Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 2024
Volume 8 No. 1, 52-86
h ps:// ese ds. su.edu.ph Resea ch A icle
ESTIMATING CARBON EMISSIONS FROM HOUSEHOLD
CONSUMPTION AND PRACTICES IN EASTERN VISAYAS
Gwendolin H. Omalay1
*
, Moises Neil V. Se iño1, Lijue aj J. Cuad a1, and Zy a
May H. Cen ino1
1Visayas S a e Uni e si y, Baybay Ci y, Ley e, Philippines
This s udy es ima es ca bon emissions om households in he Eas e n
Visayas egion o he Philippines, examining a ious sou ces, consump ion,
beha io s, and socio-economic ac o s ha in luence emissions. The s udy is
guided by he En i onmen al Kuzne s Cu e (EKC) amewo k. Ca bon emissions
we e es ima ed ac oss h ee scopes: Scope 1 (s a iona y combus ion and pu chased
gases), Scope 2 (elec ici y consump ion), and Scope 3 (was e gene a ion and
commu ing). Scope 1 emissions we e iden i ied as he la ges con ibu o .
Emissions we e analyzed by household cha ac e is ics e ealing s a is ically
signi ican di e ences be ween p o inces, communi y ypes, amily ypes,
educa ion le els, employmen s a uses, and income g oups. The eg ession esul s
indica ed ha income and i s squa ed e m, communi y ype, elec ici y
consump ion, uel consump ion, and commu ing ac i i ies using public
anspo a ion modes a e signi ican p edic o s o ca bon emissions. The
eg ession analysis con i ms he p esence o EKC a he household le el. This is
e lec ed by he posi i e sign o income and nega i e sign o he coe icien o
income squa ed sugges ing an in e se U-shaped ela ionship be ween income and
emissions. Addi ionally, an assessmen o po en ial ne -ze o emissions highligh ed
ha cu en ee-plan ing e o s a e insu icien o o se household emissions
signi ican ly. To e ec i ely o se ca bon emissions, each household would need
o plan a leas ou ees e e y mon h. Las ly, esponden s’ awa eness, p ac ices,
mo i a ions, and pe cei ed ba ie s we e explo ed and documen ed. The s udy
ci es se e al ecommenda ions o policy-make s o ocus on o e ec i ely educe
household-le el ca bon emissions.
*
Co esponding au ho : Gwendolin H. Omalay, Visayas S a e Uni e si y, Baybay Ci y,
Ley e, Philippines. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
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Keywo ds: household ca bon emissions, ca bon o se , En i onmen al Kuzne s
Cu e
JEL Classi ica ion codes: I0, Q2, Q3
1. INTRODUCTION
In ecen yea s, he g owing ecogni ion o clima e change as an exis en ial
h ea has p omp ed ex ensi e esea ch in o he ealm o g eenhouse gases and
hei ad e se consequences. As he Ea h's clima e unde goes signi ican
al e a ions, unde s anding he de imen al impac s o g eenhouse gas emissions
has become pa amoun . Based on he indings o he 2022 Philippines Coun y
Clima e and De elopmen Repo , i no ac ion is aken o add ess clima e change,
i is p ojec ed o ha e signi ican economic and human cos s. By he yea 2040, i
is es ima ed ha GDP could po en ially dec ease by as much as 13.6 pe cen . This
ad e se impac is expec ed o be pa icula ly p onounced among he mos
disad an aged households (Wo ld Bank 2022). In 2021, i was eco ded ha 18.1
pe cen o impo e ished Filipinos had pe capi a incomes insu icien o co e
hei basic ood and non- ood needs. This equa es o app oxima ely 19.99 million
Filipinos li ing below he po e y h eshold (PSA 2022). I is wi hin his con ex o
clima e change conce n and he need o comp ehend he ad e se e ec s o
g eenhouse gases ha his s udy is unde aken.
Ca bon emissions, p ima ily in he o m o ca bon dioxide (CO2) which
makes up 64% o emissions (Buena is a & Tan 2021), ha e eme ged as he
o emos d i e o clima e change (Abeydee a e al 2019). The e e -inc easing
le els o hese emissions in he Ea h's a mosphe e ha e led o a ise in global
empe a u es, igge ing a cascade o en i onmen al challenges. The h ea o
clima e change and global wa ming has b ough ex eme c ises o he plane in
many di e en unp eceden ed ways possible. As ime goes by, hese phenomena
would e en ually wo sen and would c ea e g ea e disas e han wha is
happening oday, ha is, i no add essed immedia ely. Cu en ly, he occu ence
o na u al disas e s has been eco ded h ee imes mo e equen ly compa ed o
he las 50 yea s (UN News 2021).
In esponse o he escala ing clima e c isis, in e na ional e o s ha e
in ensi ied o comba clima e change, aligning wi h he commi men s ou lined in
he PH NDCs o 2021. I ou lines speci ic a ge s o educing g eenhouse gas
emissions. Recognizing he u gency o clima e ac ion, add essing clima e change
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
54
is no solely an en i onmen al conce n bu also in eg al o achie ing i e speci ic
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals ela ed o en i onmen al sus ainabili y, economic
g ow h, and u ban de elopmen . These include SDG 7, 11, 12, 13, and 15 (Uni ed
Na ions 2022).
The In e go e nmen al Panel o Clima e Change a es ed ha global
wa ming caused by human ac i i ies has inc eased by abou 1.0°C (0.8~1.2°C) as
compa ed o he p e-indus ial le el and i cu en ends con inue, his le el will
possibly each 1.5 °C be ween 2030 and 2052 (IPCC 2021). Households play a
signi ican ole in global g eenhouse gas emissions, accoun ing o app oxima ely
72% o he o al (Dubois e al 2019). Acco ding o Se io (2016), ailing o add ess
household emissions could impe il global a emp s o s abilize he clima e sys em,
owing o he acc ued ca bon emissions s emming om domes ic consump ion.
Wi hin his con ex , i is c ucial o ecognize ha households, o en
o e looked in he discou se on clima e change, a e signi ican con ibu o s o
ca bon emissions. These emissions s em om a ious ace s o household
consump ion and p ac ices, encompassing ene gy consump ion, anspo a ion
choices, was e gene a ion, and mo e. Howe e , despi e hei no ewo hy
con ibu ion, s udies ocusing on quan i ying ca bon emissions a he household
le el emain no ably sca ce.
In ligh o his esea ch gap, his s udy is pa icula ly mo i a ed by he
need o unde s and and es ima e ca bon emissions a he household le el in
Eas e n Visayas – an ideal a ea o his s udy due o i s unique cha ac e is ics. This
egion, comp ising se e al islands in he Philippines, o e s a compelling con ex
o unde s anding household-le el ca bon emissions. Eas e n Visayas boas s
di e se en i onmen s, om coas al egions o upland communi ies, wi h a mix o
u ban cen e s and u al a eas, allowing us o comp ehensi ely examine ca bon
emissions in a ious se ings. Fu he mo e, he egion is ulne able o clima e
change, acing isks like sea-le el ise and ex eme wea he e en s, making i a
c i ical a ea o s udying emissions and de ising clima e- esilien s a egies.
This s udy is pi o al in clima e change mi iga ion e o s by es ima ing
household ca bon emissions om consump ion pa e ns, guiding a ge ed
in e en ions. By pinpoin ing high-emission a eas, i add esses clima e change's
u gency globally. The esea ch emphasizes indi idual and collec i e household
esponsibili y - ha change s a s a home, and demons a es how household
in ol emen can ha e a meaning ul impac on comba ing clima e change by
making in o med choices, p omo ing sus ainable beha io s o educe ca bon
oo p in s and aising awa eness o en i onmen al consequences o ca bon
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55
emission. Such e o s no only cu cos s bu also enhance communi y well-being.
Aligning wi h na ional p io i ies like he Philippines' NDCs and SDGs, i
con ibu es o he body o knowledge, me hodologies, and insigh s in o household
ca bon emissions, os e ing u he esea ch and in e disciplina y collabo a ion
agains clima e change. P ac ical implica ions ex end o policymake s shaping
sus ainable policies, en i onmen al g oups le e aging insigh s o public
awa eness and ad ocacy. Resea che s can build upon he s udy's indings o
ad ance knowledge in his ield.
The s udy aims o unde s and how household ac i i ies and consump ion
pa e ns con ibu e o ca bon emissions in he Eas e n Visayas egion o he
Philippines. I seeks o es ima e household ca bon emissions and iden i y he main
sou ces, such as ene gy use, anspo a ion, and was e. Addi ionally, he s udy
explo es di e ences in emissions ac oss a ious households and assesses he
po en ial o achie ing ne -ze o emissions. I also seeks o unde s and household
iews on na u e-based solu ions. Ul ima ely, he s udy p o ides
ecommenda ions o policymake s o encou age sus ainable p ac ices and educe
emissions.
2. THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This s udy is guided by he En i onmen al Kuzne s Cu e (EKC)
hypo hesis, which ex ends Simon Kuzne s' 1955 heo y. Kuzne s p oposed ha as
pe capi a income inc eases, income inequali y ini ially ises and hen dec eases,
o ming an in e ed U-shaped cu e. In 1991, his concep was applied o
en i onmen al quali y, sugges ing ha as coun ies de elop economically,
en i onmen al deg ada ion may ini ially wo sen bu hen imp o e. This led o he
de elopmen o he EKC, illus a ing he ela ionship be ween en i onmen al
deg ada ion and pe capi a income (Yandle e al., 2004).
The EKC hypo hesis eme ged h ough he esea ch o G ossman and
K uege (1991), who a gued ha economic ac i i y does no ine i ably ha m he
en i onmen ; ins ead, as incomes ise, he demand o en i onmen al
imp o emen s and he esou ces o in es men inc ease. Becke man (1992)
suppo ed his, s a ing ha while economic g ow h may ini ially lead o
en i onmen al deg ada ion, ul ima ely, weal h is necessa y o en i onmen al
imp o emen . G ossman and K uege (1991, 1994) p o ided empi ical e idence
ha he ela ionship be ween pe capi a income and en i onmen al deg ada ion
ollows an in e ed U-shape (as ci ed in Beyene & Ko osz, 2019).
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
56
Figu e 1 illus a es he g aphical ep esen a ion o he hypo hesis in he
o m o an in e ed U-shaped cu e. In his ep esen a ion, en i onmen al
deg ada ion se es as he dependen a iable and can be measu ed h ough
a ious indica o s such as pollu an s (including ai , wa e , and soil pollu ion, o
de o es a ion), in his s udy’s case, we ocus on ca bon emissions. On he o he
hand, pe capi a income is he independen a iable.
To es he hypo hesis o EKC, he s udy will ha e o calcula e income pe
capi a and ca bon emissions pe capi a. To do his, begin by compu ing he g oss
income o households, hen, di ide he o al household income by he numbe o
membe s in each household o ob ain he pe capi a income. The o mula o
income pe capi a is:
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒/𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒
(1)
Nex , o es ima e ca bon emissions pe capi a wi hin a household, di ide
he o al ca bon emissions pe household by he household size. This app oach
allows us o es ima e he a e age ca bon emissions pe pe son wi hin a household.
The o mula o ca bon emission pe capi a is:
Figu e 1. A ypical EKC diag am (sou ce: Yandle e al, 2004)
Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 8(1), 2024
57
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
/𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒
(2)
Once income pe capi a and ca bon emissions pe capi a wi hin
households a e compu ed, he ela ionship be ween hese wo can be isualized
on a g aph. On he g aph, income pe capi a is plo ed on he x-axis, and ca bon
emissions pe capi a a e plo ed on he y-axis. Each da a poin on he g aph
ep esen s a household. This isualiza ion helps e eal he po en ial p esence o
he EKC hypo hesis wi hin he s udy's da a.
3. METHODOLOGY
This s udy uses da a om he ENHANCE P ojec conduc ed in he six
p o inces o Region VIII – Eas e n Visayas: Bili an, Sama , Eas e n Sama ,
No he n Sama , Ley e, and Sou he n Ley e.
P ima y da a we e collec ed using a semi-s uc u ed su ey
ques ionnai e, which included bo h close-ended and open-ended ques ions o
ho oughly cap u e in o ma ion on ca bon-emi ing domes ic consump ion and
p ac ices. A p e- es o he su ey ins umen was conduc ed p io o da a
collec ion o ensu e i s alidi y and sui abili y o he s udy's objec i es. Da a we e
collec ed om Ma ch o Augus 2022, wi h success ul in e iews conduc ed wi h
360 households. Using p opo ional sampling, 302 o hese esponses we e
u ilized. The emaining su eys we e conduc ed om Ma ch o Ap il 2024 in
Ley e, Wes e n Sama , and No he n Sama o comple e he sample size o 385, as
de e mined using Coch an's o mula.
Table 1. P opo ional sampling o esponden s by p o ince in Eas e n Visayas.
Loca ion
2020 To al
popula ion
by p o ince
P opo ional
pe cen age
Calcula ed
no o
esponden
No o in e iew
al eady
conduc ed
No o
in e iew
conduc ed
Bili an
179,312
4%
15
5
(excess 35)
0
Eas e n Sama
477,168
11%
41
50
(excess 9)
0
Ley e
2,028,728
45%
172
110
62
No he n Sama
639,186
14%
54
50
4
Sama (Wes e n Sama )
793,183
17%
67
50
17
Sou he n Ley e
429,573
9%
36
50
(excess 14)
0
To al
4,547,150
100%
385
302
83
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
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Da a analysis
The da a analysis o his s udy will adop a mixed-me hods app oach,
inco po a ing bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods o p o ide a
comp ehensi e unde s anding o household-le el ca bon emissions using
Mic oso Excel and STATA. Employing desc ip i e s a is ics, ca bon emission
ac o s and eg ession analysis a e ins umen al in se ing he s udy’s objec i es
o es ima e ca bon emissions and de e mine signi ican a iables in luencing
ca bon emission.
Ca bon Emission Fac o s a e sou ced om he 2024 GHG Emission Fac o s Hub
by he Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency. The ca bon emission ac o
which is always exp essed as a a io is he a e age emission a e o ca bon dioxide
associa ed wi h ha pa icula ac i i y o consump ion (Clima e Change
Commission 2015). Ca bon emissions om di e en ca ego ies o household
consump ion and p ac ices can be compu ed using he gene al quan i ica ion
equa ion, sugges ed by he Clima e Change Commission, exp essed as ollows:
𝐶𝑂2= 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
(3)
In es ima ing ca bon emissions om household p ac ices, h ee dis inc
scopes a e conside ed. Scope 1 includes emissions esul ing om s a iona y
combus ion and pu chased gases. Scope 2 co e s emissions om elec ici y
consumed. Las ly, Scope 3 accoun s o emissions gene a ed om was e and
commu ing ac i i ies using public anspo a ion. Ca bon emission ac o s (Table
2) used in he calcula ion o hese emissions a e om he 2024 GHG Emission
Fac o s Hub by he Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency.
Table 2. Ca bon emission ac o s.
Va iable
Fuel ype
Co2
Fac o
Uni
SCOPE 1
1a. S a iona y
combus ion
Wood and Wood Residuals
1,640
kgCO2/sho on
Lique ied Pe oleum Gas (LPG)
5.68
kgCO2/gallon
Bu ane
6.67
kgCO2/gallon
1b. Pu chased
gases
Ke osene
10.15
kg CO2/gallon
Gasoline
8.78
kg CO2/gallon
Diesel
10.21
kg CO2/gallon
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Sou ce: US EPA, 2024 GHG emissions ac o s hub
Reg ession model
To iden i y signi ican a iables, he eg ession equa ion is exp essed as ollows:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐶𝑂2= 𝛽0+ 𝛽1𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐼𝑁𝐶 + 𝛽2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐼𝑁𝐶𝑆𝑂 + 𝛽3𝐹𝑇 + 𝛽4𝐶𝑇 + 𝛽5𝐸𝐷𝑈𝐶
+ 𝛽6𝐶𝐶𝐴 + 𝛽7𝐾𝑊𝐻 + 𝛽8𝐹𝑈𝐸𝐿𝑆 + 𝛽9𝑊𝐺 + 𝛽10𝑃𝑇 + 𝜖
(4)
Whe e he log o he o al household ca bon emissions is he dependen
a iable on he le -hand side and a iables on he igh -hand side such as log o
Income, log o Income2, Family Type, Communi y Type, Educa ion, Clima e
Change Awa eness, Elec ici y Consump ion, Fuels, Was e Gene a ion, Public
T anspo , a e he independen a iables.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demog aphic p o ile o esponden s
The da a co e s i e p o inces o Eas e n Visayas, wi h Ley e ha ing he
highes equency a 172 esponden s, making up 44.68% o he sample. The
esponden s we e sp ead ac oss di e en ecological se ings, wi h u al a eas
ha ing he highes ep esen a ion a 206 esponden s.
Table 3. Dis ibu ion o households by p o ince in Eas e n Visayas.
SCOPE
2. Elec ici y
consumed
Megawa hou
0.7122
CO2/MWH
SCOPE 3
3a. Was es
gene a ed
(Land illed
ma e ials)
S eel Cans
0.02
CO2/sho on
Glass
0.02
CO2/sho on
Mixed Pape
0.89
CO2/sho on
Mixed Plas ics
0.02
CO2/sho on
Food Was e
0.68
CO2/sho on
3b. Commu ing
ia Public
T anspo a ion
Passenge Ca
0.1752
kgCO2/mile
Mo o cycle
0.3767
kgCO2/mile
Bus
0.0707
kgCO2/mile
P o ince
F equency
Pe cen
Bili an
15
3.9
Eas e n Sama
41
10.65
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
60
Table
4.
Dis ibu ion o households by communi y ype.
Mos esponden s a e emale, accoun ing o 80.52% o he sample. The
eason is wo old. Fi s ly, women as housewi es mos o he ime s ay a home
while husbands a e ypically a wo k. This leads o a si ua ion whe e women a e
mo e a ailable o pa icipa e in he su ey. Secondly and acco dingly, women
o en ha e i s hand knowledge as hey handle a lo o domes ic ac i i ies wi hin
households so hey a e mo e likely able o answe he su ey han men.
The majo i y o esponden s all be ween he ages 30 o 69, which is 74.54% o he
esponden s. The a e age age o esponden s is app oxima ely 46 yea s. The
la ges po ion o esponden s a e ma ied (67.27%) and a e Roman Ca holics
(88.83%).
Fo educa ional a ainmen , 40.52% o esponden s ha e eached college
le el o abo e, 37.92% ha e eached high school and 21.56% eached he
elemen a y le el. Meanwhile, mos esponden s (62.34%) a e employed.
Table 5. Summa y s a is ics o esponden s' p o ile.
Ley e
172
44.68
No he n Sama
54
14.03
Sama
67
17.4
Sou he n Ley e
36
9.35
To al
385
100
Communi y
Loca ion (Ecological se ing)
Type
Coas al
Lowland
Upland
To al
Ru al
82
42
82
206
U ban
46
97
36
179
To al
128
139
118
385
Demog aphic cha ac e is ics
F equency
Pe cen
Sex
Female
310
80.52
Male
75
19.48
Age Range
10-29
72
18.7
30-49
151
39.22
50-69
136
35.32
70-89
26
6.75
Ci il S a us
Li e-in
3
0.78
Ma ied
259
67.27
Sepa a ed
7
1.82
Single
89
23.12
Widow
27
7.01
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lowe anspo a ion- ela ed emissions. Addi ionally, u al households migh ely
mo e on local ood p oduc ion and consump ion, u he educing he need o
anspo a ion- ela ed emissions. In con as , u ban esiden s bene i om mo e
accessible and a o dable public anspo a ion op ions. This con enience
encou ages mo e equen a el o shopping, educa ion, dining, and leisu e
ac i i ies, leading o highe anspo a ion emissions. The equen use o
anspo a ion in u ban a eas hus con ibu es o he highe mean emissions
obse ed. This compa ison unde sco es he signi ican impac o anspo a ion
a ailabili y and li es yle choices on o e all ca bon emissions be ween u ban and
u al a eas.
The amoun o CO2 emissions by household amily ype e eals in iguing
dispa i ies in ca bon oo p in s. While nuclea amilies exhibi a highe o al
emission compa ed o ex ended amilies, ex ended amilies ha e a highe mean
emission pe household. The di e ence be ween g oups is s a is ically signi ican
(P ob > |z| = 0.0019***, Table 11). This sugges s ha while ex ended amilies
collec i ely con ibu e less o he o e all emissions compa ed o nuclea amilies,
indi idual households wi hin he ex ended amily se up ha e a highe a e age
emission. This di e ence could be a ibu ed o a ious ac o s such as household
size, consump ion pa e ns, and li es yle choices. Nuclea amilies may ha e a
smalle o al emission due o hei smalle household size, bu indi idual
households wi hin ex ended amilies may ha e highe emissions pe household
due o sha ed esou ces and po en ially highe ene gy needs.
In e ms o educa ional a ainmen , while he e is some a ia ion in
emissions ac oss di e en educa ion le els, he di e ences a e no as p onounced.
Households wi h membe s a aining college-le el and abo e educa ion end o
ha e sligh ly highe mean emissions compa ed o hose wi h elemen a y o high
school-le el educa ion. This aligns wi h he expec a ion ha highe educa ion
le els a e o en associa ed wi h highe income le els and po en ially mo e a luen
li es yles, which can lead o inc eased consump ion and ene gy usage. When
ca ego izing educa ion in o wo elemen a y and high schools and abo e, a
s a is ically signi ican di e ence is obse ed (P ob > |z| = 0.0018***, Table 11).
Simila ly, employed indi iduals end o ha e highe mean emissions compa ed o
unemployed indi iduals, e lec ing he in luence o economic ac i i y and li es yle
choices on ca bon emissions. The di e ence be ween g oups is s a is ically
signi ican (P ob > |z| = 0.0129**, Table 11).
Las ly, he e is signi ican di e ence in ca bon emissions be ween income
g oups (1 & 2) (P ob > |z| = 0.0000***, Table 11). Income G oup 1 shows a highe
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
68
o al sum o emissions (69.04643), while Income G oup 2 exhibi s a highe mean
emission a e (0.3329922). This sugges s ha al hough Income G oup 1 emi s mo e
in o al, indi iduals in Income G oup 2 emi mo e pe capi a on a e age. The da a
aligns wi h he EKC hypo hesis, sugges ing ha as incomes ise, a e age emissions
pe capi a ini ially inc ease due o inc eased consump ion be o e po en ially
declining wi h u he economic de elopmen and en i onmen al policy
implemen a ion.
Table 10. Tes o di e ences: one-way ANOVA.
Va iables
F
P ob > F
Is he e a s a is ically signi ican di e ence in
CO2 emissions be ween g oup means?
P o ince
2.81
0.0165**
YES
Loca ion Ecological Se ing
1.20
0.3011
NO
Sou ce: Au ho ’s Es ima ion using S a a 14.
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Table 11. Tes o di e ences: Rank-Sum (Mann-Whi ney U) es .
Va iables
Z
P ob > |Z|
Is he e a s a is ically signi ican
di e ence in CO2 emissions
be ween g oups?
Communi y Type
-2.0010
0.0454
**
YES
Ci il S a us
-1.5160
0.1296
NO
Family Type
-3.1100
0.0019
***
YES
Sex
1.6050
0.1085
NO
Educa ion
-3.1190
0.0018
***
YES
Employmen S a us
-2.4860
0.0129
**
YES
Income G oup
-4.4660
0.0000
***
YES
Religion
0.2460
0.8059
NO
Sou ce: Au ho ’s Es ima ion using S a a 14.
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Exis ence o he En i onmen al Kuzne s Cu e
To examine he exis ence o EKC, le 's begin by isualizing he da a. Fi s ,
le 's analyze he da a in e ms o income and ca bon emissions pe capi a.
Examining dis inc income g oups can help alida e he EKC hypo hesis by
e ealing how en i onmen al impac s a y a di e en s ages o economic
de elopmen . Income g oups we e de ined based on me hods om he Philippine
Ins i u e o De elopmen S udies (2022), Consequen ly, h ee income g oups
we e iden i ied. Households ea ning below po e y h eshold (PHP 13,797) a e
Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 8(1), 2024
69
ca ego ized as poo o low-income. Middle-income households a e de ined as
hose ea ning be ween wo o wel e imes he po e y h eshold, i.e., be ween
₱27,594 and ₱165,564 pe mon h. High-income households a e hose ea ning abo e
PHP 165,564. No ably, no high-income households we e p esen in he sample.
The lowes -income g oup exhibi s lowe mean pe capi a emissions a 0.04 CO2
compa ed o 0.07 CO2 o he middle-income g oup (Table 12). The sca e plo ’s
i ed cu e shows a pa e n consis en wi h he ini ial s ages o he EKC
hypo hesis, indica ing ha pe capi a ca bon emissions end o inc ease wi h
income.
Table 12. Summa y o Income Pe Capi a and Ca bon Emission Pe Capi a
by Income G oup
Table 12. Summa y o income pe capi a and ca bon emission pe capi a by income g oup.
Income g oup
F equency
Income pe capi a
CO2 emissions pe capi a
1
351
1695.952
0.0433467
2
34
9380.673
0.0674329
3
0
-
-
Howe e , due o he absence o households in he high-income g oup in
ou sample, he sca e plo does no cap u e emissions dynamics a highe income
le els. Thus, based solely on he sca e plo , we canno con iden ly de e mine
whe he he la e phase o he EKC, whe e emissions decline a e a ce ain poin
as income con inues o g ow, exis s. The e o e, u he da a including highe
income g oups is necessa y o conclusi ely con i m his pa e n.
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
70
Figu e 3. The en i onmen Kuzne cu e.
The isualiza ion o EKC using agg ega e da a did no ully con i m he
pa e n, p omp ing u he in es iga ion. The e o e, disagg ega ion by
communi y ype and educa ion le el was pe o med o assess whe he EKC
ends become mo e e iden o eliable. As can be obse ed in he sca e plo s
(Figu e 6-7), bo h exhibi a simila pa e n o he o e all isualiza ion o ca bon
emissions, e en wi hou disagg ega ion.
Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 8(1), 2024
71
Figu e 4. EKC by communi y ype.
Figu e 5. EKC by educa ion le el.
Reg ession Analysis
To u he explo e he EKC, eg ession analysis was conduc ed ac oss
h ee model i e a ions. Model 1 es ablished a baseline ela ionship be ween
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
72
log_INC, log_INCSQ, and he dependen a iable log_CO2 wi hou conside ing
addi ional ac o s. Howe e , nei he log_INC no log_INCSQ we e s a is ically
signi ican in Model 1, sugges ing hei impac on explaining a ia ion in he
dependen a iable is limi ed wi hou accoun ing o o he ac o s. Al hough
income a iables a e no signi ican in his model, he esul s ill aligns wi h he
EKC hypo hesis, as he e is a posi i e coe icien o he log_INC and a nega i e
coe icien o he log_INCSQ.
Model 2 ex ended he analysis by including addi ional explana o y
a iables. He e, bo h log_INC and log_INCSQ became signi ican , indica ing hei
e ec s a e de ec able when con olling o hese addi ional ac o s. Resul s o
Model 2 wi h signi ican posi i e coe icien o log_INC and nega i e coe icien
o log_INCSQ sugges he exis ence o he En i onmen al Kuzne s Cu e (EKC)
a he household le el depic ing an in e se U-shaped yped o ela ion wi h ca bon
emissions. This sugges s ha an inc ease in household income is associa ed wi h a
educ ion in emissions in he long un. Addi ionally, a iables such as CT (u ban
li ing), KWH (elec ici y consump ion), FUELS ( uel consump ion), and PT
(public anspo a ion) we e ound o be s a is ically signi ican .
The same is ue in Model 3 wi h p o ince speci ic ixed e ec s o con ol
o unobse ed he e ogenei y ac oss 6 p o inces, showing ha he same a iables
emain signi ican , indica ing a eliable ela ionship. Despi e mino a ia ions in
coe icien s due o he ixed e ec s abso bing some o he a ia ions ha would
o he wise be explained by he independen a iables, he signi ican esul s o
log_INC and log_INCSQ pe sis ed. This consis ency ac oss models p o ides
obus e idence o he p esence o EKC. Resul s sugges s ha as households in
Region 8 become mo e a luen he ca bon emission is expec ed o educe. This
implies ha households a e ge ing iche hei choices a e becoming mo e
en i onmen iendly as e lec ed in he educ ion in emission.
O e all, he model explains a subs an ial po ion o he a ia ion in ca bon
emissions (R-squa ed = 0.74) and con ols o p o ince-speci ic ac o s, ensu ing
ha he ela ionships a e obus and no d i en by unobse ed he e ogenei y
ac oss p o inces.
Table 13. Reg ession models.
Dependen a iable: LOG_CO2
Independen a iables
Model 1 (Baseline)
Model 2 (Pooled
OLS)
Model 3 (Fixed
e ec s - P o ince)
log_INC
0.715
0.835
***
0.836
***
Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 8(1), 2024
73
(0.562)
(0.319)
(0.321)
log_INCSQ
-0.0234
-0.0425
**
-0.0423
**
(0.0313)
(0.0178)
(0.0179)
FT
0.0673
0.0739
(0.0447)
(0.0451)
CT
0.136
***
0.138
***
(0.0404)
(0.041)
EDUC
0.0377
0.0296
(0.0518)
(0.0524)
CCA
0.0401
0.034
(0.0652)
(0.0661)
KWH
0.00472
***
0.00467
***
(0.00044)
(0.00044)
FUELS
0.017
***
0.0172
***
(0.00069)
(0.00072)
WG
-0.00043
-0.00043
(0.00116)
(0.00116)
PT
0.001
***
0.00101
***
(0.00012)
(0.00012)
Cons an
-6.278
**
-6.794
***
-6.81
***
(2.504)
(1.433)
(1.441)
Obse a ions
372
372
372
R-squa ed
0.143
0.744
0.744
No. o p o inces
6
Sou ce: Au ho ’s Es ima ion using S a a 14.
No e: S anda d e o s a e in pa en heses. O he alues ep esen coe icien s.
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
In e p e a ion o he Key Reg ession Coe icien s
A 1% inc ease in income is associa ed wi h an app oxima e 0.836%
inc ease in o al ca bon emissions, holding o he ac o s cons an . The high
signi icance le el (p < 0.01) indica es a s ong posi i e ela ionship be ween income
and ca bon emissions. The nega i e coe icien o he squa ed e m o log income
sugges s a diminishing ma ginal e ec o income on ca bon emissions. Simply pu ,
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
74
he a e o inc ease in ca bon emissions diminishes as income inc eases. This
coe icien is signi ican a he 0.05 le el (p < 0.05).
Li ing in an u ban communi y (CT) is associa ed wi h a 0.138% inc ease in o al
ca bon emissions, holding o he ac o s cons an . This a iable is highly signi ican
(p < 0.01), indica ing a s ong posi i e associa ion be ween u ban and ca bon
emissions.
Fo each addi ional uni o elec ici y consump ion (KWH), o al ca bon
emissions inc ease by app oxima ely 0.467%, holding o he ac o s cons an . This
ela ionship is highly signi ican (p < 0.01), showing a posi i e impac o elec ici y
consump ion on ca bon emissions.
Each addi ional li e o uel consump ion is associa ed wi h a 1.72% inc ease in
o al ca bon emissions, holding o he ac o s cons an . This a iable is highly
signi ican (p < 0.01), indica ing a posi i e ela ionship be ween uel consump ion
and ca bon emissions.
Each addi ional kilome e a eled using public anspo a ion is
associa ed wi h a 0.101% inc ease in o al ca bon emissions, holding o he ac o s
cons an . This ela ionship is highly signi ican (p < 0.01), sugges ing a posi i e
impac o public anspo a ion usage on ca bon emissions.
The cons an e m o -6.81 ep esen s he baseline le el o emissions when all he
independen a iables a e minimal o ze o. The coe icien is highly signi ican (p
< 0.01), which means ha his in e cep e m is s a is ically signi ican . The
nega i e cons an e m does no di ec ly indica e a dec ease in emissions. Ins ead,
i indica es a e y low le el o emissions when he log- ans o med alue is back-
ans o med (exponen ia ed). Fo example, 𝑒-6.81 ≈ 0.00109. I ep esen s a e y
small posi i e numbe , indica ing e y low baseline emissions.
The Po en ial o Ne Ze o Emission Among Households
In he o e all assessmen , he calcula ed o al emissions amoun o 80.37
CO2/mon h o 964.42 CO2 annually. No malizing hese emissions by household,
he a e age emissions pe household is abou 0.21 CO2 pe mon h o 2.51 CO2
annually. Simila ly, when no malized by capi a, he a e age emissions pe capi a
s ood a 0.04 CO2 pe mon h o 0.50 CO2 annually.
Table 14. To al annual and mon hly emissions.
Mon hly es ima es
Annual es ima es
Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 8(1), 2024
75
kgCO2
CO2
kgCO2
CO2
To al CO2
80,368.1670
80.3682
96,4418.0036
964.4180
CO2 pe HH
208.7485
0.2087
2,504.9818
2.5050
CO2 pe Capi a
40.16400148
0.0417
481.9680
0.5010
Acco ding o he In e na ional Ene gy Agency (2023), he global CO2
emissions pe capi a in 2021 we e 4.3 CO2, and o he Philippines, i was 1.2
CO2. Meanwhile, a s udy on communi y-le el ca bon emission quan i ica ion
ound ha an indi idual emi s 685.26 kgCO2 pe yea (GC AAB FPH 2024). These
igu es a e highe han he es ima ed CO2 pe capi a emission in his s udy a
481.97 kgCO2 o 0.5 CO2 annually which possibly e lec s localized ac o s.
Eas e n Visayas, has a lowe popula ion densi y and is jus a subse o he
Philippine popula ion. Fu he mo e, ou es ima es ocus solely on household
consump ion and p ac ices, excluding indus ial o comme cial ac i i ies ha
con ibu e o highe pe capi a emissions. This esul s in emissions ha a e
signi ican ly lowe compa ed o communi y-le el, b oade na ional, o global
a e ages.
To iden i y he po en ial o ne ze o emissions among households, an
analysis o CO2 seques a ion was conduc ed h ough he ee plan ing ini ia i es
ha he households pa icipa ed in o e he pas 5 yea s. A o al o 2,877 ees we e
plan ed, wi h each ee seques e ing app oxima ely 0.06 CO2, esul ing in he
seques a ion o 172.62 CO2. Taking in o conside a ion ha no all plan ed ees
g ew o su i ed, based on he Depa men o En i onmen and Na u al
Resou ces epo , which indica ed a 78% su i al a e o ees plan ed unde he
NGP om 2011 o 2016 (PIDS 2023) we can es ima e he e ec i e CO2
seques a ion. Ou o 2,877 ees, we assume ha only 78%, o 2,244 ees g ew,
and seques e ed CO2 a he same a e o 0.06 CO2 pe ee. The e o e, he e ec i e
CO2 seques a ion was educed o 134.64 CO2.
Table 15. Ca bon seques a ion.
Seques a ion ac i i y
No. o ees plan ed
CO2 seques e ed/ ee
To al CO2 seques e ed
T ee Plan ing
2,877
0.06
172.6200
T ee Plan ing
2,244
0.06
134.6436
Gi en hese es ima es, he i e-yea ee plan ing e o o se sligh ly
mo e han a mon h's wo h o he egion's o al ca bon emissions. While ee
plan ing could ha e a g ea e impac on ca bon seques a ion, he cu en e o s
Ndlo u: The Impac o P ope y Righ s on Fo eign Di ec In es men
76
by households a e no enough o o se he scale o emissions hey p oduce.
Howe e , he es ima ion o ca bon o se s abo e could be unde es ima ed. The e
a e se e al domes ic ac i i ies such as pa icipa ion in en i onmen al
conse a ion/ es o a ion, ga dening, was e educ ion, e c., which we e
documen ed bu un o una ely no quan i ied in his s udy. These ac i i ies also
con ibu e o educing he ca bon oo p in and could esul in addi ional o se s
no accoun ed o in he cu en es ima es.
To e ec i ely o se he egion's mon hly ca bon emission, he 385
esponden s al oge he mus plan a leas 20,607 ees e e y yea . This ansla es
o each household needing o plan a leas 54 ees, o a leas 11 ees pe pe son
each mon h (Table 17). The s udy’s es ima es a e lowe han hose om he GHG
Emissions In en o y 2023-2024 o Ba angay Cogon in O moc Ci y conduc ed
unde he Ako Ang Bukas (AAB) P og am o G een Con e gence, which
de e mined ha a o al o 28,126 ees a e needed o o se ca bon emissions om
287 households, equa ing o abou 98 ees pe household.
Table 16. Requi ed numbe o ees o plan ing o o se ca bon emissions.
To al emission
(pe egion, household, and pe
capi a)
Numbe o ees equi ed o plan ing
(E ec i e Seques a ion Ra e: 78% su i al a e x 6%
seques a ion a e = 4.68%)
Mon hly
Annual
To al CO2
1,717
20,607
CO2 pe HH
4
54
CO2 pe Capi a
1
11
Pe cep ions o Households on Na u e-Based Solu ions
The da a highligh s signi ican awa eness gaps and a ying le els o
engagemen in sus ainable p ac ices among households in he egion. While
87.79% a e awa e o clima e change, only 32.73% a e amilia wi h Na u e-Based
Solu ions (NBS), indica ing a need o a ge ed educa ion on sus ainable p ac ices.
Fu he mo e, 80.52% ecognize CO2 emissions as a con ibu ing ac o , and 63.12%
o households acknowledge ha hei ac i i ies con ibu e o CO2 emissions.
T anspo a ion is pe cei ed as he la ges con ibu o o CO2 emissions, ollowed
by ki chen ac i i ies and was e managemen .
Re iew o Socio-Economic Resea ch and De elopmen S udies 8(1), 2024
83
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