e
complex unc ions, ou side basic senso imo o modali ies. Fo ins ance, i has been shown ha
comp ehension o spa ially- ela ed language ec ui s b ain mechanisms in ol ed in na iga ion
and spa ial cogni ion (Vuko ic & Sh y o , 2017). This s udy used EEG o es ima e ac i i y in
alpha/mu and be a anges in bo h a spa ial na iga ion ask and a language ask, which in ol ed
comp ehension o sen ences ela ed o pe spec i e/ e e ence- ame concep s, and ound a
sha ed ne wo k o dis ibu ed co ical gene a o s ac i a ed o bo h asks, which, u he mo e,
was speci ic o indi idual na iga ion p e e ences.
Apa om oscilla o y ac i i y, a ple ho a o elec ophysiological s udies in es iga ed he ime
cou se and magni ude o linguis ic embodimen by means o e en - ela ed po en ials (ERPs) o
ields (ERFs), mos no ably ocusing on senso imo o a eas (e.g., Dalla Vol a e al., 2014; Hauk &
Pul e mülle , 2004; Klepp e al., 2014). Neu ophysiological s udies poin o senso imo o e ec s
occu ing be ween 80 and 350 ms accompanying he p ocessing o single e bs as well as o
ac ion wo ds embedded in sen ences (Boulenge e al., 2012; Pul e mulle e al., 2005; Sh y o
e al., 2014). Some neu ophysiological in es iga ions complemen beha io al measu es o
e bal-mo o in e ac ion ( o a e iew, see Fische & Zwaan, 2008) as well as p iming and
in e e ence e ec s ( o a e iew, see Ga cia & Ibanez, 2016). Ac ion- ela ed wo ds, o example,
induced la ge misma ch nega i i y-like ERPs when p esen ed in body-pa -incong uen sound
con ex s (e.g., kiss in oo s ep sound con ex ) han in body-pa -cong uen con ex s (e.g., kick
in oo s ep sound con ex ; G isoni e al., 2016). In ano he s udy, inge bu on p esses p io
o he p esen a ion o an a m- ela ed wo d (e.g., s i ) esul ed in educed b ain ac i i y in he
hand knob compa ed o he incong uen condi ions (e.g., jump), he ela ed la ency o 150
ms sugges ing ea ly seman ic in o ma ion e ie al (Mollo e al., 2016). O e all esul s om
EEG and MEG show ea ly and ul a-ea ly e ec s o e b p ocessing on senso imo o a eas
as well as modula o y e ec s o mo o p iming o in e e ence on co ical mo o ac i a ion
ela ed o wo d p ocessing. Fu he mo e, such e ec s ha e been documen ed e en when he
pa icipan s’ a en ion was di e ed away om he linguis ic inpu , sugges ing a la ge deg ee o
au oma ici y o senso imo o in ol emen in language p ocessing (G isoni e al., 2016; Sh y o
e al., 2004, 2014). S ill, beha io al e ec s o cong uency be ween body- ela ed ac ion e bs
(hand, oo ) and body e ec o used o esponses we e shown o be la ge when lexical decision
o physical judgmen s asks we e pe o med, hus poin ing o a ole o a en ion and dep h o
p ocessing in embodimen (Mille & Kaup, 2020). Also, seman ic mo o p iming was shown o
be e ec i e only when a seman ic ask was equi ed and no when seman ic p ocessing could
be igno ed (Klepp e al., 2017).
Po en ial ERP co ela es o senso y simula ion du ing language p ocessing can also be ound
when examining he e ec s o language on isual pe cep ion. A c i ical ques ion conce ning
language-pe cep ion in e ac ions is whe he language a ec s isual p ocessing a ea ly
s ages (i.e., by modula ing ac i i y in ea ly senso y egions) o a la e seman ic o decision-
making le els. The a ionale o hese s udies is ha , i wo ds o u e ances ac i a e senso y

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ep esen a ions o hei e e en objec s in ea ly senso y egions, hen such ep esen a ions
should modula e ea ly ERPs such as he P1 o N1 – pu a i ely conside ed an elec ophysiological
index o low-le el isual p ocesses (Spehlmann, 1965). I , howe e , language only ac i a es
amodal ep esen a ions, hen no ea ly senso y modula ions should be ound. Ins ead, la e
ERP e ec s migh be ound, such as he N400, ypically associa ed wi h highe le els o objec
ecogni ion. S udies using wo d-pic u e ma ching asks showed ha single wo ds can bias
isual p ocessing o objec ca ego ies as ea ly as 100 ms om he onse o he image, wi h
such modula ions a ising p ima ily in occipi al egions (Bou onne & Lupyan, 2015; Noo man
e al., 2018). Simila ly, p ocessing wo ds e e ing o acial body pa s (e.g., nose) inc eases he
ampli ude o he N170 in he ace-p ocessing sys em o a la ge ex en han o he body pa s
(e.g., hand). In e es ingly, a machine-lea ning classi ie ained o disc imina e be ween acial
body and non- acial body pa s achie ed be e pe o mance when ained on da a om he
ace-p ocessing sys em in he i s 200 ms a e wo d onse , compa ed o da a based on he
mul imodal-ne wo k a e 250 ms (Ga cia e al., 2020). These indings sugges ha a leas
some ca ego ies o con en wo ds ac i a e con en -speci ic isual ep esen a ions in ea ly
senso y egions. Simila e ec s ha e also been epo ed when sen ences p ecede isual objec
ca ego y p esen a ion. Fo ins ance, hea ing sen ences abou aces in luences ace p ocessing
by modula ing he N170 componen (Landau e al., 2010). Simila ly, Hi sch eld e al. (2011)
showed ha ERP esponses gene a ed by incong uen sen ence-pic u e pai s di e ed om
hose gene a ed by cong uen pai s a ound 170 ms a e pic u e onse . In e es ingly, s udies
using in e e ence pa adigms showed ha isual noise dis up s he p ocessing ad an age o
cong uen wo d-pic u e pai s (Edmis on & Lupyan, 2017), bu no o cong uen sen ence-pic u e
pai s, which a e ins ead a ec ed by seman ic noise (Os a ek e al., 2019). This inding sugges s
ha while he p ocessing o single wo ds can lead o he ac i a ion o isual in o ma ion, la ge
language uni s (e.g., sen ences) migh ely mo e on amodal knowledge ep esen a ions. This is
in line wi h models in which language comp ehension engages wo complemen a y sys ems, a
pe cep ual and an abs ac one (Mahon & Ca amazza, 2008; Hi sch eld, 2011; Bi, 2021).
The unc ional ele ance o modali y-speci ic ac i a ion o he unde s anding o linguis ic
meanings emains a con o e sial issue. Theo e ical models p o ide di e en iews on he
ex en o which senso imo o simula ions con ibu e o seman ic comp ehension, wi h some
heo ies claiming ha simula ions a e necessa y o language comp ehension (Pul e mülle ,
1999), o he s sugges ing ha hey a e con ex -dependen (Ba salou, 1999), and o he s limi ing
hei unc ional ole (Mahon & Ca amazza, 2008). Causal pa adigms p o ide some appealing
me hods o add ess his p oblem (See Os a ek & Bo ini, 2021 o a e iew). These pa adigms
include s udies on senso y and mo o impai ed indi iduals (e.g., blind o dea indi iduals),
lesion s udies, and s imula ion s udies.
S udies on indi iduals wi h senso y and mo o impai men s p o ide a c i ical es o embodied
seman ics. The logic o hese s udies is s aig h o wa d: i unde s anding he meaning o mo o -
(e.g., kick) o ision- ela ed language (e.g., sky) equi es he ec ui men o mo o and isual
simula ions espec i ely, hen indi iduals wi h impai ed mo o o isual abili ies should ha e a
de ici in p ocessing his ype o language ma e ial. E idence om hese pa adigms, howe e , is
in e mixed. Fo ins ance, p ocessing ac ion e bs ac i a es he le middle empo al gy us in bo h
sigh ed and congeni ally blind indi iduals (Bedny, Ca amazza, Pascual-Leone, & Saxe, 2012),
sugges ing ha he lack o isual expe ience does no impai seman ic p ocessing. Speci ically,
hese indings ha e been aken as e idence o he ac ha b ain egions pu a i ely ac i a ed
du ing he p ocessing o ac ion e bs may ep esen amodal ep esen a ions o e b meanings
ins ead o isual-mo ion simula ions. On he o he hand, he e is some e idence ha speci ic
dimensions o meaning, such as colo concep s (e.g., “blue”), may be ep esen ed in di e en
egions in sigh ed and blind people. Fo ins ance, while p ocessing colo wo ds ac i a es egions
known o ep esen low-le el isual ea u es (e.g., he pos e io occipi al co ex) in sigh ed
people, indi iduals bo n blind seem o ely mo e on empo al egions, ha is, egions usually
associa ed wi h lexical-seman ic p ocessing (Bo ini e al., 2020). This la e esul sugges s
ha senso y simula ions may be ec ui ed du ing he p ocessing o some speci ic meanings,
bu ha hey a e no necessa y, o always a ailable, du ing seman ic p ocessing. I mus also
be no iced ha p e ious s udies showing simila ac i a ion p o iles in sigh ed and ea ly blind
people p ocessing language ma e ial do no necessa ily indica e ha senso imo o simula ions
a e no ec ui ed du ing seman ic p ocessing. Indeed, he e is e idence ha occipi al egions
7Bech old e al.
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eo ganize o o he senso y compu a ions in he absence o ision (e.g., audi o y, gus a o y).
The e o e, a simila pa e n o ac i a ion o e occipi al egions may e lec di e en simula o y
mechanisms in he sigh ed and blinds (Os a ek & Bo ini, 2021).
Ano he app oach o es he causali y o senso imo o simula ion o seman ic p ocessing elies
on lesion s udies. Fo ins ance, some s udies on co ical mo o lesions show a lack o impai men
in ac ion wo d p ocessing ha embodied heo ies ins ead would pos ula e (A e alo e al., 2012;
Weiss e al., 2016), while o he s sugges ac ion-language speci ic impai men s when he mo o
sys em is damaged (Bak & Chand an, 2012). The e ec o pa hological changes in he mo o
sys em such as in Pa kinson’s disease can con ibu e o he in es iga ion o he causali y issue:
we e e he eade o sec ion 5 o he pape by Ibáñez e al. in his jou nal issue o an in-dep h
discussion.
In heal hy popula ions his has been ackled by applying neu omodula ion echniques such
as ansc anial magne ic s imula ion (TMS) and ansc anial elec ical s imula ion ( ES), and
a ge ing he hand and oo mo o a eas du ing he p ocessing o e ec o -speci ic ac ion
e bs and sen ences. Resul s show ha s imula ion modula ed eac ion imes and/o co ical
exci abili y, al hough some inconsis encies emain as o he di ec ion o he modula ion
in he sense o co ical mo o inhibi ion s. acili a ion (Buccino e al., 2005; Gianelli & Dalla
Vol a, 2014; Lo Ge o e al., 2008; Niccolai e al., 2017; Oli e i e al., 2004; Papeo e al., 2009;
Pul e mulle e al., 2005; Repe o e al., 2013; Sco olli e al., 2012; Weiss e al., 2016; Willems
e al., 2011). Such inconsis encies may s em om di e ging s imula ion se ings (e.g., sup a- s
sub- h eshold, single-pulse s. epe i i e) and di e en linguis ic asks in ol ed ac oss di e en
s udies. Fo ins ance, i has been showed ha , whe eas TMS o hand mo o a eas does no a ec
hand- ela ed wo d p ocessing in a lexical decision ask, a deepe le el o p ocessing p omp ed
by seman ic judgmen ask is comp omised by TMS in a meaning-speci ic ashion (Vuko ic e
al., 2017), as is ac ion-wo d acquisi ion (Vuko ic & Sh y o , 2019). Fu he , pe o mance in a
seman ic disc imina ion ask seems o a ec he e ec o ES on p iming (Niccolai e al., 2017).
Thus, al hough o e all esul s poin o soma o opically o ganized engagemen o co ical
mo o a eas in he unde s anding o w i en and spoken ac ion, he issue o causali y emains
deba ed and is in need o u he s udies ha should mo e sys ema ically explo e di e en
modali ies, s imula ion egimes and linguis ic con ex s.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Al hough he e iewed ma ke s poin o an in ol emen o senso imo o sys ems in
language p ocessing and p o ide clues as o he loca ion and iming o hei engagemen ,
hey a e s ill limi ed in some o hei de ails. Fo ins ance, he sign o neu al in e ac ions
subse ing simula ion mechanisms is s ill poo ly unde s ood, as MRI and EEG indings
a e usually no in o ma i e abou whe he neu al ac i i y e lec s inhibi o y o acili a o y
p ocesses, o a combina ion o bo h. Simila ly, in e p e a ions o TMS indings emain
somewha ambiguous because expe imen al condi ions a e o en con as ed wi h each
o he , wi hou he conside a ion o an app op ia e baseline. Besides hese me hodological
conside a ions, i emains o be de e mined how exac ly senso imo o a eas can engage in
pe cep ual/mo o as well as linguis ic in o ma ion p ocessing in unc ionally speci ic ways,
and wha mechanisms enable his unc ional swi ch om pe cep ion/execu ion o embodied
seman ic p ocessing. Fu he , i has been shown ha no only e bs and nouns can modula e
senso imo o ac i a ion. Fo example, he ad an age shown by he 1
s
s. 3
d
-pe son
pe spec i e in ac i a ing speci ic b ain a eas such as he pos e io cingula e a ea, he igh
supe io empo al sulcus, he p e/mo o and he soma osenso y a ea (Tomasino e al., 2007;
Ruby & Dece y 2003; Niccolai e al. 2021; Wagne e al. 2014) poin s o a ole o he si ua ional
con ex in embodied linguis ic p ocessing (see also sec ion 4 o Ibáñez e al., in his jou nal
issue). Beyond e bs ( o a e iew, see Fische & Zwaan, 2008), nouns (Ca o a e al., 2012),
p onouns, and adjec i es (Gough e al., 2013), ad e bs can also modula e senso imo o
ac i a ion (Sieksmeye e al., 2021). While eplica ions o hese indings is s ongly needed,
i would be impo an o elucida e whe he hese syn ac ic elemen s con ibu e o he shi
om embodied o mo e si ua ed seman ics.
8Bech old e al.
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HOW ARE ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE WORDS GROUNDED?
Language is a powe ul ehicle o he exp ession o knowledge: by mapping men al
ep esen a ions o objec s, ac ions, and ac s o he wo ld on o wo d meanings, i allows
indi iduals o sha e hough s, expe iences, and eelings, in o de o be unde s ood by o he s.
Fo example, people can alk abou hings hey can expe ience di ec ly h ough hei senses,
such as dog and pizza, bu hey can also alk abou mo e abs ac en i ies, such as, in elligence
and jus ice, which cons i u e a ound 70% o he wo ds indi iduals use daily (Bolognesi &
S een, 2018; Recchia & Jones, 2012). These la e concep s pose a p oblem o heo ies ha
g ound knowledge in senso imo o sys ems (e.g., embodied o g ounded cogni ion heo ies).
Indeed, how can senso imo o ac i a ion sys ems ep esen wo ds ha do no appea o
be g ounded in hese sys ems? Wi hin he gene al aim o his consensus pape , his sec ion
add esses his ques ion om a ious pe spec i es by examining s udies compa ing abs ac
and conc e e wo d p ocessing, in o de o p o ide an o e iew o cu en app oaches o he
possible commonali ies and di e ences in he g ounding o hese wo ds and o sugges u u e
di ec ions in his s and o esea ch. The concep ual me apho heo y add essed his ques ion
by obse ing ha in language, conc e e wo ds a e o en used as a me apho o alk abou
abs ac concep s (Lako , 1980; Peche , 2018). A body o beha io al da a suppo ed his
heo y, showing ha people ac i a e some so o spa io-mo o ep esen a ions when hey alk
and hink abou abs ac conce ps, consis en wi h embodied seman ics. On he o he hand,
neu oimaging s udies obse ed mixed esul s. Fo ins ance, when compa ing me apho ical
sen ences including ac ion wo ds and ac ion- ela ed li e al sen ences, while Aziz-Zadeh e al.
(2006) ailed o epo mo o ac i a ion o he idioma ic sen ences, Boulenge e al. (2009)
ound his ac i a ion. Ye , i is unlikely ha all abs ac concep s can be g asped hanks o hei
me apho ical ela ions wi h conc e e concep s (Bo ghi & Za cone, 2016). An al e na i e idea is
ha , compa ed o conc e e wo ds, abs ac ones ha e mo e si ua ion-dependen p ope ies
(Wilson-Mendenhall e al., 2011). P o iding si ua ional in o ma ion o en acili a es he
p ocessing o abs ac wo ds (Mu phy & Wisniewski, 1989; Schwanen lugel & Shoben, 1983;
Wa enmake & Shoben, 1987), sugges ing ha si ua ions a e impo an o unde s anding
hese ypes o wo ds.
In he li e a u e, he p ope y ha de e mines whe he a wo d is conc e e o abs ac has
been e med conc e eness. By de ini ion, conc e eness indica es he deg ee o which a wo d
e e s o an en i y ha can be pe cei ed h ough he ex e nal senses. This dimension is usually
assessed by pa icipan s on Like scales (B ysbae e al., 2014; Mon e inese e al., 2014), in
which conc e e wo ds lie on one side o he scale, e e ing o single, bounded, iden i iable
e e en s ha can be pe cei ed h ough he senses (Bo ghi e al., 2017). Abs ac wo ds lie on
he opposi e side o he scale and lack clea ly pe cei able e e en s wi h he a ec i e wo ds
mo e s ongly elian on in e ocep ion (i.e., sensa ions inside he body; Connell e al., 2018;
Mon e inese e al., 2020). Indeed, compa ed o conc e e wo ds, abs ac ones a e acqui ed
la e and mos ly h ough language and social in e ac ion a he han physical senso imo o
expe ience (see Bo ghi e al., 2019; Do e e al., 2020). Conc e e wo ds a e mo e imageable
(Pai io, 1990) and ha e g ea e a ailabili y o con ex ual in o ma ion (Schwanen lugel e al.,
1992). Di e en o ganiza ional p inciples ha e been a gued o go e n seman ic ep esen a ions
o conc e e and abs ac wo ds (Mon e inese, 2019). Indeed, conc e e wo ds a e p edominan ly
o ganized by simila i y in he senso imo o expe ience (Mon e inese e al., 2015; 2018a), as has
been in e ed om asking pa icipan s o lis p ope ies o he concep which a wo d e e s
o (Buchanan e al., 2019; Mon e inese e al., 2013; Mon e inese & Vinson, 2015). Abs ac
wo ds, in u n, a e mos ly o ganized by associa i e ela ions, which indica e he ex en o which
wo ds a e bound in he mind (as in e ed by a ee wo d associa ion ask; C u ch & Wa ing on,
2005; Mon e inese e al., 2018b). I has also been p oposed ha abs ac wo d ep esen a ion
could be based mo e on seman ic simila i y a ising h ough pa e ns o wo ds’ co-occu ence
in linguis ic con ex s and syn ac ic in o ma ion, based on he idea ha wo ds wi h simila
meanings a e mos ly used in simila linguis ic con ex s (Vigliocco e al., 2013). Howe e , some
s udies in he li e a u e ha e ques ioned he la e claim by showing ha lexical co-occu ence-
based models ei he p edic he p ocessing o conc e e and abs ac wo ds simila ly (Ro a u e
al., 2018) o accoun be e o conc e e han abs ac wo ds (Hill e al., 2013; Mon e inese e
al., 2021; see also he nex sec ion).
9Bech old e al.
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Conc e e wo ds can also be insc ibed in o de ini e domains, such as na u al objec s s.
a i ac s, plan s s. animals, e c., and hey a e o ganized in o hie a chical ca ego ies
(animals/dogs/ e ie s/), while abs ac wo ds a e conside ably mo e a iable wi h ega d o
hei seman ic con en and hey canno be con as ed as a uni o m ca ego y wi h conc e e
wo ds (Bo ghi e al., 2017; Mon e inese e al., 2015; bu see T oche e al., 2014). Mo eo e ,
pa icipan s ag ee mo e when hey p oduce p ope ies and associa ions o conc e e wo ds
like dog and pizza compa ed wi h abs ac wo ds like in elligence and jus ice (De Mo nay Da ies
& Funnell, 2000; Tyle e al., 2002). This could be due o abs ac wo ds gene ally ha ing a
g ea e numbe o possible meanings (i.e., polysemy o seman ic di e si y) compa ed o
conc e e wo ds (Ho man e al., 2013). This on ological dis inc ion is e lec ed in hei di e en
p ocessing and ep esen a ion in he human b ain. Indeed, a moun ing body o e idence om
unc ional neu oimaging s udies suppo s he idea ha he le and igh ce eb al hemisphe es
di e in hei p ocessing o conc e e and abs ac wo ds (e.g., Binde e al. 2005; Dhond e al.,
2007; Pexman e al. 2007; Sabse i z e al. 2005). The gene al consensus om hese s udies
is ha wo main sys ems unde lie he p ocessing o hese ypes o wo ds, wi h abs ac
wo ds elying on he e bal-language sys em and conc e e wo ds elying on he image y and
pe cep ual sys ems (Wang e al., 2010) as p e iously sugges ed by he seminal wo k o Pai io,
who concep ualized his in his dual coding heo y (Pai io, 1990, 1991; see below).
Mo eo e , beha io al esea ch o e se e al decades has ound ha conc e e wo ds a e
p ocessed mo e quickly and accu a ely han abs ac wo ds ( o a e iew, see Huang &
Fede meie , 2015). This p ocessing ad an age is labeled conc e eness e ec and has been
obse ed in a a ie y o asks. Fo example, as compa ed o abs ac ones, conc e e wo ds
a e esponded o mo e quickly in lexical decision asks (Bleasdale, 1987; K oll & Me es, 1986;
bu see also Kous a e al., 2011), a e easie o encode and e ie e (Romani e al., 2008; Mille
& Rooden ys, 2009), a e easie o make associa ions wi h (de G oo , 1989), and a e mo e
ho oughly desc ibed in de ini ion asks (Sadoski e al., 1997). Al hough i has ecen ly been
sugges ed ha some o hese e ec s may be d i en by su ace wo d p ope ies and hei
acquisi ion backg ounds a he han seman ics pe se (Ku makae a e al., 2021) and some
s udies ha e e en documen ed he e e se o conc e eness e ec when su ace p ope ies
a e ma ched (Mk ychian e al, 2021), he e idence in a o o gene al conc e eness wo d
ad an age emains ubiqui ous.
Two main compe ing heo ies ha e been p oposed o explain he conc e eness e ec . As
men ioned abo e, he dual coding accoun (Pai io, 1990) claims he exis ence o wo p ocessing
sys ems: a e bal symbolic sys em esponsible o he ep esen a ion and p ocessing o
linguis ic in o ma ion, and an image y sys em o he non e bal in o ma ion. This heo y
a gues ha abs ac wo ds a e only ep esen ed h ough a e bal code, while conc e e wo ds
a e ep esen ed using bo h a e bal and non- e bal code, esul ing in an addi i e e ec and
p ocessing ad an age o conc e e wo ds o e abs ac wo ds (Pai io, 1990). Thus, simila ly
o he amodal heo ies (Mahon & Ca amazza, 2008), Pai io‘s heo y neglec s he g ounding
o abs ac meaning and claims ha only a symbolic amodal sys em plays a ole in he
p ocessing o abs ac concep s. Wi hin he dual coding amewo k, a hyb id iew combining
an embodied app oach wi h a dis ibu ional one seems p omising (And ews, F ank & Vigliocco,
2014; Mon e inese, 2019). Indeed, dis ibu ional models based on linguis ic da a appea o be
app op ia e o desc ibing abs ac concep s (Louwe se, 2011).
In con as o he dual coding accoun , he con ex -a ailabili y model (Schwanen lugel, 1992)
pays no a en ion o he special s a us o he pe cep ual in o ma ion, a he i claims ha
abs ac and conc e e wo ds a e ep esen ed in a single symbolic sys em. This heo y assumes
ha comp ehension elies on con ex supplied by ei he he p eceding discou se o he
comp ehende ’s own seman ic knowledge. Conc e e wo ds a e mo e closely associa ed wi h
he ele an con ex ual knowledge in seman ic ep esen a ion because hey ha e s onge o
mo e ex ensi e connec ions o his s o ed knowledge compa ed wi h abs ac wo ds. Thus,
he poo e pe o mance o abs ac wo ds is due o he ela i e una ailabili y o associa ed
con ex ual in o ma ion in seman ic ep esen a ion o hese wo ds (Schwanen lugel, 1992).
Abs ac wo ds may be associa ed wi h a wide a ie y o si ua ions han conc e e concep s
(Galb ai h & Unde wood, 1973) gi en hei g ea e numbe o meanings, as men ioned abo e
(Ho man e al., 2013). As a esul o g ea e in e e ence be ween compe ing si ua ions,
e ie ing a single one may be mo e di icul o an abs ac wo d han o a conc e e one.
16Bech old e al.
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When con as ed agains es ing s a e, esul s showed ha wo ds lea ned in associa ion wi h
iconic ges u es ac i a ed a complex co ical and subco ical neu al ne wo k including he
le p emo o co ex (BA 6), p ima y mo o co ex, pu amen, subs an ia nig a, le and igh
cauda e, and he bila e al ce ebellum. The au ho s in e p e ed hese indings as e idence o he
eac i a ion o an expe ience- ela ed ne wo k in ol ed in enac ed wo d encoding. In a simila
expe imen , Maye e al. (2015) ound ha specialized isual and mo o a eas a e in ol ed in
ep esen ing wo ds only when hey a e lea ned wi h suppo o mo o (e.g., ges u es) and isual
(e.g., pic u es) cues. Using mul i a ia e pa e n classi ica ion echnique, he au ho s we e able
o iden i y he supe io empo al sulcus and he p emo o co ex as co e egions ep esen ing
wo ds ained wi h ges u es, and he igh an e io la e al occipi al complex as he co e egion
ela ed o he ep esen a ion o wo ds encoded wi h pic u es.
Howe e , no all ges u es ha e he same impac on lea ning. Macedonia e al. (2011) con as ed
b ain ac i a ions in esponse o wo ds encoded wi h iconic e sus meaningless ges u es. The
au ho s ound p emo o ac i a ion only o he o me , whe eas he la e caused an ac i a ion
in a ne wo k associa ed wi h he cogni i e con ol. Al oge he , hese esul s sugges ha
he mo o componen pe se is no su icien o accoun o he memo y ad an age; a he ,
wo d meaning should be mapped on o he mo o p og am in o de o ob ain he expec ed
ad an age. In addi ion, a ecen expe imen con i med he causal in ol emen o he mo o
co ex du ing ecall o enac ed wo ds (Ma hias e al., 2021): epe i i e ansc anial magne ic
s imula ion o e he p ima y mo o co ex (M1) a ec ed he ansla ion o L2 wo ds lea ned
wi h senso imo o -en iched aining (ges u es), bu no ha o L2 wo ds lea ned wi h only
senso y-en iched aining (pic u es).
As a u he p oo o he in ol emen o he mo o sys em in p ocessing language lea ned
h ough enac men , Repe o e . al (2021) showed ha he mo o ac i a ion o igina ing in he
b ain also eaches he muscles when pa icipan s p ocess wo ds lea ned h ough enac men .
I he s udies e iewed so a explo ed he ep esen a ion o wo ds a e encoding h ough
ges u es, li le is known abou he b ain ac i a ions du ing he ges u e-based encoding
phase. To examine his issue, Macedonia e al. (2019) scanned pa icipan s’ b ain ac i i y as
hey encoded wo ds in di e en condi ions: isual, audio isual, and ges u e obse a ion. The
ne wo k o ac i a ed a eas e lec ed he p og essi e en ichmen o he s imuli: a basic ne wo k
engaged in eading was de ec ed du ing he isual condi ion, which was enla ged by audi o y
co ices o he audio isual condi ion, and e en mo e so by mo o co ices and pa ie al lobules
in he ges u e obse a ion condi ion.
WHAT ARE THE NEURAL CORRELATES OF L2 LEARNING THROUGH MOTOR
ACTIONS?
Simila o enac men , he e m embodied lea ning has been used o desc ibe he ac o encoding
new in o ma ion by pe o ming ac ions (James & Bose, 2011; James & Swain, 2011; Johnson-
Glenbe g, 2017, 2018; Johnson-Glenbe g & Megowan-Romanowicz, 2017). Impo an ly, he
le el o embodimen is hough o depend on how physically engaged he lea ne eels, as
well as he cong uency be ween ges u es and he con en being lea ned (Johnson-Glenbe g
& Megowan-Romanowicz, 2017; Skulmowski & Rey 2018). Fo example, ma hema ical (Kon a
e al., 2015) and scien i ic p inciples (Johnson-Glenbe g & Megowan-Romanowicz, 2017;
Johnson-Glenbe g e al., 2016) ha e been shown o be be e in eg a ed when lea ned wi h
physical ac i i y as opposed o e baliza ion alone.
Along simila lines as he ges u e s udies desc ibed abo e, a hand ul o neu ocogni i e s udies
in ol ing non-ges u e ac ion ha e also examined how he mo o sys em migh shape he
acquisi ion o lexical i ems. In a lea ning pa adigm, Fa gie e al. (2012) augh pa icipan s
no el wo ds in associa ion wi h isual mo o ac ions compa ed o abs ac anima ed images.
In a pos - aining session, he au ho s measu ed mo o ac i a ion ia neu al oscilla ions while
pa icipan s p ocessed he no el wo ds. A e he i s day o aining, g ea e supp ession in he
mu band (8–13 Hz), a equency band pu a i ely associa ed wi h mo o ac i a ion, eme ged
o wo ds lea ned wi h ac ions compa ed o he con ol condi ion. Unexpec edly, ollowing
he second day o aining, mu desynch oniza ion was dis ibu ed o e on o-cen al a eas.
The au ho s a gued ha a eas ac i a ed by bo h mo o and linguis ic p ocessing we e hence
con ined o a con e gence zone be ween mo o and language s uc u es (i.e., mo e on al
egions and no he cen al pa ie al a eas ha a e hough o subse e senso imo o ac i i y).

17Bech old e al.
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This ou come was well in line wi h mu- hy hm dynamics ound o bo h L2 and L1 ac ion
wo d p ocessing in bilingual subjec s (Vuko ic e al., 2014). In a simila s udy pe o med by
Bech old e al. (2018), pa icipan s lea ned no el names o no el ools h ough ei he isual
o manual explo a ion. As expec ed, esul s e ealed g ea e mu and be a equency band
supp ession pos - aining o wo ds lea ned h ough hap ic manipula ion. Howe e , non-
ool ela ed amilia ized pseudowo ds showed a simila pa e n. The au ho s sugges ed ha
di e ences in mu and be a supp ession du ing he p ocessing o he lea ned wo ds may ha e
been a esul o he supp ession o mo o ac i a ion o p ocessing wo ds ha only ha e
isual ea u es. These s udies a e no el in hei a emp o p o ide neu ocogni i e e idence
o how mo o s imula ion du ing no el wo d encoding a ec s he ep esen a ion o hese
wo ds. Howe e , none o hem p o ide clea e idence ha wo ds lea ned wi h ac ion di ec ly
eac i a e senso imo o in o ma ion, no ha embodied lea ning leads o imp o ed wo d
encoding. This la e issue was mo e ecen ly ackled by in ol ing TMS o mo o a eas in
conjunc ion wi h hand ac ion-based wo d lea ning in Vi ual Reali y en i onmen , which
showed causal in ol emen o he mo o co ex in ac ion wo d acquisi ion and e en indica ed
apid wide-sp ead mic os uc u al changes in he language sys em linked o he mo o co ex
unc ion (Vuko ic & Sh y o , 2019; Vuko ic e al., 2021).
Fu u e di ec ions
Wi hin he amewo k o embodied seman ics, he abo e esul s poin o a need o s udies
ha u he in es iga e how bo h ges u es and ac ions suppo L2 lea ning. Mos o he imaging
s udies ha e shown he ne wo k o a eas ac i a ed du ing he e ie al o wo ds lea ned
wi h di e en deg ees o en ichmen ; less is known abou he b ain ac i i y du ing encoding
in p og essi ely en iched condi ions. The s udy by Macedonia e al. (2019) explo ed b ain
ac i a ions only du ing ges u e obse a ion, while ges u e o ac ion execu ion equi es di e en
expe imen al se ups. Fu u e s udies could complemen he ex an knowledge in many ways: o
example, esea che s could use di e en me hods (e.g., unc ional Nea -In a ed Spec oscopy)
o in es iga e b ain ac i i y while wo ds a e encoded in dynamic expe imen al se ings whe e
pa icipan s a e no equi ed o s ay s ill, as is he case o MRI se ings, in o de o pinpoin he
neu al co ela es o encoding h ough enac men . In addi ion, EEG s udies could complemen
he ex an knowledge wi h speci ic in o ma ion on he ime-cou se o b ain ac i a ion changes
associa ed o di e en encoding condi ions. Finally, g ea e ecological alidi y in expe imen s
examining he e ec o body engagemen , whe he in he o m o ges u es o ac ions, could
lead o a deepe unde s anding o how mo o p ocesses a ec language lea ning. Speci ically,
he combina ion o neu al measu es and Vi ual Reali y, as will be u he explo ed in he inal
sec ion o his consensus pape , is a p omising me hodology ha allows o mo e imme si e,
close - o-li e lea ning se -ups in which o explo e mo o -seman ic in e ac ions du ing language
lea ning.
HOW DOES OBJECT MODALITY AFFECT ASSOCIATIVE WORD
LEARNING AND MODULATE THE N400?
Humans expe ience he wo ld h ough senso y inpu , and language allows us o communica e
hese expe iences o one ano he , including naming and desc ibing isual, audi o y, ol ac o y,
hap ic, and gus a o y objec s and e en s. Recen esea ch has p o ided insigh s in o he
dis ibu ion o nouns pe aining o he alloca ion o pe cep ual modali ies in ocabula ies ac oss
se e al languages (e.g., Chedid e al., 2019; Chen e al., 2019; Lyno e al., 2020; Miklashe sky,
2018; Mo ucci e al., 2019; Speed & Majid, 2017; Ve galli o e al., 2020; Win e e al., 2018).
Howe e , esea ch on wo d lea ning ypically ocuses on he acquisi ion o and mapping o
wo ds on o isual objec s (e.g., F ied ich & F iede ici, 2008, 2011; Ho s & Samuelson, 2008;
Junge e al., 2012; Smi h & Yu, 2008; Taxi a i e al., 2019; We ke e al., 1998). I is known
ha senso y modali y no only impac s he ou come o lea ning, bu also he pa ame e s o
lea ning, o example di ec ionali y o p e e ence (no el y e ec s s. amilia i y e ec s) and
age (Embe son e al., 2019; Thiessen, 2010); ye , his has no o en been conside ed in he
con ex o language acquisi ion. Thus, di e ences be ween lea ning wo ds o isual objec s
and o he objec modali ies, such as audi o y objec s, a e no well known. An unde s anding
o how wo d lea ning akes place o o he modali ies is impo an , as pe cep ion is he key
ac o o embodied and embedded cogni ion wi hin a si ua ed cogni ion amewo k (c . Ven e ,
18Bech old e al.
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2021). Recen esea ch in in an s has sugges ed ha 10-mon h-olds a e able o map labels
on o audi o y objec s (i.e., en i onmen al sounds) in a simila way o mapping labels on o
isual objec s (Cospe e al., 2020). Mo eo e , ecen esea ch has also p o ided e idence ha
no only he modali y o he objec ( isual s. audi o y) bu also he empo al synch ony o
s imulus p esen a ion can also ha e an e ec on lea ning in bo h ERP and beha io al measu es
(Cospe e al., 2022).
The senso y modali y o p ocessing has been known o ha e an e ec on memo y. This can be
seen speci ically in ecogni ion memo y, whe e, o example, he ecogni ion o isual objec s
is ound o be supe io o ha o audi o y objec s (Cohen e al., 2009, 2011; Gloede & G egg,
2019). Fu he mo e, sho - e m memo y and delayed ecogni ion in he isual and ac ile
modali ies has also been shown o be supe io o ha in he audi o y modali y (Bigelow &
Po emba, 2014). Howe e , sho - e m memo y di e ences seem o diminish and memo y ecall
becomes mo e simila when he complexi y o s imuli in he audi o y and isual modali ies a e
closely ma ched (Vissche e al., 2007). Thiessen (2010) iden i ied wo cons ain s o modali y
e ec s on wo d lea ning in adul s and in an s: he de elopmen al cons ain , which e e s o
di e ences in audi o y s imulus p ocessing be ween in an s and adul s p ocess he audi o y
s imuli di e en ly, and he s imulus cons ain , implying ha cha ac e is ics o wo d-objec
s imuli a e p ocessed di e en ly acco ding o modali y.
In o de o acqui e he meaning o a wo d, he objec and i s label mus i s be mapped on o
one ano he . This ela ionship can be o med in wo basic, ye di e en , ways, in which he
ou comes a e no necessa ily mu ually exclusi e: by means o e e en ial ela ionships, such
as hypo hesis es ing (c . Xu & Tenenbaum, 2007) o by means o associa i e ela ionships
(e.g., Be gelson & Aslin, 2017; Be gelson & Swingley, 2012; F ied ich & F iede ici, 2011; Slou sky
e al., 2017). In he case o wo d lea ning o audi o y objec s, he cogni i e mechanisms o
main aining audi o y sho - e m memo y a e impo an conside a ions o he ou come o
lea ning. Baddeley (2012) gi es a e iew o he phonological loop, an audi o y wo king memo y
main enance sys em elian on ocal o sub ocal ehea sal. The phonological loop is said o no
only be u ilized o audi o y- e bal s imuli, bu also o audi o y-non e bal s imuli (Baddeley,
2012). Howe e , mo e ecen esea ch has p o ided an al e na i e sys em o wo king memo y
main enance o audi o y-non e bal s imuli, namely a cogni i e mechanism simila o isual
image y – audi o y image y – which de ails ha audi o y-non e bal in o ma ion may be
main ained in wo king memo y by imaging a sound (Soeme & Sai o, 2015). Albei he e a e
di e ences in he wo mechanisms unde lying wo king memo y in he audi o y modali y,
i could be ha bo h a e necessa y in audi o y wo d lea ning, as bo h audi o y- e bal and
audi o y-non e bal in o ma ion is p esen in such lea ning si ua ions in he o m o spoken
wo ds and audi o y objec s, o example, en i onmen al sounds. This no ion has been seen in
adul lea ne s, bu needs o be u he explo ed and excplici ly manipula ed in an expe imen al
se ing in o de o ully unde s and how he pholological loop and audi o y image y a e a ec ed
by objec modali y in wo d lea ning (c . Cospe e al., 2022).
The ERP me hod can be applied in o de o p o ide insigh s in o he neu al unde pinning o
lea ning, along wi h addi ional beha io al measu es such as accu acy and eac ion imes
ob ained h ough an ac i e lea ning pa adigm (McLaughlin e al., 2004). We al eady men ioned
N400, as one o he mos impo an componen s in linguis ic ERP esea ch; i is no su p ising
ha i has also been used o add ess he lea ning p ocesses. In addi ion o he classical
sen en ial con ex s, he N400 has also been used o measu e wo d lea ning in isola ion ( o
e iews, see Junge e al., 2021; Ku as & Fede meie , 2000, 2011). In addi ion o spoken o
w i en wo ds, he N400 componen can also be used o measu e p ocessing o non-linguis ic
ma e ial, such as ones, music, and en i onmen al sounds (Cummings e al., 2006; Koelsch e
al., 2004; an Pe en & Rhein elde , 1995), indica ing ha he N400 can be used as a measu e
o iola ed expec a ion wi h bo h audi o y- e bal and audi o y-non e bal s imuli. As such, he
N400 componen can be used o measu e lea ning in associa i e wo d lea ning pa adigms
du ing and a e lea ning wi h bo h audi o y and isual objec s pai ed wi h spoken pseudowo ds.
Recen empi ical e idence has been p o ided ha in an s a e able o map wo ds on o audi o y
objec s (i.e., en i onmen al sounds) in a simila way as hey do o isual objec s (Cospe e
al., 2020); howe e , i s e idence p o ides insigh in ha audi o y associa i e wo d lea ning
is less e ec i e han isual associa i e wo d lea ning (Cospe e al., 2022). Despi e hese
indings, he e is s ill a gap in he li e a u e on how he ull spec um o pe cep ual modali y
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ea u es a ec s wo d lea ning and emodied and si ua ed cogni ion o language p ocessing.
None heless, one can specula e abou he possibili y o objec modali y a ec ing associa i e
wo d lea ning and, in u n, modula ing he N400 in adul s. The unc ional in e p e a ion o he
N400 e ec is gene ally desc ibed as ei he a p ocess o sp eading ac i a ion (e.g., Holcomb,
1988; Kie e , 2002; Lau e al., 2008) o seman ic in eg a ion (e.g., Ben in e al., 1993; Ku as &
Fede meie , 2011). Howe e , as men ioned abo e, he e a e o he unc ional in e p e a ions
o he N400 e ec , which include ac o s such as p edic abili y (seman ic-le el), plausibili y
(sen ence-le el), and simila i y (low-le el seman ic ela ionship, based on co-occu ence;
Nieuwland e al., 2020). Mo e ecen esea ch also shows ha he la ency o he N400 (o
N500, c . Schöne e al., 2018) is sensi i e o ension and s ess in p ocessing pe sonally
ele an s imuli (Schöne e al., 2018; Ca e ie e al., 2005). As such, ac o s beyond seman ic
in eg a ion o sp eading ac i a ion can a ec he la ency o he N400 e ec ; hus, i is possible
ha objec modali y also can a ec he la ency o he N400 e ec (c . Cospe , 2020; Cospe
e al., 2022). I is also impo an o no e ha he opological dis ibu ion o he N400 can also
di e ac oss s udies, which can be in luenced by ac o s such as s imuli-speci ic p ocessing
demands, ocabula y, and age ( o a e iew in in an s and young child en, see Junge e al.
2021); howe e , his sec ion ocuses on and highligh s he e ec s on la ency. Based on hese
al e na i e unc ional in e p e a ions o he N400 componen , we can conside how objec
modali y may also e lec unc ional di e ences in he p ocessing, lea ning, and mapping o
labels on o objec s o a ious modali ies.
In o de o conside objec modali y in e ms o unc ional di e ences pe aining o associa i e
wo d lea ning, one mus i s conside how modali y a ec s p ocessing, memo y, and wo d
acquisi ion bo h in isola ion and aken oge he . Impo an ly, he N400 componen i sel is
an e ec i e measu emen o p ocessing and lea ning wi h non-linguis ic audi o y s imuli
(Cummings e al., 2006; Koelsch e al., 2004; an Pe en & Rhein elde , 1995). I is u he well
known ha he N400 componen can also measu e iola ions o (seman ic) expec a ion in line
d awings (c . Ku as & Fede meie , 2000). Thus, he N400 componen i sel is highly lexible and
can be used o measu e lea ning by means o iola ed (lexico-)seman ic expec a ion in a leas
he isual and he audi o y- e bal as well as audi o y-non e bal modali ies.
As b ie ly p esen ed abo e, i is known ha objec modali y a ec s ecogni ion memo y, sho -
e m memo y, delayed ecogni ion, and memo y ecall (c . Bigelow & Po emba, 2014; Cohen
e al., 2009, 2011; Gloede & G egg, 2019; Vissche e al., 2007) as well as s a is ical lea ning,
ex ac ing egula i ies om epea ed exposu e o in o ma ion inpu o e ime, in bo h in ancy
and adul hood (e.g., Embe son e al., 2019; Sa an, 2002; Sa an e al., 1996, 1999). Ano he
ecen s udy (Mille e al., 2018) p o ided e idence ha , ollowing a se ies o aining sessions
wi h implici e bal- ac ile associa ion lea ning, pa icipan s exhibi ed enhanced ac ile
pe cep ion o consis en ly labeled e bal- ac ile pai s compa ed o hose who we e ained
on inconsis en ly labeled pai s, hus sugges ing a causal ela ionship be ween language and
pe cep ion (see also Schmid e al., 2019 and he L2 sec ion abo e). In sum, associa i e wo d
lea ning is a ec ed by objec modali y ( isual s. audi o y) and, gi en he la ency cos s in
p ocessing, ecognizing, and ecalling isual e sus audi o y s imuli, he la ency o he N400
componen in audi o y associa i e wo d lea ning may be unc ionally a ec ed by he modali y
o he objec being labeled.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Al hough in an associa i e wo d lea ning wi h isual and audi o y objec s may be simila ,
he e is much le o be explo ed and disco e ed in bo h in an and adul wo d lea ning.
Despi e modali y being known o a ec many a eas o cogni ion and he e lec ion o senso y
modali y in language and i s ocabula ies, much o wha is known abou wo d lea ning has
been conduc ed wi h mapping labels on o isual objec s. This can be seen in how mechanisms
behind main aining sho - e m memo y in he audi o y modali y can be dis up ed when bo h
audi o y- e bal and audi o y-non e bal in o ma ion is being main ained simul aneously. In
o de o be e unde s and how pe cep ion and language a e linked h oughou he span o li e,
wo d lea ning mus be expanded in o he audi o y, hap ic, ol ac o y, and gus a o y modali ies
in a g ea e capaci y, as he e a e a ious di e ences in lea ning ac oss modali ies ha di e
du ing de elopmen han in adul hood. Wi h an unde s anding o how pe cep ual ea u es
o objec a ec wo d lea ning, a g ea e unde s anding o how pe cep ual ea u es a ec
embodied and si ua ed cogni ion can also un old.
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Fu he mo e, i is i al ha wo d lea ning, and associa i e wo d lea ning in pa icula , be
expanded ou side o wes e n, educa ed, indus ialized, ich, and democ a ic socie ies (WEIRD)
socie ies. Majid e al. (2018) ha e shown ha non-WEIRD languages and popula ions de ia e
in hei linguis ic exp ession o pe cep ual modali y as compa ed o WEIRD socie ies, in which
o he modali y no ms in he non-WEIRD languages (e.g., indigenous languages) p e ail han
he isual modali y being he mos ep esen ed (c . Chedid e al., 2019; Chen e al., 2019; Lyno
e al., 2020; Miklashe sky, 2018; Mo ucci e al., 2019; Speed & Majid, 2017; Ve galli o e al., 2020;
Win e e al., 2018). Mo eo e , wi h e e ence o indi idual expe ience, a g ea e unde s anding
o he e ec o modali y on wo d lea ning could be explo ed in blind, dea o e en indi iduals
wi h synes hesia. In u he s udying hese popula ions and languages, a b oade pic u e o
si ua ed and embodied cogni ion, as i pe ains o language acquisi ion and p ocessing, and
he ela ion be ween pe cep ion, language, and si ua ed cogni ion will begin o o m.
WHAT CAN VIRTUAL REALITY BRING TO EMBODIED LANGUAGE
PROCESSING AND LEARNING STUDIES?
When i comes o how language is p ocessed and lea ned, heo ies o embodied and si ua ed
cogni ion gi e a g ea deal o impo ance o physical con ex s. This poses a majo challenge
o neu ocogni i e s udies in hese ields, as i calls o mo e mul imodal and close- o-li e
expe imen al p o ocols ha a e mo e ecologically alid while s ill allowing o s ic expe imen al
con ol (T omp e al., 2018; Pee e s, 2019). In his con ex , VR app oaches may p o ide an
impo an ool o achie e his balance. VR has been said o elimina e he spa ial di ide be ween
s imulus and pa icipan (Pee e s, 2019). Clea ly ele an o embodied language p ocessing
and lea ning esea ch, VR p o ides pa icipan s wi h mo e ecologically alid, in e ac i e and
imme si e en i onmen s, hough o be e engage he senso imo o sys em and elici eal li e
esponses (Bohil e al., 2011). Fu he mo e, while language s udies a e gene ally cons ained
o ocus on a single modali y (e.g., speech), VR allows o he obse a ion o how di e en
modali ies (e.g., speech, body mo emen s, acial exp ession) in e ac wi h each o he – as is
he case in eal-li e communica ion – in ich, close - o-li e en i onmen s (Pee e s, 2019). Finally,
imme si e VR p o ocols allow pa icipan s o engage in semi-na u al ac ions, which should lead
o esul s ha can gene alize o eal li e (Pee e s, 2019).
So a , e y ew s udies ha e combined VR and co ical measu es o in es iga e embodied
language p ocessing. T omp e al. (2018) alida ed he use o VR o in es iga e language
p ocessing by measu ing EEG while pa icipan s wo e a head-moun ed VR display, imme sed
in a i ual es au an . As hey lis ened o a sen ence (“I jus o de ed his salmon”), pa icipan s
saw a i ual objec ha ei he ma ched (salmon) o misma ched (pas a) he objec in he
sen ence. As expec ed, a ma ch-misma ch N400 e ec eme ged when i ems we e inco ec ly
labeled o ally, compa ed o co ec ly labeled i ems. This was conside ed a p oo o concep o
combining EEG and imme si e VR o obse e neu ocogni i e language p ocessing. Wi hin an
embodied seman ics pe spec i e, Zappa e al. (2019) measu ed co ical mo o ac i a ion du ing
ac ion e b p ocessing in a Ca e au oma ic i ual en i onmen (an imme si e VR en i onmen
ha su ounds use s while allowing hem o see hei own body). The s udy ocused on
changes in he mu (8–13 Hz) and be a (20–30 Hz) equency bands, associa ed wi h mo o
ac i i y, as pa icipan s pe o med a Go-Nogo ask. Pa icipan s hea d ac ion e bs and, o
Go ials, pe o med a co esponding ac ion on a i ual objec . Mu and be a band supp ession
was ound o bo h Go and No-Go ials. Impo an ly, mu supp ession eme ged 400–500 ms
a e ac ion wo d onse , associa ed wi h lexical-seman ic p ocessing, and mo e so o Go ials,
indica ing an in e ac ion be ween mo o and linguis ic p ocesses. Whe eas L1 s udies ha e
used VR o examine language p ocessing, a ew expe imen s ha e aken ad an age o his
echnology o explo e L2 lea ning. In a longi udinal MRI s udy, Legaul e al. (2019) augh L2
wo ds o no ice lea ne s using he Second Li e gaming pla o m i ual en i onmen , compa ed
o a con ol g oup ha lea ned ia pic u e-wo d associa ion. Fo bo h g oups, esul s e ealed
inc eased co ical hickness and g ay ma e olume in egions implica ed in a language
con ol ne wo k a e aining. Fu he mo e, wi hin his ne wo k, L2 aining in he pic u e-wo d
associa ion g oup led o g ea e co ical hickness in he igh in e io on al gy us, whe eas
aining pe o mance in he VR g oup was posi i ely co ela ed wi h co ical hickness in he
igh in e io pa ie al lobule (associa ed wi h supe io L2 p o iciency, Mechelli e al., 2004). Also,
o he VR g oup, accu acy in he delayed e en ion pos - aining was posi i ely co ela ed wi h
21Bech old e al.
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co ical hickness in he igh sup ama ginal gy us. These esul s indica e ha aining in i ual
en i onmen s leads o apid co ical changes ha di e om hose ound a e pic u e-wo d
associa ion lea ning. Also, VR lea ning is hough o ha e led o a s onge engagemen o
he in e io pa ie al lobule in imme si e and in e ac i e L2 lea ning, as i s imula ed embodied
p ocesses (Li e al., 2020).
Using a di e en app oach, in a TMS s udy Vuko ic and Sh y o (2019) examined embodied
seman ics in a VR se ing by in e e ing wi h pa icipan s’ M1 du ing no el wo d lea ning in
o de o es whe he his would a ec e b encoding. An in e ac i e VR compu e game was
used o each pa icipan s no el labels o objec nouns and ac ion e bs as hey manipula ed
i ual objec s. The a-bu s TMS was applied o pa icipan s’ M1 p io o lea ning and, as
p edic ed, hey we e less success ul a encoding no el e bs compa ed o nouns when he
hand a ea o he le M1 was s imula ed. Applying he a-bu s TMS o he M1 was hough o
p e en a mo o ace om o ming o e b labels, sugges ing ha mo o co ex ac i i y was
in ol ed in he ea ly s ages o wo d encoding. Fu he mo e, he same VR-TMS design combined
wi h di usion ku osis imaging (DKI) showed a ange o mic os uc u al changes aking place
in he b ain o e he sho lea ning session (Vuko ic e al., 2021). Gene ally speaking, he
abo e-desc ibed language p ocessing and lea ning s udies illus a e ha VR allows o he
manipula ion o na u alis ic mo emen and en i onmen s and can be combined wi h co ical
measu es o success ully examine embodied seman ics.
A comple ely new ield o esea ch is conce ned wi h he in es iga ion o he ole o he i ual
ac ion (VA) on language lea ning and comp ehension. A VA is an ac ion pe o med wi hin a
i ual en i onmen , exploi ing VR echnology. Expe iencing a i ual wo ld imme si ely (i.e.,
by means o a head-moun ed display o a Ca e au oma ic i ual en i onmen ) gi es use s a
subjec i e eeling o agency. Speci ically, imme si e VR allows us o ep esen ou mo emen s
om he i s -pe son pe spec i e and o eel like agen s o he ac ions we pe o m. The e o e,
VR use s can ha e he subjec i e eeling o pe o ming a VA ei he by seeing hei i ual body
pa s pe o ming an ac ion (e.g., he i ual hands g asping an objec ) o by pe cei ing changes
in he op ical low consis en wi h ha ac ion (e.g., use s can eel as i hey a e i ually walking
when p esen ed wi h a cohe en change in he op ical low o he i ual en i onmen ). I should
be no ed ha a VA can ha e a eal coun e pa , i.e a eal ac ion pe o med by he indi idual,
which ei he ma ches he i ual one o no ( he use can poin in a gi en di ec ion wi h he
eal hand and, a he same ime, see he i ual hand pe o m he same ac ion – ma ch; o he
use can p ess a bu on wi h he eal hand and see he i ual hand poin ing o some hing –
misma ch). In some cases, he VA can also ha e no eal coun e pa s (e.g., he use is s ill bu
sees he sel walking in o he i ual en i onmen ). A ew s udies ha e begun o shed ligh on
he co ical unde pinnings o VA (Adamo ich e al., 2009; Holpe e al., 2010). Acco ding o hei
indings, he obse a ion, image y, and execu ion o ac ions wi h eal- ime i ual eedback
sha e common neu al subs a es loca ed wi hin he obse a ion-execu ion ne wo k. Ca ie i
e al. (2016) in es iga ed he co ical ac i i y du ing a demanding hand con olled ask in VR,
and obse ed a en ola e al p e on al co ex in ol emen , compa ible wi h he ec ui men
o a en ion esou ces needed o accomplish he ask. A VA pe o med wi h he legs ( i ual
walk) was in es iga ed by Wagne e al. (2014), who manipula ed he isual eedback p o ided
wi hin he i ual en i onmen . They ound ha du ing he i ual walk (wi h cohe en isual
eedback in he 1s and 3 d pe son poin o iew) p emo o and pa ie al a eas showed inc eased
ac i i y compa ed o he condi ions in which he isual eedback was un ela ed o he mo o
ask, o in which i consis ed o a mi o -image o a VR a a a . Taken oge he , hese esul s
clea ly indica e ha VA can modula e he co ical mo o sys em.
The impac o VA on language p ocessing has been in es iga ed by a ew s udies using basic
i ual en i onmen s (Repe o, Cip esso, e al., 2015; Repe o, Colombo, e al., 2015), which
demons a ed ha a VA pe o med wi h a speci ic body pa (e.g., legs) can acili a e seman ic
comp ehension o e bs desc ibing ac ions pe o med wi h he same e ec o (Repe o,
Cip esso, e al., 2015). Simila ly, lea ning L2 wo ds could be imp o ed by pe o ming a VA wi h
he e ec o ma ching ha desc ibed by he ac ion e b o be lea ned (Repe o e al., 2015).
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Conside ing, on one hand, he beha io al e idence and, on he o he hand, neu ophysiological
s udies un in i ual en i onmen s, u u e s udies could exploi he capabili ies o VR/VA o

22Bech old e al.
Jou nal o Cogni ion
DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
imp o e language lea ning and ehabili a ion. Indeed, as poin ed ou in a seminal pape
by Pul e mulle and Be hie (2008), indi iduals could y o s imula e language h ough
he ac ion sys em, and in pa icula VA could be used o p o ide language aining in sa e
ye con olled se ings. VA-based p o ocols could be use ul o bo h L2 lea ning and aphasia
ehabili a ion. In bo h cases, he acquisi ion o e-acquisi ion o wo ds could be suppo ed by
concomi an VA execu ion. Indeed, in he ield o L2 lea ning, p e ious s udies ha e al eady
shown he bene i o sel -pe o med ac ion while encoding no el wo ds (see p e ious sec ion).
Thus, he swi ch o a VA om a eal one could o e he oppo uni y o inc ease he ange
o possible ac ions (including also hose ha a e, o ins ance, impossible o e en dange ous
in a ehabili a i e se ing). In addi ion, he use o VA could ex end he aining po abili y in
all hose con ex s whe ein i is no easy o mo e due o en i onmen al o social cons ain s.
Simila ly, he ehabili a ion aining o naming disabili ies could bene i om he associa ion
o a VA along wi h e bal s imuli: p e ious esea ch, inspi ed by he embodied app oach, has
implemen ed aining based on ac ion obse a ion (Boni azi e al., 2013). Howe e , i has been
demons a ed ha co ical exci abili y is g ea e o ac ions expe ienced om he i s -pe son
pe spec i e (Maeda e al., 2002), he e o e he isualiza ion o VA could be e en mo e bene icial
han adi ional ac ion-obse a ion p o ocols. Fu he mo e, aphasic pa ien s wi h concomi an
mo o de ici s, who a e unable o mo e e icien ly, could bene i om VA-based ainings ha
would gi e hem he imp ession o mo ing he a ec ed limb(s).
CONCLUSION
Acco ding o si ua ed and embodied heo ies (including embodied, embedded, ex ended,
enac ed, and g ounded cogni ion app oaches), language ep esen a ion is in insically linked
o ou in e ac ions wi h he physical wo ld. The ini ial i al y be ween embodied and amodal
heo ies has gi en way o a mo e lexible app oach ha aims o de e mine when and how
pe cep uomo o mechanisms a e in ol ed in language p ocesses, alongside modali y-
independen p ocesses. This consensus pape is no an exhaus i e e iew o embodimen
s udies bu a he add essed ca e ully selec ed ques ions by p esen ing seminal esea ch as
well as ecen me hodological de elopmen s ha can poin o u u e di ec ions in he esea ch
ield o embodied and si ua ed language p ocessing.
In he a ea o language p ocessing, we p esen ed e idence based p edominan ly on
ERPs/ERFs as well as oscilla o y ma ke s ha , a leas in some con ex s, sugges s ha mo o
and pe cep ual in o ma ion comp ised in language ep esen a ion ely on b ain esou ces
pa ially o e lapping wi h mo o and pe cep ual expe ience. We a e cu en ly acing he
challenge o he unc ional in e p e a ion o hese ma ke s. Fu u e esea ch in es iga ing,
e.g., he lamina p o ile o he unde lying neu al esou ces seems p omising o examine how
he same esou ces can subse e bo h he physical expe ience and seman ic p ocessing.
Fu he , he compa ison be ween abs ac and conc e e wo d p ocessing was shown o
un eil undamen al di e ences in hei g ounding. A c ucial nex s ep is o sys ema ically
explo e ask-dependen , si ua ed g ounding along he conc e eness con inuum. We showed
ha seman ic and c oss-domain ela ions lead o di e en ial p iming e ec s, which can
e eal o ganiza ional p inciples in e connec ing he mul iple dimensions o embodied wo d
ep esen a ions. Fu u e esea ch should ocus on indi idual and si ua ional di e ences
in hese e ec s as well as on disen angling whe he c oss-domain p iming elies on an
o e lap in gene al cogni i e mechanisms s. speci ic ep esen a ional con en . In he a ea
o language lea ning, we showed ha wo d acquisi ion based on ges u es and o he mo o
ac ions e eals a suppo ing and a leas pa ially causal ole o embodimen in acqui ing
language ep esen a ions. He e, u u e esea ch migh ocus on g ea e body engagemen
and manipula ion o he en i onmen ia VR o enhance ecological alidi y as well as a ge
he ole o pe spec i e- aking. We p o ided e idence ha objec modali y a ec s he N400 in
adul wo d lea ning in a si ua ed manne . The gene alizabili y ac oss pe cep ual modali ies and
cul u ally di e se socie ies is an impo an u u e s ep. Finally, we a gued o he alue o VR
and VA as ools o suppo and modula e language lea ning and ehabili a ion, p o iding highly
con olled, close- o-li e se -ups suppo ing language ( e-)acquisi ion in p e iously inaccessible
si ua ions.
23Bech old e al.
Jou nal o Cogni ion
DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
The puzzle pieces p esen ed abo e poin o common u u e di ec ions in in es iga ing he
b ain signa u es o embodied and si ua ed language p ocesses. Ou esea ch ield has
g ea ly bene i ed om undamen al esea ch es ing well-de ined hypo heses by ollowing a
educ ionis app oach o mul imodali y (e.g., mo o s. isual in o ma ion in lea ning/p ocessing
language en i ies om dis inc ca ego ies) o seman ic mul idimensionali y (e.g., he conc e e
s. abs ac dis inc ion). We alue his seminal esea ch, as i o med and in o med a dense
heo e ical ne wo k, which we can now use as a launch pad o aim highe and achie e
ex e nal alidi y based on mo e complex esea ch designs wi h mo e sophis ica ed as well
as mo e ecologically alid me hods. Impo an ly, new acquisi ion and analysis me hods
based on e e -g owing compu ing capaci ies now call o acknowledging he mul imodali y,
mul idimensionali y, lexibili y and idiosync asy in embodied and si ua ed language p ocesses.
These dimensions a e de e minan in p obing embodied and especially si ua ed language
p ocesses in he u u e, as hey can po en ially explain many o he disc epan indings o
s udies ollowing a educ ionis app oach.
The ed h ead h ough he sec ions p esen ed abo e is a consensus on a basic unde s anding
o embodied, si ua ed language p ocesses: hese do no equi e ha (p ima y) senso imo o
a eas be au oma ically and causally in ol ed independen ly om s ages o language lea ning,
ep esen a ion, and p ocessing o indi iduals o asks and con ex s (see also Ba salou, 2020).
In con as , b ain signa u es o embodied and si ua ed language p ocesses a e lexible, as
hei e olu iona y a ionale wi h he p ima y goal o allow an e icien online p ocessing o
language calls o his lexibili y in he ace o ou e e -changing en i onmen . The complexi y
and e sa ili y o si ua ed embodied language p ocesses hus canno be educed o a dyadic
(on/o ) cha ac e as sugges ed by he concep o all-o -no hing causali y and au oma ici y.
The eplica ion c isis (Kellmeye , 2017; Laws, 2016; Zwaan e al., 2017) luckily o ced esea ch
in his ield o ackle his p oblem by unning la ge-scale s udies in es iga ing embodied
phenomena in mul iple di e en asks (e.g., ManyBabies Conso ium, 2020; Mo ey e al.,
2021; Pa lo e al., 2021), by aking in o accoun cul u al di e si y (Be insoli e al., 2021), and
p o iding esea ch guidelines o make ERP esea ch mo e consis en in design and epo ing
(e.g., Paul e al., 2021; Šoškić e al., 2021; S yles e al., 2021).
Wi h his de elopmen , esea ch in ou ield can now mo e om a ocus on in e nal alidi y,
which a o ed educing he dimensions o ou in es iga ions, o a ocus on ex e nal alidi y,
which now begins o a o mo e ue- o-li e, complex esea ch designs. In his sense, u u e
esea ch can examine mul idimensionali y and mul imodali y in language p ocesses a he han
b eaking hem down o, o example, dicho omous o ma s. We can mo e om in es iga ing
isola ed seman ics o he b oad a ie y o mechanisms and in e ac ions in ol ed in con ex ual
language p ocesses. Fu he mo e, we can use VR o enhance ex e nal alidi y by inco po a ing
mo e ue- o-li e mo emen s and pe cep ual expe ience in a s ill con olled labo a o y se ing.
Ins ead o asking whe he language p ocessing is embodied, we can ask how and unde wha
ci cums ances pe cep uomo o b ain a eas suppo concep ual p ocessing. In his ega d, a
special ocus on he unc ional in e p e a ion o long-s anding ma ke s o embodied language
p ocesses like di e en ERP/ERF componen s, neu al oscilla ions and hei ime cou se as
well as neu omodula ion me hods ha can show causal b ain-beha io ela ionships will
accompany us h oughou he nex decades o esea ch on he b ain signa u es o embodied
and si ua ed language p ocessing. O e all, his consensus pape deli e s a glance a he s a e
o he a ega ding di e en ac e es o he esea ch a ound embodied and si ua ed language
p ocesses. Ou hope is ha i will help o he esea che s o iden i y whe e hei esea ch s ands
in ela ion o wha has been examined and how i has been examined. Speci ically, we hope
ha heo e ical and p ac ical implica ions om some o he ields we ha e discussed (e.g.,
p iming s udies, VR s udies, e c.) could inspi e o he ields wi hin embodied & si ua ed language
p ocesses esea ch.
AUTHOR NOTES
Co espondence ega ding he con en o speci ic sec ions can be add essed o he ollowing
au ho s (in he case o mul iple au ho s in a sec ion, au ho s lis ed in alphabe ical o de ):
Wha kind o neu al e idence is he e o embodied seman ics? Pie ma eo Mo ucci
([email p o ec ed]) and Valen ina Niccolai ( [email p o ec ed]).
24Bech old e al.
Jou nal o Cogni ion
DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
How a e abs ac and conc e e wo ds g ounded? Ma ia Mon e inese (ma ia.
[email p o ec ed]).
Wha can seman ic p iming ell us abou embodied wo d ep esen a ions? Lau a Bech old
(lau [email p o ec ed]) and Anas asia Malyshe skaya (malyshe skay[email p o ec ed]).
Wha can embodied L2 lea ning each us abou he ole o embodimen in language
ep esen a ion? Claudia Repe o (Claudia.R[email p o ec ed]) and Ana Zappa (ana.
[email p o ec ed]).
How does objec modali y a ec associa i e wo d lea ning and modula e he N400?
Samuel H. Cospe ([email p o ec ed]).
Wha can i ual eali y b ing o embodied language p ocessing and lea ning s udies?
Claudia Repe o (claudia. epe o@unica .i ) and Ana Zappa ([email p o ec ed] ).
ETHICS AND CONSENT
As his pape does no p esen o iginal empi ical da a, e hical app o al and/o consen was no
equi ed.
FUNDING INFORMATION
The wo k epo ed he e was suppo ed by he I alian Minis y o Heal h unde g an numbe
GR-2019-12371166 o MM. The Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha 574 (SFB991) inanced
he wo k o VN. AM acknowledges suppo om he Russian Founda ion o Basic Resea ch
G an (p ojec no. 19-313-51023) awa ded o he Na ional Resea ch Uni e si y Highe School
o Economics. PM ecei ed suppo om “la Caixa” Founda ion (ID 100010434) h ough he
ellowship LCF/BQ/IN17/11620019, and he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and
inno a ion p og amme unde he Ma ie Skłodowska-Cu ie g an ag eemen no. 713673. AZ’s
esea ch was suppo ed by g an s ANR-16-CONV-0002 (ILCB), ANR-11-LABX-0036 (BLRI) and
he Excellence Ini ia i e o Aix-Ma seille Uni e si y (A*MIDEX).
COMPETING INTERESTS
The au ho s ha e no compe ing in e es s o decla e.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
All au ho s con ibu ed o concep ion o ideas, w i ing and edi ing o he manusc ip .
Lau a Bech old, Samuel H. Cospe , Anas asia Malyshe skaya, Ma ia Mon e inese, Pie ma eo
Mo ucci, Valen ina Niccolai, Claudia Repe o and Ana Zappa a e sha ed i s au ho s.
AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS
Lau a Bech old o cid.o g/0000-0001-6677-965X
Ins i u e o Expe imen al Psychology, Depa men o Biological Psychology, Hein ich-Heine Uni e si y
Düsseldo , Ge many
Samuel H. Cospe o cid.o g/0000-0002-4099-4340
Li espan De elopmen al Neu oscience, Facul y o Psychology, Technische Uni e si ä D esden, Ge many
Anas asia Malyshe skaya o cid.o g/0000-0001-8082-711X
Cen e o Cogni ion and Decision making, Ins i u e o Cogni i e Neu oscience, HSE Uni e si y, Russian
Fede a ion; Po sdam Embodied Cogni ion G oup, Cogni i e Sciences, Uni e si y o Po sdam, Ge many
Ma ia Mon e inese o cid.o g/0000-0002-7685-1034
IRCCS San Camillo Hospi al, Venice, I aly
Pie ma eo Mo ucci o cid.o g/0000-0002-4972-0864
Basque Cen e on Cogni ion B ain and Language, Donos i, Spain
Valen ina Niccolai o cid.o g/0000-0002-1159-943X
Ins i u e o Clinical Neu oscience and Medical Psychology, Medical Facul y, Hein ich-Heine Uni e si y
Düsseldo , Ge many
25Bech old e al.
Jou nal o Cogni ion
DOI: 10.5334/joc.237
Claudia Repe o o cid.o g/0000-0001-8365-7697
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si à Ca olica del Sac o Cuo e, Milan, I aly
Ana Zappa o cid.o g/0000-0003-4427-0988
Labo a oi e pa ole e langage, Aix-Ma seille Uni e si é, Aix-en-P o ence, F ance
Yu y Sh y o o cid.o g/0000-0001-7203-4902
Cen e o Func ionally In eg a i e Neu oscience, Depa men o Clinical Medicine, Aa hus Uni e si y,
Denma k; Cen e o Cogni ion and Decision making, Ins i u e o Cogni i e Neu oscience, HSE Uni e si y,
Russian Fede a ion
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