BioScience , 2026, 76 , 78–89
h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/biosci/bia 158
Ad ance access publica ion da e: 18 No embe 2025
Fo um
Pas o alism can mi iga e biodi e si y loss on global
angelands
Da id D. B iske , P.G.M. C omsig , Jona han Da ies , Ma ía E. Fe nández-Giménez , Ma hew W. Luizza ,
Pablo Manzano and Rashmi Singh
Da id D. B iske ( [email p o ec ed] ); is a ilia ed wi h he Depa men o Ecology and Conse a ion Biology, Texas A&M Uni e si y, in College S a ion, Texas, in he
Uni ed S a es. Jo is C omsig is a ilia ed wi h he Depa men o Wildli e, Fish, and En i onmen al S udies a he Swedish Uni e si y o Ag icul u al Sciences, in
Umeå, Sweden; wi h he Cope nicus Ins i u e o Sus ainable De elopmen , a U ech Uni e si y, in U ech , in The Ne he lands; and wi h he Cen e o A ican
Conse a ion Ecology, a Nelson Mandela Uni e si y, in Gqebe ha, Sou h A ica. Jona han Da ies is an independen esea che in He e o d, He e o dshi e,
England, in he Uni ed Kingdom. Ma ía E. Fe nández-Giménez is a ilia ed wi h he Depa men o Fo es and Rangeland S ewa dship a Colo ado S a e Uni e si y,
in Fo Collins, Colo ado, in he Uni ed S a es. Ma hew W. Luizza is a ilia ed wi h he Na u al Resou ce Ecology Labo a o y a Colo ado S a e Uni e si y, in Fo
Collins, Colo ado, in he Uni ed S a es. Pablo Manzano is a ilia ed wi h he Basque Cen e o Clima e Change, in Leioa, Spain, and wi h Ike basque, he Basque
Founda ion o Science, in Bilbao, Spain. Rashmi Singh is a ilia ed wi h he Depa men o Libe al A s a he Indian Ins i u e o Technology, in Hyde abad,
India.
Sus ainable pas o alism ep esen s a p ima y s a egy o suppo ing goals o he Kunming–Mon eal Global Biodi e si y F amewo k.
Six y-se en pe cen o biodi e si y ho spo s and 38% o key biodi e si y a eas globally include angelands, bu in e na ional con en ions
seldom ecognize his as biodi e si y eposi o y. We summa ize ou syne gies be ween pas o alism and biodi e si y conse a ion:
wo king lands conse a ion, con inua ion o i al dis u bance egimes, connec i i y h ough anshumance co ido s, and communi y-
led go e nance. Ac ions ha le e age hese syne gies o e c i ical oppo uni ies o mi iga e biodi e si y loss h ough he c ea ion o
a as conse a ion ne wo k ha includes wo king lands and p o ec ed a eas. This will equi e ha he con empo a y conse a ion
pa adigm en ision pas o alis s as an asse a he han a h ea o biodi e si y conse a ion and ecognize g azing and i e as ecolog-
ical dis u bances i al o he main enance o biodi e si y. G ea e inclusion o angelands and sus ainable pas o alism wi hin global
conse a ion amewo ks has high po en ial o enhance a ainmen o global biodi e si y a ge s.
Keywo ds: biodi e si y conse a ion, communi y-led go e nance, pas o alism bene i s, wo king lands conse a ion, angeland bio-
di e si y
Human ac i i ies ha e been diminishing Ea h’s li e suppo sys-
em a an accele a ing a e since he mid wen ie h cen u y (Díaz
e al. 2019 , Pe ei a e al. 2024 ). Biodi e si y—a c i ical componen
o his sys em—has also unde gone subs an ial loss (box 1 ). Te -
es ial ecosys ems a e es ima ed o ha e los 20% o hei bio-
di e si y and global wildli e popula ions ha e dec eased by 73%
du ing he pas i e decades (Díaz e al. 2019 , WWF 2024 ). A o al
o 705 e eb a e and 571 plan species ha e gone ex inc since
1500 and he numbe o species o all axa cu en ly h ea ened
wi h ex inc ion is es ima ed o be app oxima ely 1 million. Biodi-
e si y loss o his magni ude has se ious implica ions o Ea h’s
li e suppo sys em and human well-being (Díaz e al. 2019 , Pe ei a
e al. 2024 ).
Rangelands a e domina ed by na i e ege a ion—p ima ily
g asses, o bs, sh ubs and sca e ed ees—and supply di e se
ecosys em se ices o suppo human well-being (B iske and Cop-
pock 2023 ). They encompass mul iple biomes, including dese s,
g asslands, sh ublands, sa annas, and und a, and ep esen he
la ges land co e ype on Ea h (54%, 80 million squa e kilome-
e s [km2
]; box 1 ; UNCCD 2024 ). The e ms angelands and d y-
lands a e o en used b oadly and in e changeably, so we ha e
used he e minology epo ed in he ci ed e e ences (B iske e al.
2025 ). Howe e , d ylands a e de ined exclusi ely on clima ic c i-
e ia (a idi y index < 0.65), whe eas angelands a e a mo e inclu-
si e ca ego y de ined by ege a ion co e and land use. Rega dless
o hei designa ion, he as ex en and he e ogenei y o hese
lands suppo di e se lo a and auna, including many species
unique o hese ecosys ems (Lewin e al. 2024 ). Consequen ly,
hey p o ide a ich bu o en un ecognized ese oi o global
biodi e si y.
Pas o alism is he p ima y land use on angelands and he mos
widesp ead land use globally (Ri chie and Rose 2019 ), p o iding
li elihoods o app oxima ely 500 million people and supplying
16% o global ood p oduc ion (UNCCD 2024 ). Pas o alism ep e-
sen s a li eway based on a li es ock p oduc ion sys em ha in e-
g a es economic, social, and en i onmen al dynamics in suppo
o human li elihoods (Nya iki and Amwa a 2019 ), including occu-
pa ional and cul u al iden i ies (Fe nández-Giménez and Wilme
2024 ). In he p esen a icle, we use he e m pas o alism o e e -
ence li es ock g azing o b owsing on na u al ege a ion ac oss
ex ensi e angelands, o en wi h mobile he ds, in con as o con-
ined li es ock ea ing on domes ica ed o ages and c ops. Pas-
o al li es ock ha e a ied impac s on biodi e si y, which depend
on a complex se o ecological in e ac ions (Riginos e al. 2012 ,
Bilali e al. 2022 ), in combina ion wi h di e se socioeconomic and
poli ical ci cums ances (Fe nández-Giménez and Wilme 2024 ).
Howe e , pas o alism is known o ha e posi i e e ec s on bio-
di e si y, e en hough i is o en mis akenly pe cei ed o ha e
only nega i e impac s (No i and Scoones 2023 , Julián-Posada e
al. 2025 ).
Recei ed: Feb ua y 8, 2025. Re ised: Augus 15, 2025. Accep ed: Augus 28, 2025
©The Au ho (s) 2025. Published by Ox o d Uni e si y P ess on behal o he Ame ican Ins i u e o Biological Sciences. This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed
unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License ( h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which pe mi s un es ic ed euse, dis ibu ion,
and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
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B iske e al. |79
Box 1. Glossa y o key e ms.
Biodi e si y: All li ing o ganisms on Ea h encompassing
he di e en species o plan s, animals, and mic oo ganisms,
hei gene ic a ia ions wi hin each species, and he ecosys-
ems hey inhabi .
Biodi e si y ho spo : Region o high biodi e si y, including
many species ha a e ound nowhe e else on Ea h, ha
has been h ea ened by subs an ial habi a loss. Thi y-six
ho spo s occupy 2.5% o he Ea h’s su ace and suppo 60%
o he plan , bi d, mammal, ep ile, and amphibian species.
Biome: A biological communi y ha has o med in esponse
o he physical en i onmen , egional clima e, and na u al
dis u bance egimes, and ha ex ends o e a la ge a ea i.e.,
g asslands, dese s, und a.
Key biodi e si y a eas: Regions ha a e c i ical o he su -
i al o unique plan s and animals and he ecological com-
muni ies hey include. This designa ion is mo e expansi e
han biodi e si y ho spo s wi h o e 16,000 key a eas iden i-
ied, which encompass 22,000,000 km2
.
Go e nance: S uc u es, p ocesses, and mechanisms
h ough which powe and au ho i y a e exe cised, decisions
a e made, and accoun abili y is ensu ed, in ol ing o mal
and in o mal ins i u ions, ac o s, and ules.
Land deg ada ion: Nega i e end in land condi ion o igina -
ing om human ac i i y ha con ibu es o a long- e m e-
duc ion o loss o biological p oduc i i y, ecological in eg i y,
o alue o humans.
P o ec ed a ea: Geog aphically de ined a ea ha is desig-
na ed o egula ed and managed o achie e speci ic conse -
a ion objec i es.
Species ichness: To al numbe o species in a designa ed
a ea o egion.
Ou goal in his Fo um a icle is o p omo e pas o alism as a
iable s a egy o mi iga e e es ial biodi e si y loss on ange-
lands. Ou speci ic objec i es a e o highligh he ex en and im-
po ance o angeland biodi e si y, o desc ibe ou majo syne -
gies be ween pas o alism and biodi e si y conse a ion, o iden-
i y he p ima y mechanisms o angeland biodi e si y loss, and
o jus i y he need o p omo e pas o alism as a means o con-
se ing global biodi e si y. G ea e ecogni ion o he magni ude
and socie al alue o angeland biodi e si y may ca alyze de elop-
men and implemen a ion o mo e e ec i e go e nance and poli-
cies suppo ing sus ainable pas o al li elihoods o achie e hese
objec i es. The designa ion o 2026 as he In e na ional Yea o
Rangelands and Pas o alis s by he Uni ed Na ions Gene al As-
sembly demons a es he impo ance o his goal.
Rangeland biodi e si y
The magni ude and alue o angeland biodi e si y a e la gely
un ecognized in compa ison wi h hose o opical ain o es s
and co al ee s (Lewin e al. 2024 ). This is, in pa , because o
limi ed quan i ica ion o biodi e si y h oughou his expansi e
a ea, he majo i y o which occu s in low-income coun ies. Es-
ima es o plan biodi e si y ha e been summa ized in se e al
ecen e iews (Maes e e al. 2021 , Zhang e al. 2023 , Lewin
e al. 2024 ). Rangelands hos a g ea di e si y o c i ically endan-
ge ed and highly endemic wildli e species. These include la ge
cha isma ic wildli e species, especially hose o eas and sou he n
A ican sa annas, which a e widely ecognized globally (Holechek
and Valdez 2018 ).
The magni ude o angeland biodi e si y is illus a ed by o e -
laying ecognized a eas o high biodi e si y on a map o global
angelands ( igu e 1 ; box 1 ). Thi y-six biodi e si y ho spo s a e
cu en ly ecognized and 24 (67%) o hem include angelands.
Mo e b oadly, key biodi e si y a eas ep esen 16,232 si es oc-
cupying 22 million km2 globally (box 1 ; Key Biodi e si y A eas
2024 ). O his o al, 6161 si es (38% o all key biodi e si y a -
eas) a e ound on angelands, and hey co e app oxima ely 9.7
million km2 (44% o he o al a ea o key biodi e si y a eas)
wo ldwide. The Ho n o A ica, sou hwes Aus alia, and B azil’s
Ce ado ep esen angeland biodi e si y ho spo s, whe eas Mon-
golia’s Khangain Nu uu Na ional Pa k, Spain’s Sie a Ne ada, and
he Uni ed S a es’ Canyonlands A ea exempli y angeland key
biodi e si y a eas ( igu e 1 ; Conse a ion In e na ional and CEPF
2016 , Key Biodi e si y A eas 2024 ). Many species ound in hese
loca ions a e uniquely adap ed o he esou ce sca ci y and a i-
abili y o angeland habi a s and do no occu elsewhe e. Fo ex-
ample, o he es ima ed 14,443 plan and e eb a e species iden-
i ied in he B azilian Ce ado, o e 32% a e endemic o he egion
(Sawye e al. 2017 ).
The as biodi e si y o angelands o igina ed om plan lin-
eages ha appea ed 65 million yea s ago and unde wen di e -
si ica ion in he La e Miocene and Ea ly Pliocene 3 million o 11
million yea s ago (Maes e e al. 2021 ). This has con ibu ed o
highe unc ional plan di e si y in angelands compa ed wi h
o he egions. Plan pheno ypic di e si y— he ange o obse able
ai s wi hin a popula ion—in d ylands is much g ea e han an-
icipa ed o en i onmen s cha ac e ized by ha sh en i onmen-
al condi ions (G oss e al. 2024 ). Pheno ypic di e si y displayed a
apid inc ease (88%) a an a idi y index (annual p ecipi a ion di-
ided by e apo anspi a ion) o 0.7, which is simila o he alue
used o de ine d ylands (0.65; box 1 ). Mo eo e , he deg ee o a id-
i y equi ed o suppo high pheno ypic di e si y dec eased as
g azing in ensi y inc eased, p esumably in esponse o a dec ease
in ege a i e co e and in ensi y o bio ic in e ac ions.
Biodi e si y is cen al o he mul i unc ionali y o angelands,
as is e idenced by he posi i e ela ionship be ween plan species
ichness and soil o ganic ca bon, o ganic ma e decomposi ion,
e osion con ol, and o age quan i y and quali y (Maes e e al.
2022 ). A s ong posi i e co ela ion has been obse ed be ween
plan species ichness and soil mul i unc ionali y in less a id e-
gions o no he n China, bu in mo e a id egions, mic obial ich-
ness had a s onge co ela ion wi h soil mul i unc ionali y (Hu
e al. 2021 ). Con inued biodi e si y loss is an icipa ed o elease
subs an ial amoun s o global ca bon o c ea e a sel - ein o cing
eedback loop whe e inc easing clima e change u he accele -
a es biodi e si y loss (Weiskop e al. 2024 ). Consequen ly, mi i-
ga ion s a egies may be mos e ec i e i bo h biodi e si y and
clima e change a e simul aneously add essed (Shin e al. 2022 ).
Pas o alism-Biodi e si y conse a ion
syne gies
Pas o alism can main ain o in some ins ances enhance biodi e -
si y h ough implemen a ion o a ious managemen p ac ices
and s a egies ha inc ease landscape he e ogenei y and commu-
ni y ichness (Seid e al. 2016 , Ga ne e al. 2018 , Julián-Posada e
al. 2025 ). Below, we summa ize ou majo syne gies be ween pas-
o alism and biodi e si y conse a ion. Howe e , i is essen ial o
acknowledge ha pas o alism also has he po en ial o dec ease
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80 | BioScience, 2026, Vol. 76, No. 1
Figu e 1. Global angelands hos nume ous biodi e si y ho spo s and key biodi e si y a eas. Sou ce: Conse a ion In e na ional and C i ical
Ecosys em Pa ne ship Fund ( 2016 ). Map: M. Luizza, Colo ado S a e Uni e si y.
biodi e si y h ough unsus ainable land-use p ac ices, including
o e g azing and human–wildli e con lic (Reid e al. 2014 ). These
di e gen ou comes o pas o alism on biodi e si y unde sco e he
u gen need o de elop and implemen policies and suppo go e -
nance ins i u ions, a mul iple le els, ha will u he s eng hen
he capaci y o pas o alism o mi iga e biodi e si y loss.
Wo king lands conse a ion
P o ec ed a eas cu en ly ep esen he dominan app oach o
biodi e si y conse a ion, bu hei e ec i eness is limi ed by in-
su icien land a ea and numbe s o species p o ec ed (K emen
and Me enlende 2018 ). Global p o ec ed a eas ha e been es i-
ma ed o p o ide insu icien p o ec ion o app oxima ely 50%
o 4000 species analyzed, including mos species ca ego ized as
Th ea ened, and hund eds o mammal species (Williams e al.
2022 ). Simila conce ns ha e been exp essed o bi ds and mam-
mals in China whe e p o ec ed a eas a e o en oo small and lack
unc ional connec i i y (Sun e al. 2024 ). I is inc easingly ec-
ognized ha p o ec ed a eas alone a e insu icien o e ec i e
biodi e si y conse a ion wi hou complemen a y conse a ion
on wo king lands—lands suppo ing biodi e si y while p o iding
goods and se ices o humani y— o bu e and educe h ea s o
biodi e si y (K emen and Me enlende 2018 ).
The as ex en , he e ogenei y, and ecological in eg i y o
angelands p o ides a ich ese oi o biodi e si y o complemen
he conse a ion o p o ec ed a eas. Rangelands ep esen ap-
p oxima ely 50% o Ea h’s emaining ecologically in ac ecosys-
ems (Dine s ein e al. 2019 ), and pas o alism has educed biodi-
e si y loss by limi ing con e sion o al e na i e land uses (Díaz
e al. 2019 ). E en hough angelands ha e long been g azed by li e-
s ock, he majo i y o hese lands ha e no been undamen ally
ans o med by humans and e ain much o hei ecological in-
eg i y (Say e e al. 2017 ).
Rangeland biodi e si y is highly ulne able o loss because only
12% o angelands a e p o ec ed in compa ison wi h 21% o o he
lands, which lea es many species unp o ec ed, especially hose
wi h small anges (Lewin e al. 2024 ). I has been es ima ed ha
30% o amphibians, 7% o bi ds, 16% o mammals, and 27% o
ep iles on angelands do no occu in p o ec ed a eas (Lewin e
al. 2024 ). We a e p omo ing his as bu ulne able biodi e si y
eposi o y o mi iga e global biodi e si y loss.
The e idence summa ized abo e indica es ha many ange-
land egions a guably mee he In e na ional Union o Conse a-
ion o Na u e’s de ini ion o o he e ec i e a ea-based conse a ion
measu es (OECMs). E en hough biodi e si y conse a ion may no
be a p ima y objec i e o hese egions, hey likely possess he
po en ial o e ec i ely conse e biodi e si y (WCPA Task Fo ce on
OECMs 2019 , Jonas e al. 2024 ). Howe e , pas o alism is no explic-
i ly men ioned wi hin he OECM amewo k, and he only men ion
o angelands pe ains o a single candida e OECM.
Dis u bance egimes main ain biodi e si y
Rangelands ha e e ol ed wi h mul iple ecological dis u bances,
including g azing, i e, and d ough , ha occu a a ious equen-
cies and in ensi ies and in a ious combina ions (Bond e al. 2005 ,
S a e e al. 2011 ). Pas o alism, h ough he con inued use o g az-
ing and i e, p omo es hese na u al dis u bance egimes o main-
ain biodi e si y (Fuhlendo e al. 2010 , Yuan e al. 2016 ). In con-
as , he managemen o p o ec ed a eas o en inapp op ia ely
educes ecological unc ion and biodi e si y by supp essing hese
na u al dis u bance egimes, on he basis o he misconcep ion
ha g azing and i e a e unna u al, human dis u bances (Ab eu
e al. 2017 , He e al. 2019 ). Une hical and socially unjus displace-
men o Indigenous peoples o misguided conse a ion aims o -
en leads o simila ad e se ou comes (Goldman 2011 ).
G azing has mul iple di ec and indi ec e ec s on species ich-
ness and hese e ec s s ongly depend on he bi o e ype, g azing
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B iske e al. |81
in ensi y, ege a ion ype, and a idi y (Gao and Ca mel 2020 , Tö ök
e al. 2024 ). Ou knowledge o hese complex in e ac ions is a
om comple e, despi e mul iple in es iga ions and analyses. Fo
example, he esul s o se e al ecen me a-analyses concluded
ha he e ec s o g azing on angeland biodi e si y a e o en con-
ex speci ic and canno be eadily gene alized (box 2 ; Yayneshe
and T eyd e 2015 , Tö ök e al. 2024 ).
Box 2. Summa y o selec majo analyses add essing
he impac s o g azing on angeland biodi e si y.
Li es ock did no ad e sely a ec plan o animal species
ichness, including ca ni o es, insec i o es o omni o es,
and he abundance o woody plan s and g ani o es and nec-
a i o es inc eased. Lack o consensus ega ding he mag-
ni ude o low, medium and high g azing in ensi y may ha e
pa ially masked g azing e ec s (global me a-analysis, 67 in-
es iga ions; Hua anca e al. 2022 ).
Li es ock g azing dec eased plan abundance, bu i s im-
pac on plan ichness is complex and dependen on mul iple
a iables. Li es ock g azing dec eased ichness o e eb a e
and in e eb a e he bi o es and pollina o s, dec eased de-
i i o e ichness, bu had no e ec on e eb a e p eda o s.
The po en ial o li es ock o educe biodi e si y is g ea es
in mild clima es wi h high species ichness (global me a-
analysis, 109 in es iga ions; Filazzola e al. 2020 )
G azing inc eased plan species ichness compa ed wi h
g azing exclusion, especially in mesic egions. G azing in en-
si y also had a s onge posi i e e ec on species ichness in
mesic han in a id egions, bu he du a ion o g azing exclu-
sion had a s onge e ec on ichness in a id han in mesic
egions (global me a-analysis, 96 s udies wi h 259 compa -
isons; Gao and Ca mel 2020 ).
Plan species ichness was less esponsi e o g azing han
species composi ion, bu bo h a iables showed a modes
dec ease a high g azing in ensi ies. These dec eases we e
g ea e in a id han in mesic egions (me a-analysis, 48 in es-
iga ions wi h 63 compa isons; He e o-Jáu egui and Oes e -
held 2018 ).
G azing had a neu al o posi i e e ec on plan species
ichness ac oss a wen y imes la ge ange o p oduc i i y in
g asslands and sa annas, wi h he mos posi i e esponses
occu ing a high p oduc i i y si es. G azing-induced de-
c eases in dominan plan species was conside ed he bes
p edic o o g azing impac s on biodi e si y (global analysis,
252 la ge he bi o e exclosu es; Koe ne e al. 2018 ).
The consequences o communal g azing in sub-Saha an
A ica a e di icul o gene alize because esponses a e
s ongly ela ed o speci ic si e cha ac e is ics, including en-
i onmen al a iables and soils. Ne e heless, communal
g azing lands exhibi ed a clea educ ion in species ichness
compa ed wi h li es ock anches and game ese es (global
me a-analysis, 328 in es iga ions; Yayneshe and T eyd e
2015 ).
Th ee majo conclusions eme ge om hese analyses o g az-
ing impac s on biodi e si y. Fi s , hey e u e he widely held as-
sump ion ha g azing has consis en , nega i e e ec s on bio-
di e si y. Species ichness o en esponds posi i ely o inc eas-
ing g azing in ensi y in mo e p oduc i e angelands, bu nega-
i ely in less p oduc i e angelands (Bakke e al. 2006 , Maes e
e al. 2022 ). A key mechanism by which g azing inc eases species
ichness in p oduc i e a eas is by educing he compe i i e ad-
an age o dominan species, he eby p o iding space and e-
sou ces o less compe i i e species (Koe ne e al. 2018 ). How-
e e , species ichness in sh ublands may be less a ec ed by g az-
ing han in g asslands because sh ub dominance may be mo e
di icul o modi y depending on he bi o e size and eeding be-
ha io (Gao and Ca mel 2020 ). La ge he bi o es a e mo e likely o
ha e posi i e e ec s on biodi e si y han small he bi o es, and
he bi o es ha consume woody plan s may ha e di e en e ec s
on ege a ion and biodi e si y han g aze s alone (Bakke e al.
2006 ).
Second, he spa ial scale o assessmen may s ongly in luence
he esponse o biodi e si y o g azing. The di ec impac s o g az-
ing in ensi y may be g ea e a smalle han la ge scales because
o he homogenei y o ecosys em a iables (Hanke e al. 2014 ). Fo
example, dec eases in species ichness in sou he n A ican ange-
lands we e o se by g ea e he e ogenei y o communi y compo-
si ion and unc ional s uc u e a landscape scales. Consequen ly,
a con inen al and global scales he ecosys em a iables o a idi y
and ege a ion ype become mo e impo an han g azing in en-
si y and du a ion o g azing exclusion in de e mining ege a ion
esponses.
Thi d, he c i e ia used o assess he impac o g azing on biodi-
e si y may also in luence he pe cei ed ou comes. Species ich-
ness alone may be a less e ec i e indica o o g azing impac s
han is he di e si y o unc ional plan ypes o a combina ion o
hese wo a iables (Hanke e al. 2014 ).
Fi e has been a s ong e olu iona y o ce in shaping angeland
ege a ion and biodi e si y (S a e e al. 2011 ). Plan lineages in
i e-p one egions o en ha e a g ea e numbe o species han
hose whe e i e is less equen (He e al. 2019 ). The e o e, i e
has a lesse e ec on biodi e si y in a id a eas han in mesic a -
eas whe e i es a e less equen and in ense. In mo e p oduc i e
angelands, he clima ic po en ial o ege a ion may no be eal-
ized because o he in luence o i e and g azing (Bond e al. 2005 ).
This enables g asslands, sa annas, and sh ublands o occu in
clima ic zones capable o suppo ing o es s. These egions ha e
a high i e equency, which supp esses ee es ablishmen and
p omo es he dominance o g asses and o he i e- and g azing-
ole an plan species. The esponse o e eb a e ichness o i e
is less clea wi h bo h local and egional esponses being con ex
dependen (Pas o e al. 2014 ).
He bi o es can u he in luence i e egimes by al e ing ege-
a ion composi ion and he a ailabili y o ine uels needed o sup-
po equen g ound i es. The successi e occu ence o i e and
g azing is ecognized o p oduce di e en ecological ou comes
han i e o g azing alone (Fuhlendo e al. 2009 ). The coupling
o i e and g azing e ec i ely limi s sh ub enc oachmen and c e-
a es highly di e se ege a ion pa e ns, which con ibu e o high
biodi e si y, especially o bi ds and mammals (Fuhlendo e al.
2010 , Mndela e al. 2025 ).
The use o i e as a pas o alis managemen ool occu s in many
coun ies, including in eas A ica, bu a comp ehensi e assess-
men o he ex en o i e use is una ailable (Bu z 2009 ). Fi e is
used o p omo e new o age g ow h, supp ess undesi able ege a-
ion, and minimize damaging wild i e (Seid e al. 2016 ). Fo exam-
ple, in he Spanish Py enees, a isanal bu ning by pas o alis s was
p ac iced o cen u ies o p e en sh ub enc oachmen in moun-
ain g azing a eas (Guadilla-Sáez e al. 2019 ). Howe e , bu ning
was p ohibi ed ollowing es ablishmen o a na ional pa k, con-
ibu ing o woody plan expansion and loss o landscape he e o-
genei y and plan species ichness. G ea e insigh is needed in o
he impac o pas o alis i e managemen on biodi e si y and he
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82 | BioScience, 2026, Vol. 76, No. 1
me i o local and Indigenous knowledge ega ding i e manage-
men (Bu z 2009 ).
In he absence o i e, woody plan enc oachmen dec eases
he ichness o g assland specialis s, and he a e o decline
is dependen on he in ensi y o woody enc oachmen (Wiec-
zo kowski and Lehmann 2022 ). Fo example, 30 yea s o i e
exclusion in he B azilian Ce ado inc eased ee densi y and
canopy co e ou een old (Ab eu e al. 2017 ). Co espondingly,
species ichness o sa anna specialis plan s and an s dec eased
by 67% and 86% espec i ely, o e his pe iod. Many angeland
ecosys ems a e simila ly dependen on i e o main ain ecolog-
ical unc ion and biodi e si y (Bond e al. 2005 , S a e e al.
2011 ).
Fi e supp ession is widely implemen ed ou o conce n o loss
o li e and p ope y, and in many cases, i is en o ced by socio-
cul u al no ms and policies (He e al. 2019 ). Howe e , hese ad-
e se ou comes a e o en inc eased by i e supp ession, which
con ibu es o he accumula ion o uels and inc eased i e in en-
si y (He e al. 2019 ). In con as , adi ional i e managemen o
mon ane hea hlands by pas o alis s in E hiopia’s sou he n high-
lands has educed he isk o la ge high-in ensi y i es h ough
he c ea ion o i e b eaks and has p oduced a mosaic o ege a-
ion o di e en age classes (Johansson e al. 2012 ).
Connec i i y h ough anshumance co ido s
Long-dis ance mo emen o bo h wild and domes ic he bi o es
acili a es mul iple ecological p ocesses ha suppo biodi e si y.
T anshumance co ido s, also e med d o e ’s oads o s ock d i e-
ways , ep esen designa ed he ding ou es ha pas o alis s ha e
de eloped in esponse o a ious biophysical and sociocul u al
conside a ions (Manzano Baena and Casas 2010 ). Some o hese
ou es a e ancien , da ing back o medie al imes, and hey ex-
is on mul iple con inen s. A well-known example is he 600-
kilome e -long Conquense D o e Road, which pas o alis s use an-
nually o mo e sheep be ween moun ainous and lowe ele a ion
angelands in sou he n Spain. The impo ance o mig a o y co i-
do s has led he Economic Communi y o Wes A ican S a es o
egula e c oss-bo de mo emen s o li es ock by de ining co i-
do s and p omo ing peace ul coexis ence be ween mig a o y pas-
o alis s and local communi ies (Timpong-Jones e al. 2023 ).
Li es ock mo emen along hese co ido s se es mul iple pu -
poses, including mig a ion be ween summe and win e pas u es,
dis inc we and d y season g azing a eas, and occasionally o
a oid d ough and diseases (Manzano Baena and Casas 2010 ,
Timpong-Jones e al. 2023 ). These co ido s may ex end o long
dis ances, o en c ossing na ional bo de s, and include g azing a -
eas, wa e sou ces, and in as uc u e o holding li es ock. Al-
hough ex ensi e ne wo ks o co ido s exis ed p e iously, hei
use has been declining as mechanized li es ock anspo has in-
c eased (Manzano Baena and Casas 2010 ) .
T anshumance co ido s p omo e biodi e si y h ough wo dis-
inc mechanisms: he c ea ion o s uc u al he e ogenei y and a
pa hway o apid plan and animal mo emen . Fo example, co -
ido s wi hin ag icul u al egions o o es s, which a e simila in
composi ion and s uc u e o he su ounding angelands, c ea e
habi a he e ogenei y capable o suppo ing a mo e di e se lo a
and auna (Azcá a e e al. 2012 ). Howe e , hese bene i s a e scale
dependen in ha he e ogenei y and species ichness inc ease a
local scales, bu a la ge scales, hei s uc u e and composi ion
emain ela i ely simila .
These co ido s a e ecognized o inc ease species ichness in
a wide a ay o o ganisms, including plan s (Azcá a e e al. 2012 ),
an s (He ia e al. 2013 ), and o he insec s (Ubach e al. 2023 ), in-
cluding pollina o s (He ia e al. 2016 ). Wild bee ichness and abun-
dance was highe nea d o e oads in Spain, which se e as ese -
oi s o wild bee pollina o s in adjacen ag icul u al landscapes
(He ia e al. 2016 ). Simila ly, an species ichness was highe on
an ac i e d o e oad han on abandoned d o e oads in Medi e -
anean ag icul u al egions o Spain (He ia e al. 2013 ). T an-
shumance along ele a ion g adien s in he eas e n Py enees was
ound o main ain he ichness o bo h plan and insec species.
Summe g azing by ca le in subalpine g asslands inc eased bu -
e ly ichness compa ed wi h ung azed g asslands, especially in
he la e summe (Ubach e al. 2023 ). Ung azed angelands be-
came domina ed by g asses, which educed he numbe o nec a -
p oducing plan s capable o suppo ing bu e lies. This indica es
ha he iming o g azing may be as impo an as he in ensi y o
g azing in p omo ing biodi e si y. T anshuman li es ock a e an
impo an ood sou ce o a e ul u es in Spain and elsewhe e,
leading conse a ionis s o ad oca e o he con inua ion o his
p ac ice (A ondo e al. 2023 ).
Li es ock se e as e ec i e ec o s o seed dispe sal, o en
o e la ge dis ances. Seeds may be anspo ed on he su ace o
animals in hai and on hoo es (epizoocho y) o inges ed and sub-
sequen ly exc e ed (endozoocho y). Fo example, o e 8500 seeds
o 85 ascula plan species ha e been ound in he leece o in-
di idual sheep in g asslands o sou hwes Ge many (Fische e
al. 1996 ). Expe imen s conduc ed in wes e n Spain showed ha
sheep anspo he seeds o mul iple plan species dis ances o
400 kilome e s in a 28-day jou ney (Manzano and Malo 2006 ). The
pe sis en a achmen o seed o he leece du ing his jou ney,
anged om 5%–47% o he ini ial seed popula ion, dependen on
plan species. T anshuman li es ock se e as an e ec i e ec o
o long-dis ance seed dispe sal in suppo o biodi e si y main-
enance and angeland es o a ion. Howe e , li es ock may also
dispe se in asi e and undesi able species, which may educe na-
i e biodi e si y (Kneupe e al. 2003 , Kebede and Coppock 2015 ).
Communi y-led go e nance os e s biodi e si y
Sus ainable pas o al p ac ices and land-use s a egies depend on
e ec i e ins i u ions; he o mal o in o mal ules, no ms, policies,
o laws ha go e n how people in e ac wi h he en i onmen and
one ano he ; and hei implemen a ion h ough good go e nance
(Benne and Sa e ield 2018 ). Pas o alis communi ies ha e ules
ega ding he iming o g azing on communally managed ange-
lands in sys ems as di e se as he Spanish Py enees (Fe nández-
Giménez and Filla Es aque 2012 ), Mongolia (Fe nández-Giménez
2002 , Alling on e al. 2024 ), and Indian Himalaya (Singh 2022 ). In
Mo occo’s High A las Moun ains, he ins i u ion o pas u e agdal
main ains g azing ese es wi h s ic opening da es a e plan s
se seed o main ain o age p oduc i i y and suppo plan biodi-
e si y (Dominguez e al. 2012 ). These ules en o ce seasonal mo-
bili y, allow pas u es o es and eco e , and main ain o age o
use in he do man season and du ing d ough , which suppo s di-
e se plan communi ies and sus ainable pas o al li elihoods. Fo
example, households ha made specialized all and win e mo es
( o o ) in addi ion o egula seasonal mig a ions o ha se aside
g azing ese es had g ea e species ichness and unc ional plan
di e si y han pas u es g azed by compa able households ha did
no use hese p ac ices, ac oss Mongolia’s ou majo ecological
zones (Fe nández-Giménez e al. 2018 ).
Pas o alis s’ igh s o communal g azing land and he abili y
o mo e wi hin and be ween seasonal g azing a eas a e essen-
ial o p omo e syne gies be ween pas o alism and biodi e si y
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B iske e al. |83
conse a ion. Consequen ly, pas o alis s’ collec i e igh s o land
and mobili y equi e g ea e ecogni ion and p omo ion by na-
ional and in e na ional ins i u ions. Common p ope y a ange-
men s, whe e pas o alis g oups hold igh s o use and manage
g azing lands collec i ely, allow o g ea e mobili y and lexibil-
i y han indi idualized o p i a e p ope y sys ems, which o en
lead o angeland agmen a ion and block mig a ion pa hways
o bo h li es ock and wildli e (Wes e n e al. 2009 , No enbae
e al. 2012 ). Na ional laws ha suppo he pe sis ence o com-
munal g azing lands include Mongolia’s Law on Land and Con-
s i u ion, which p ohibi s he p i a iza ion o angeland. Pas o al
mobili y also elies on con inued access o d o e oads, as is ex-
empli ied by Spain’s D o e Road Law, which p o ec s pas o alis s’
igh s o mo e long dis ances using he public d o e oad ne wo k
(Azcá a e and He ia 2023 ).
The c i ical impo ance o local and Indigenous-g oup-
managed a eas o biodi e si y conse a ion and human well-
being is inc easingly ecognized by na ions and biodi e si y ad-
oca es (Ga ne e al. 2018 ). Communi y-based and collabo a-
i e conse a ion e o s, such as A ican wildli e conse ancies,
which some imes engage cus oma y ins i u ions o achie e con-
se a ion goals, o e an al e na i e o s a e-designa ed p o ec ed
a eas ha o en exclude local peoples (box 3 , igu e 2 ). Al hough
esea ch has a ely assessed he en i onmen al ou comes o hese
al e na i e app oaches (Gal in e al. 2018 ), when measu ed, ou -
comes ha e mos ly been posi i e (Wilkins e al. 2021 ). Mo e obus
and cohe en empi ical esea ch on he links be ween go e nance
and conse a ion ou comes is needed (Ayambi e e al. 2024 ), es-
pecially in angelands, which ha e ecei ed much less a en ion
han o he land ca ego ies (Johnsen e al. 2019 ). G ea e ecogni-
ion and suppo o pas o alis communi y-led go e nance may
p o ide mo e e ec i e s a egies o mi iga e global biodi e si y
loss.
Pas o al li es ock is o en associa ed wi h ad e se conse-
quences on wildli e, bu hese pe cep ions a e la gely based on
aul y in e ence and anecdo e, a he han scien i ic e idence
(Niami -Fulle e al. 2012 , Riginos e al. 2012 ). Fo example, wildli e
popula ions in Kenya ha e shown la ge dec eases (1977–2016),
and hose dec eases ha e occu ed concu en ly wi h inc easing
li es ock numbe s (Ogu u e al. 2016 ). Howe e , hese educ ions
we e in e p e ed o ha e mul iple causes, including human popu-
la ion g ow h, land agmen a ion, human–wildli e con lic , an i-
qua ed policies and ins i u ions egula ing wildli e conse a ion,
and inc easing clima e change and a iabili y, in addi ion o pas-
o al li es ock.
Compe i ion be ween li es ock and wildli e species can be e -
ec i ely managed in mos cases, and he po en ial exis s o syn-
e gis ic in e ac ions o occu among hem. Fo example, pas o al-
ism was ound o be c i ical o main enance o bi d ichness in
eas A ican sa annas (G ego y e al. 2010 ). The use o i e had im-
po an sho - e m e ec s, whe eas abandoned bomas (i.e., li e-
s ock enclosu es) had long- e m posi i e e ec s on bi d ichness.
Habi a quali y o snow leopa ds ( Pan he a uncia ) can be enhanced
by he p esence o in e media e li es ock densi ies in he Indian
Himalaya (Sha ma e al. 2015 ). Mo eo e , communi y-based ini-
ia i es ha e been e ec i ely implemen ed o dec ease li es ock–
p eda o con lic in A ica (box 3 , igu e. 2 ).
Th ea s o biodi e si y
Land use, clima e change, species o e exploi a ion, in asi e
species, and pollu ion ha e been iden i ied as he p ima y causes
o biodi e si y loss globally (Mazo e al. 2018 ). Clima e change
may become a mo e impo an d i e o biodi e si y loss han
land-use change by midcen u y, bu conside able unce ain y ex-
is s because o ime lags associa ed wi h he impac s o bo h
d i e s (Pe ei a e al. 2024 ). D ylands a e p ojec ed o expand in e-
sponse o accele a ing clima e change, and inc easing a idi y will
be accompanied by apid human popula ion g ow h, especially in
A ica (Huang e al. 2015 ). Rangelands expe ienced u ban expan-
sion (3.8%) a a sligh ly highe a e han he global a e age (3.5%)
be ween 1992 and 2016, which enc oaches on anges o h ea -
ened species, wi h mammals being mos se e ely a ec ed (Ren
e al. 2022 ).
P ojec ions o inc easing a idi y c ea e he po en ial o u -
he deg ada ion, wi h ad e se e ec s on biodi e si y, soil s abili y,
and plan and animal p oduc i i y (box 1 ; Pe z e al. 2014 , Maes e
e al. 2022 ). Howe e , inc easing ege a ion co e —d yland g een-
ing de i ed om sa elli e image y—has been obse ed on 40% o
d ylands in he pas h ee decades despi e p ojec ions o inc eas-
ing a idi y, and i is an icipa ed o con inue h ough he middle o
he cen u y (Bu ell e al. 2020 , Zhang e al. 2024 ). The occu ence
o d yland g eening is associa ed wi h inc eased a mosphe ic
ca bon dioxide concen a ions, land-use change and clima e-
induced shi s in empe a u e and p ecipi a ion. Collec i ely,
hese d i e s may limi d yland biodi e si y loss in he nea e m.
D yland deg ada ion p esen s a c i ical cu en and u u e
h ea . Un o una ely, he magni ude o he h ea is unce -
ain because o i s a ied in e p e a ion, mul iple causal mech-
anisms, and lack o consensus ega ding i s ex en (Gibbs and
Salmon 2015 ). A ecen epo om he Uni ed Na ions Con en-
ion o Comba Dese i ica ion indica ed ha app oxima ely 50%
o global angelands ha e unde gone deg ada ion, bu o he as-
sessmen s ange om 20% o 70% (UNCCD 2024 ). This unce ain y
makes i di icul o link deg ada ion wi h biodi e si y loss be-
cause he magni ude o loss and i s po en ial o eco e y a e
o en unknown. In Mongolia, o example, assessmen s sugges
ha app oxima ely 65% o he land a ea has been deg aded. How-
e e , only abou 10% o he a ea is likely o ha e been i e e sibly
changed, wi h he emainde showing a ying deg ees o s uc-
u al and unc ional change (Jams anja e al. 2018 ). I is c i i-
cal ha he dominan conse a ion ocus on p o ec ed a eas wi h
minimal human ac i i y does no obscu e he po en ial o wo k-
ing lands, which may ha e unde gone some deg ada ion, o mi i-
ga e biodi e si y loss (K emen and Me enlende 2018 ).
Biodi e si y loss is no an inhe en ou come o pas o alism pe
se, as is e idenced by he sus ainabili y o his land use o millen-
nia. Changing sociopoli ical ci cums ances ha dec ease pas o al
land access by con e sion o al e na i e land uses and he es ic-
ion o pas o al mobili y ha e con ibu ed o he ad e se ou come
o pas o alism (K ä li e al. 2013 , Pe z e al. 2014 , No i and Scoones
2023 ). Fo example, popula ion g ow h in u al a eas is di ec ly as-
socia ed wi h inc easing c opland expansion o suppo ood se-
cu i y (Li e al. 2021 ). The sca ci y o p oduc i e a able land con-
ibu es o he con e sion o inc easingly ma ginal land ha o en
suppo s high biodi e si y and a apid decline in c op p oduc i -
i y ollowing ini ial con e sion incen i izes he con e sion o ad-
di ional land. Ag icul u al con e sion equen ly a ge s key e-
sou ce a eas o bo h li es ock and wildli e, which has a disp opo -
iona ely la ge impac han he land a ea con e ed, especially in
he d y season and du ing d ough (Illius and O’Conno 1999 ).
A o es a ion p og ams designed o mi iga e clima e change
by emo ing ca bon om he a mosphe e ep esen a majo
h ea o angeland biodi e si y. Rangelands a e a ge ed o a -
o es a ion because he ecosys em se ices ha hey p o ide,
including an impo an ese oi o bo h biodi e si y and ca -
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84 | BioScience, 2026, Vol. 76, No. 1
Box 3. Communi y-d i en ini ia i es mi iga e li es ock–p eda o con lic in A ica.
Figu e 2. A li ing wall in Tanzania’s Maasai S eppe ha has been codesigned by local communi ies and A ican People and Wildli e o
minimize pas o alis li es ock losses o p eda ion. App oxima ely 2100 ha e been comple ed as o 2024. Pho og aph: Emmily Tunuka, A ican
People and Wildli e.
Con lic be ween wildli e and li es ock p esen s key challenges o biodi e si y conse a ion in A ica. Nega i e in e ac ions in-
ol ing p eda o s a e especially po en and ha e majo implica ions o sus ainable pas o al li elihoods and sa e y o u al com-
muni ies. Ini ia i es o mi iga e his con lic ha e been de eloped by local conse a ion NGOs in conce wi h pas o al communi ies
and hey ha e p o en e ec i e. The “Lion Gua dians” p og am in sou he n Kenya d aws on cul u al alues and knowledge o Maa-
sai pas o alis s o mi iga e li es ock–p eda o con lic and moni o p eda o species ac oss communally owned g oup anches.
The p og am le e ages he c i ical ole o adi ional leade ship wi h p o ec ion and apid esponse o p e en and mi iga e li e-
s ock dep eda ion h ough communi y-led moni o ing. The p og am p o ides a sense o lion owne ship wi hin he communi y
and has esul ed in a nea - o al cessa ion o lion killings o e an 8-yea pe iod in each a ea whe e i was implemen ed (Hazzah e
al. 2014 ). The esul an inc ease in lion mobili y has acili a ed “co ido s o ole ance” ha allow o c i ical connec i i y ac oss
a eas whe e lions a e unp o ec ed (Dol en y e al. 2020 ). Simila communi y-based p og ams exis in Tanzania, including he “Wa -
io s o Wildli e” p og am whe e Maasai pas o alis s moni o o i ied li es ock enclosu es ( bomas ) called li ing walls . This p og am
has esul ed in a nea 100% e icacy in p e en ing nigh ime a acks on Maasai li es ock by se e al ca ni o e species (Lich en eld
e al. 2015 ). Ini ia i es ha connec cul u al alues and pas o al knowledge wi h biodi e si y conse a ion goals, in conce wi h
con inued inno a ion in mi iga ion in e en ions (e.g., eusable bomas, i ual encing, a i icial eyespo applica ion), can suppo
esilien angelands o bo h people and wildli e. In con as , when he knowledge and needs o pas o alis s a e igno ed, biodi e si y
conse a ion policies can exace ba e human–wildli e con lic and pe pe ua e hos ili y owa d conse a ion e o s. See igu e 2 .
bon, a e un ecognized and unde alued (B iske e al.
2024 , Pa
e al. 2024 ). Expe imen al e idence indica es ha angeland a -
o es a ion possesses minimal po en ial o addi ional ca bon
s o age bu ha i has high po en ial o ad e sely a ec local
communi ies and o educe ecosys em se ices ha a e i al o
socie y.
Go e nance sys ems and policies designed o add ess pas o al
issues o en impose ad e se consequences on pas o alis s’ li eli-
hoods and angeland sus ainabili y. Policies p io i izing ag icul-
u al in ensi ica ion, o ced se lemen o mobile pas o alis s, pas-
o alis displacemen om p o ec ed a eas in he name o conse -
a ion, and land exp op ia ion and p i a iza ion o de elopmen
p ojec s equen ly unde alue he ecological and cul u al im-
po ance o pas o al sys ems, leading o es ic ions on mobili y,
loss o g azing lands, and agmen a ion o c i ical esou ces (Reid
e al. 2014 , No i and Scoones 2023 ). Conse a ion s a egies ha
exclude pas o alis s om p o ec ed a eas o en dis up pas o al
communi ies and e ode hei cus oma y go e nance sys ems (box
4 , igu e 3 ; Goldman 2011 ). Mo eo e , he lack o ecogni ion o cus-
oma y ins i u ions in o mal go e nance amewo ks has weak-
ened communi y-led managemen o pas o al sys ems, u he
exace ba ing agmen a ion and deg ada ion (No i and Scoones
2023 ). I is c i ical ha ou da ed misconcep ions o pas o al im-
pac s on biodi e si y conse a ion be amended o c ea e go e -
nance and policies ha alue and suppo pas o alism as a s a -
egy o bo h biodi e si y conse a ion and pas o al sus ainabili y.
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B iske e al. |85
Box 4. Pas o al displacemen in Indian Himalaya inc eased social inequali ies wi h ques ionable conse a ion bene i s
Figu e 3. Tempo a y se lemen s, goa hs , ha pas o alis s had used du ing summe g azing o sheep and yaks in Khangchendzonga Na ional
Pa k p io o he s a e-imposed g azing ban. Pho og aph: Rashmi Singh, Indian Ins i u e o Technology, Hyde abad.
A s a e induced ban on g azing was implemen ed in Khangchendzonga Na ional Pa k, which is a UNESCO Wo ld He i age Si e,
in Sikkim, Indian Eas e n Himalaya (Singh 2022 ). The ban eme ged om he au ho i a ian “g een go e nance” model o he leading
poli ical pa y in he Sikkim. Pas o alis s, who had adi ionally g azed yak and sheep ac oss alpine and empe a e pas u es du ing
he summe , we e e ic ed be ween 2000–2002. The g azing ban was implemen ed on he basis o he assump ion ha g azing had
caused ecological damage, bu wi hou sys ema ic analysis o pas o al pa icipa ion, and p o isions we e no made o pas o al
compensa ion o al e na i e li elihoods. Pos ban, he S a e encou aged opening he pa k o eco ou ism, including he use o he
pack animals o suppo excu sions in o he pa k. Howe e , only a small numbe o eli e pas o alis s ob ained exclusi e g azing
access o he pa k h ough powe ul poli ical connec ions, in spi e o he g azing ban. This led o an inc ease in ho ses and dzo
(yak-ca le c osses) o se e as pack animals and a doubling o he numbe o yaks owned by he eli es. Consequen ly, 15 yea s ol-
lowing imposi ion o he g azing ban, ege a ion composi ion and plan species di e si y did no show subs an ial “imp o emen ,”
o “ eco e y” in ei he he alpine o empe a e pas u es (Singh 2022 ). Pas o al e ic ions esul ed in he u he impo e ishmen
o weake sec ions o he pas o al communi y while powe ul pas o alis s app op ia ed bene i s om hese conse a ion policies.
Social con lic s also eme ged wi hin he local communi y and led o he eme gence o new conse a ion challenges in he o m
o inc eased inciden s o nega i e human–wildli e in e ac ions. S a e engagemen wi h egional pas o alis s o le e age pas o al-
is knowledge and go e nance may ha e mo e e ec i ely conse ed angeland biodi e si y and main ained social well-being o
egional communi ies han did displacemen o pas o alis s. See igu e 3 .
Recommended ac ion
Ambi ious goals ha e been es ablished by he Kunming–Mon eal
Global Biodi e si y F amewo k, including a hal o ex inc ions
o all h ea ened species and a en old educ ion in he ex inc-
ion a es o all species by 2050 (Pe ei a e al. 2024 ). We con-
end ha he p omo ion o sus ainable pas o alism on ange-
lands ep esen s a c i ical mi iga ion s a egy o suppo achie e-
men o hese goals. This s a egy is ocused on conse a ion o
he as ese oi o angeland biodi e si y, which is cu en ly
un ecognized and unde p o ec ed, as a o m o wo king lands
conse a ion o simul aneously mi iga e biodi e si y loss and
enhance li elihoods o u al communi ies (K emen and Me en-
lende 2018 ). G ea e ecogni ion and inclusion o pas o alism
wi hin global conse a ion amewo ks, especially he Con en-
ion on Biodi e si y, and mul ila e al o ganiza ions has g ea
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86 | BioScience, 2026, Vol. 76, No. 1
po en ial o inc ease achie emen o global biodi e si y a ge s
(Lewin e al. 2024 ).
We ecommend i e b oad s a egies o inc ease ecogni ion
and o ini ia e ac ion o le e age he po en ial bene i s o ange-
land pas o alism on biodi e si y conse a ion. Fi s , eshape he
dominan conse a ion na a i e om on eindica ing ha pas-
o alis s a e a h ea o biodi e si y and p o ec ed a ea manage-
men o one ha en isions pas o alis s as an asse o biodi-
e si y conse a ion. Second, ecognize ha g azing and i e a e
na u al ecological dis u bances ha main ain angeland biodi-
e si y and ha humans ha e long used hem o modi y eg-
e a ion and imp o e o age quali y. Thi d, de elop policies and
p omo e in es men s ha incen i ize and suppo pas o al p ac-
ices syne gis ic wi h biodi e si y conse a ion and minimize ex-
is ing pe e se policies and incen i es, especially hose ha con-
ibu e o angeland con e sion and agmen a ion. Fou h, e-
design and implemen egional in as uc u e o suppo pas o al
mobili y and pas o alis s’ de elopmen goals, including d o e
oads and o he lexible mo emen co ido s, ma ke access, com-
munica ion se ices, mobile educa ion, and human and li e-
s ock heal h se ices, while inc easing he sus ainabili y and mo-
bili y o angeland pas o alism. Fi h, suppo secu e collec i e
land and wa e enu e o pas o alis s, adap i e, communi y-
led angeland go e nance, and e ec i e and equi able ins i-
u ions o p o ide pas o alis s igh s o sel -de e mina ion,
knowledge so e eign y, and con lic managemen o enhance
secu i y.
T ans o ma ion o socie al pe spec i es and go e nance sys-
ems a e equi ed o en ision and p omo e pas o alism as a i-
al conse a ion s a egy (B iske and Coppock 2023 , Kennedy e
al. 2023 ). This will equi e a mo e expansi e and inclusi e iew
o a ea-based biodi e si y conse a ion ha ecognizes key cha -
ac e is ics spanning a ea ex en , ecological in eg i y, connec i i y,
and equi able go e nance (Robinson e al. 2024 ). G ea e ep esen-
a ion o local communi ies and local o Indigenous knowledge,
pa icula ly in he con ex o sus ainable pas o alis p ac ices, will
also be essen ial (Kennedy e al. 2023 ). Syne gies among pas o al-
ism and biodi e si y conse a ion p o ide c i ical oppo uni ies
o mi iga e biodi e si y loss h ough in eg a ion wi h exis ing p o-
ec ed a eas o c ea e a as ne wo k o biodi e si y conse a ion.
Acknowledgmen s
The o ganiza ional suppo o he IYRP Global Alliance and Biodi-
e si y wo king g oup, and cons uc i e commen s o wo e iew-
e s a e g a e ully acknowledged.
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