Ci a ion: Reynoso, E.C.; S agano, P.S.;
González-Pe ea, M.; Palche i, I.;
To es, E. Ap asenso s o he
De ec ion o En i onmen al
Con aminan s o High Conce n in
Wa e Bodies: A Sys ema ic Re iew.
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/chemosenso s12040059
Recei ed: 8 Feb ua y 2024
Re ised: 29 Ma ch 2024
Accep ed: 6 Ap il 2024
Published: 9 Ap il 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
chemosenso s
Re iew
Ap asenso s o he De ec ion o En i onmen al Con aminan s o
High Conce n in Wa e Bodies: A Sys ema ic Re iew
Edua do Canek Reynoso 1, Pa ick Se e in S agano 2, Ma io González-Pe ea 3, Ila ia Palche i 2
and Edua do To es 4,*
1
Cen o de In es igación en Salud Poblacional, Ins i u o Nacional de Salud Pública, Cue na aca 62100, Mexico;
edua do. [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Chemis y “Ugo Schi ”, Uni e si y o Flo ence, 50019 Ses o Fio en ino, I aly;
[email p o ec ed] (P.S.S.); [email p o ec ed] (I.P.)
3Facul ad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemé i a Uni e sidad Au ónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72570, Mexico;
[email p o ec ed]
4Cen o de Química, Ins i u o de Ciencias, Benemé i a Uni e sidad Au ónoma de Puebla,
Puebla 72570, Mexico
*Co espondence: edua do. o es@co eo.buap.mx
Abs ac : Wi h he ad ancemen o echnology and inc easing indus ial ac i i y, an h opogenic
con aminan s a e cu en ly de ec ed whe e he e is no eco d o hei p esence o insu icien in-
o ma ion abou hei oxicological impac . Consequen ly, he e a e no su icien ly obus local o
global egula ions, he eco oxicological and human heal h isks a e c i ical, and hey may no be
ou inely moni o ed despi e being ubiqui ous. The in e es in s udying en i onmen al con aminan s,
including mic opollu an s and eme ging con aminan s, in complex en i onmen al wa e samples
has g own in he las decade. Due o he concen a ions in which hey a e ypically ound in he
en i onmen and he apid global dispe sion, he de ec ion p ocedu es o hese subs ances mus be
capable o measu ing e y low concen a ions. Many e o s ha e been made o imp o e emedia ion
p ocedu es o de elop no el analy ical me hods o hei de e mina ion. Al hough he e a e se e al
obus and eliable s anda d analy ical echniques o hei moni o ing, pollu an con amina ion
equi es simple and inexpensi e me hods o massi e, in si u moni o ing campaigns. In his ega d,
biosenso s ha e eme ged as de ices wi h high selec i i y, sensi i i y, easy ope a ion, and sho analy-
sis imes. Ap asenso s a e biosenso s based on a nucleic acid ecogni ion elemen (ap ame ). Due o
hei syn he ic na u e, s abili y, and easy p oduc ion, ap ame s a e equen ly employed o de elop
bioassays. This wo k p esen s a sys ema ic e iew o he ends in using ap asenso s o de ec ing
en i onmen al con aminan s p esen in en i onmen al wa e samples, as well as he es ima ion o he
po en ial echnological con ibu ion hese de ices migh gi e o en i onmen al moni o ing.
Keywo ds: ap asenso s; pollu an s; eme ging con aminan s; nanoma e ials; wa e con amina ion
1. Global P oblem o Con aminan s in Wa e
The g owing equi emen s o consume s o new p oduc s o e e yday use ha e
gene a ed he appea ance o many con aminan s in he en i onmen , mainly in aqui e
sys ems. These subs ances, known as eme ging con aminan s (ECs), a e ound in ace
concen a ions in wa e bodies. ECs a e cu en ly o high en i onmen al in e es because
hey a e ecalci an compounds, ubiqui ous h oughou he ecosys ems and, in many cases,
ha e unknown oxicological e ec s [1,2].
The sou ces o en i onmen al con aminan s a e mainly due o indus ial p ac ices o
an h opogenic ac i i ies [
2
,
3
]. As shown in Figu e 1, se e al con aminan s a e ans e ed
by di e en ou es o wa e sys ems. Was ewa e ea men plan s (WWTPs) cons i u e
one o he main ac o s o he sp ead o con aminan s. When con aminan deg ada ion
o emo al p ocesses a e no app op ia e, hese subs ances a e eleased in o wa e bodies
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/chemosenso s12040059 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/chemosenso s
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 2 o 25
in high amoun s due o an en ichmen and accumula ion e ec [
3
–
6
]. A e elease om
WWTPs o wa e sys ems, con aminan s can bioaccumula e in aqua ic species [
7
–
9
] and be
anspo ed o di e en wa e bodies (g oundwa e , i e wa e , lakes) whe e isk exis s o
each wa e o human consump ion ( ap wa e , bo led wa e ) [2,10–13].
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 o 27
s i u e one o he main ac o s o he sp ead o con aminan s. When con aminan deg a-
da ion o emo al p ocesses a e no app op ia e, hese subs ances a e eleased in o wa-
e bodies in high amoun s due o an en ichmen and accumula ion e ec [3–6]. A e e-
lease om WWTPs o wa e sys ems, con aminan s can bioaccumula e in aqua ic species
[7–9] and be anspo ed o di e en wa e bodies (g oundwa e , i e wa e , lakes)
whe e isk exis s o each wa e o human consump ion ( ap wa e , bo led wa e )
[2,10–13].
Figu e 1. (1) En i onmen al con aminan s om a syn he ic o igin a e p oduced by di e en kinds
o indus ial ac i i ies o se e al applica ions. (2) Indus ial, u ban, and u al ac i i ies elease
con aminan s in was e land ills and liquid discha ge lines (3 and 4). These liquid was e dumps
mus be ea ed (5) be o e being eleased in o na u al wa e bodies (7). Howe e , in a ious e-
gions o he wo ld, hey a e disposed o di ec ly wi hou p io ea men (6). E en when ea ed, in
mos cases i is no possible o elimina e o deg ade con aminan s. Thus, hey will be hen eleased
in o na u al wa e s and e en ually used o (8) indus ial, u ban, and u al ac i i ies.
Rega ding he isks o he ecosys ems and human heal h due o he p esence o
en i onmen al con aminan s in he hyd ic sys em, he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
(WHO) and he go e nmen s o di e en egions ha e es ablished minimum concen a-
ion le els o some o hese subs ances in wa e [14–18]. The concen a ions allowed in
wa e bodies, depending on he ype o compound, a e, gene ally, in he o de o pico-
o mic o-mola in hea y me als [18–20], pes icides (insec icides, ungicides, he bicides)
[21–23], pha maceu ical subs ances (an i-in lamma o ies, analgesics, an ibio ics, ho -
mones, diu e ics, anxioly ics) [24–26], plas icize s and mic o- and nano-plas ics [27,28].
T adi ional me hods o hei moni o ing a e based on ch oma og aphy coupled o
mass spec ome y (GC-MS and LC-MS) and di ec de ec ion me hods based on lumi-
nescence (abso p ion and luo escence). GC-MS and LC-MS a e equen ly based on
complex analy ical p ocedu es, equi ing well- ained pe sonnel and labo ious sample
ea men s wi h associa ed high cos s and low h oughpu . These echniques a e un-
doub edly sui able as a con i ma o y me hod. By con as , he de elopmen o sc eening
analy ical me hods o be pe o med di ec ly in he ield is manda o y o moni o ing
p og ams. Sc eening me hods allow he use o con i ma o y me hods only on posi i e
indings, hus dec easing he numbe o samples o be analyzed and educing he cos o
he whole analysis. In his con ex , me hods based on biosenso s [29] a e o pa icula in-
e es . Indeed, any sc eening me hod mus mee he A o dable, Sensi i e, Speci ic, Use -
iendly, Rapid and Robus , Equipmen - ee, and Deli e able o End-use s (ASSURED)
Figu e 1. (1) En i onmen al con aminan s om a syn he ic o igin a e p oduced by di e en kinds
o indus ial ac i i ies o se e al applica ions. (2) Indus ial, u ban, and u al ac i i ies elease
con aminan s in was e land ills and liquid discha ge lines (3 and 4). These liquid was e dumps mus
be ea ed (5) be o e being eleased in o na u al wa e bodies (7). Howe e , in a ious egions o he
wo ld, hey a e disposed o di ec ly wi hou p io ea men (6). E en when ea ed, in mos cases i
is no possible o elimina e o deg ade con aminan s. Thus, hey will be hen eleased in o na u al
wa e s and e en ually used o (8) indus ial, u ban, and u al ac i i ies.
Rega ding he isks o he ecosys ems and human heal h due o he p esence o
en i onmen al con aminan s in he hyd ic sys em, he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO)
and he go e nmen s o di e en egions ha e es ablished minimum concen a ion le els
o some o hese subs ances in wa e [
14
–
18
]. The concen a ions allowed in wa e bodies,
depending on he ype o compound, a e, gene ally, in he o de o pico- o mic o-mola
in hea y me als [
18
–
20
], pes icides (insec icides, ungicides, he bicides) [
21
–
23
], pha -
maceu ical subs ances (an i-in lamma o ies, analgesics, an ibio ics, ho mones, diu e ics,
anxioly ics) [24–26], plas icize s and mic o- and nano-plas ics [27,28].
T adi ional me hods o hei moni o ing a e based on ch oma og aphy coupled o
mass spec ome y (GC-MS and LC-MS) and di ec de ec ion me hods based on lumines-
cence (abso p ion and luo escence). GC-MS and LC-MS a e equen ly based on complex
analy ical p ocedu es, equi ing well- ained pe sonnel and labo ious sample ea men s
wi h associa ed high cos s and low h oughpu . These echniques a e undoub edly sui able
as a con i ma o y me hod. By con as , he de elopmen o sc eening analy ical me hods
o be pe o med di ec ly in he ield is manda o y o moni o ing p og ams. Sc eening
me hods allow he use o con i ma o y me hods only on posi i e indings, hus dec eas-
ing he numbe o samples o be analyzed and educing he cos o he whole analysis.
In his con ex , me hods based on biosenso s [
29
] a e o pa icula in e es . Indeed, any
sc eening me hod mus mee he A o dable, Sensi i e, Speci ic, Use - iendly, Rapid and
Robus , Equipmen - ee, and Deli e able o End-use s (ASSURED) c i e ia es ablished by
he WHO [
18
,
30
]. Recen ly, ap asenso s ha e eme ged as in e es ing ools in he de ec ion
o en i onmen al con aminan s due o hei high selec i i y in binding o he a ge and
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 3 o 25
hei syn he ic na u e, compa ed o o he bio ecogni ion elemen s, such as an ibodies o
enzymes [31–33].
Ap ame s a e single-s anded oligonucleo ides wi h high-a ini y binding o a gi en
a ge analy e, p oduced by
in i o
selec ion. They old in o complex h ee-dimensional
s uc u es upon associa ion wi h hei a ge , p o iding mul iple molecula in e ac ions
o di e en ypes (elec os a ic, hyd ogen bonding, e c.) ha go e n selec i e ecogni ion.
Ap ame s a e p oduced by chemical syn hesis, a oiding biological aw ma e ials, o li ing
animals. Ap ame s a e selec ed by a uni e sal app oach ha does no depend on a pa icu-
la analy e wi h he possibili y o use oxins as well as molecules ha do no elici a good
immune esponse [34–36].
Mo eo e , ap ame s ha e o he in e es ing ea u es such as high he mal s abili y
and he oppo uni ies o u he chemical modi ica ions ha p o ide he immobiliza ion
o ap ame s on o solid suppo wi h mild al e a ion o selec i i y. Due o hese ea u es,
ap ame s a e equen ly used in biosenso assembly and a e equen ly combined wi h a
wide a ie y o nanoma e ials, imp o ing he sensing pe o mance [35,37–40].
Conside ing he abo e-men ioned ad an ages, his wo k aims o sys ema ically e-
iew he use o ap asenso s o de ec ing en i onmen al con aminan s in wa e bodies o
e alua e he cu en end, sensi i i y p ojec ions, assembly ma e ials, and he abili y o
euse he de ices. Al hough he e has been a no iceable inc ease in he numbe o e iew
pape s ela ed o ap asenso s o de ec ing con aminan s in en i onmen al wa e samples
in he las i e yea s (see Figu e 2), he as majo i y a e ocused on desc ibing only he
o iginal esea ch on he de elopmen and unc ionali y o ap ame s, in a speci ic ype o
ansduce (op ical o elec ochemical) [
38
,
41
–
48
], he e ec i eness o ce ain ma e ials
(me allic nanopa icles, me al–o ganic amewo k, quan um do s, single- and mul i-walled
ca bon nano ubes) [
49
–
52
], o ype o con aminan s (hea y me als, pha maceu ical com-
pounds, pes icides, endoc ine dis up o s) [
53
–
62
]. Ne e heless, a sys ema ic analysis ha
includes hese aspec s, emphasizing he analysis o wa e samples o en i onmen al o igin
o ha had unde gone pu i ica ion ea men , has no ye been published.
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 27
c i e ia es ablished by he WHO [18,30]. Recen ly, ap asenso s ha e eme ged as in e es -
ing ools in he de ec ion o en i onmen al con aminan s due o hei high selec i i y in
binding o he a ge and hei syn he ic na u e, compa ed o o he bio ecogni ion ele-
men s, such as an ibodies o enzymes [31–33].
Ap ame s a e single-s anded oligonucleo ides wi h high-a ini y binding o a gi en
a ge analy e, p oduced by in i o selec ion. They old in o complex h ee-dimensional
s uc u es upon associa ion wi h hei a ge , p o iding mul iple molecula in e ac ions
o di e en ypes (elec os a ic, hyd ogen bonding, e c.) ha go e n selec i e ecogni-
ion. Ap ame s a e p oduced by chemical syn hesis, a oiding biological aw ma e ials,
o li ing animals. Ap ame s a e selec ed by a uni e sal app oach ha does no depend
on a pa icula analy e wi h he possibili y o use oxins as well as molecules ha do no
elici a good immune esponse [34–36].
Mo eo e , ap ame s ha e o he in e es ing ea u es such as high he mal s abili y
and he oppo uni ies o u he chemical modi ica ions ha p o ide he immobiliza-
ion o ap ame s on o solid suppo wi h mild al e a ion o selec i i y. Due o hese ea-
u es, ap ame s a e equen ly used in biosenso assembly and a e equen ly combined
wi h a wide a ie y o nanoma e ials, imp o ing he sensing pe o mance [35,37–40].
Conside ing he abo e-men ioned ad an ages, his wo k aims o sys ema ically e-
iew he use o ap asenso s o de ec ing en i onmen al con aminan s in wa e bodies o
e alua e he cu en end, sensi i i y p ojec ions, assembly ma e ials, and he abili y o
euse he de ices. Al hough he e has been a no iceable inc ease in he numbe o e iew
pape s ela ed o ap asenso s o de ec ing con aminan s in en i onmen al wa e sam-
ples in he las i e yea s (see Figu e 2), he as majo i y a e ocused on desc ibing only
he o iginal esea ch on he de elopmen and unc ionali y o ap ame s, in a speci ic
ype o ansduce (op ical o elec ochemical) [38,41–48], he e ec i eness o ce ain ma-
e ials (me allic nanopa icles, me al–o ganic amewo k, quan um do s, single- and
mul i-walled ca bon nano ubes) [49–52], o ype o con aminan s (hea y me als, pha -
maceu ical compounds, pes icides, endoc ine dis up o s) [53–62]. Ne e heless, a sys-
ema ic analysis ha includes hese aspec s, emphasizing he analysis o wa e samples
o en i onmen al o igin o ha had unde gone pu i ica ion ea men , has no ye been
published.
Figu e 2. His o y o he numbe o e iew pape s on he de ec ion o con aminan s in en i onmen-
al wa e samples using ap asenso s. Da a ex ac ed om Scopus on 20 Ma ch 2024.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
This e iew ollowed he p e e ed epo ing i ems o he sys ema ic e iew and
me a-analysis s a emen (PRISMA). The li e a u e sea ch ocused on epo s published
Figu e 2. His o y o he numbe o e iew pape s on he de ec ion o con aminan s in en i onmen al
wa e samples using ap asenso s. Da a ex ac ed om Scopus on 20 Ma ch 2024.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
This e iew ollowed he p e e ed epo ing i ems o he sys ema ic e iew and
me a-analysis s a emen (PRISMA). The li e a u e sea ch ocused on epo s published
in pee - e iewed jou nals indexed in Web o Science and Scopus da abases and a ailable
in English.
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 4 o 25
The sea ch o s udies conce ning ap asenso s was pe o med by e alua ing keywo ds,
i les, and abs ac s. S udies ha did no assess he applicabili y o ap asenso s in de ec ing
con aminan s in en i onmen al wa e ( i e , lake, g oundwa e , was ewa e ) we e excluded.
Only a icles published om he pas i e yea s we e conside ed (2019–2023).
Focus ques ions we e p epa ed based on he p oblem, in e en ion, compa ison, and
ou come (PICO) me hod: (P) wha wa e con aminan s a e usually de ec ed using ap-
asenso s? (I) Wha con igu a ions a e equen ly applied o ap asenso s elabo a ion o
con aminan de ec ion? (C) A e ap asenso s sensi i e enough o en i onmen al con ami-
nan de ec ion a ul a-low concen a ions in complex en i onmen al wa e samples? (O)
Wha ap asenso exhibi s he highe pe o mance s abili y o analyzing eal wa e samples?
The sea ch was pe o med using he ollowing componen s o e e y da abase:
Sea ch componen 1 (SC1), including he key e ms: Ap asenso OR Ap ame AND
Wa e ; Sea ch componen 2 (SC2), including he key e ms: Ap asenso OR Ap ame AND
wa e OR was ewa e OR g oundwa e OR i e OR Sewage OR En i onmen .
The ollowing da a we e ex ac ed and cap u ed in an Excel sp eadshee ea u ing
he ollowing in o ma ion: a icle i le, yea , analy e, analy e classi ica ion, ansduce
ype, de ec ion p inciple, sensi i i y, wa e sample ype, es on eal samples, ap asenso
selec i i y/speci ici y, ep oducibili y/ epea abili y, s abili y, and eusabili y. Table 1shows
he concep and desc ip ion o he da a sea ched.
Table 1. Desc ip ion o he p ima y da a sough in he sys ema ic e iew.
Concep Desc ip ion
Analy e Name o en i onmen al con aminan .
Analy e classi ica ion
The en i onmen al con aminan s we e classi ied acco ding
o hei chemical amily: me als, pes icides, oxins,
indus ial chemicals, and pha maceu ical compounds.
T ansduce ype
Elec ochemical, op ical,
pho oelec ochemical/elec oluminescence
(op o-elec ochemical) ansduce s.
Sensi i i y
Sensi i i y acco ding o he LOD 1using he ollowing
anges as a basis: low (LOD > 0.1 mg/L), medium
(0.1 mg/L > LOD ≥1µg/L), high (1 µg/L > LOD >
0.1 ng/L), and ul a-high (LOD < 0.1 ng/L).
Wa e sample ype Wa e used om a complex ma ix: i e wa e , lake wa e ,
was ewa e , o seawa e .
Tes on eal sample
Re e s o whe he he a ge analy es we e ound in eal
wa e samples, o he compounds we e spiked o he
wa e samples.
Selec i i y/speci ici y
P esence o in e e en s in he complex ma ix and whe he
he assay was pe o med: (1) wi h he a ge in he p esence
o he in e e en s in he same sample (mixed wi h
in e e en s); (2) whe he he a ge and in e e en s we e
analyzed sepa a ely (indi idual); (3) i he a ge was
analyzed wi h one o he in e e en s (indi idual in e e en s
wi h he a ge ); and 4) i his es was no epo ed (NR).
Rep oducibili y/ epea abili y Repo ed RSD 2.
S abili y To e alua e he beha io o he ap asenso o e ime.
Reusabili y De e mines i he same de ice can be used in
di e en pe iods.
1Limi o de ec ion; 2 ela i e s anda d de ia ion.
This e iew conside ed only o iginal esea ch a icles in English di ec ly ela ed o
de ec ing o quan i ying wa e en i onmen al con aminan s using ap ame s as ecognizing
elemen s. The exclusion c i e ia o ull- ex a icles we e a icles w i en in a language di -
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 5 o 25
e en om English, ap asenso s applied o he de ec ion o o he chemicals no conside ed
en i onmen al con aminan s, abs ac -only pape s as p oceeding pape s, and con e ence,
edi o ial, and au ho esponse heses and books. Finally, ap asenso applica ions in model
wa e samples (dis illed, bu e , o syn he ic en i onmen al wa e samples) o uncomplex
wa e samples, such as hose om d inking o ap wa e , we e excluded as hey we e no
use ul o answe he esea ch ques ions.
3. Resul s and Discussion
A o al o 250 s udies we e ound in he Scopus da abase and 286 in he Web o Science
da abase, o aling 536 om 2019 un il 2023. A e duplica e exclusions, 151 s udies ha me
he inclusion c i e ia emained. In addi ion, 42 e iews on ap asenso s o con aminan s
applica ion we e iden i ied in he same sea ch pe iod; o hese, 13 e iews ela ed o he
de ec ion o wa e con aminan s we e selec ed o iden i y some o he o iginal publica ions no
collec ed in he ini ial sea ch. The es o he e iews we e no selec ed because hey ocused
on he de elopmen o ap asenso s o a pa icula con aminan o a amily o hem (a senic,
bisphenol, pes icides, myco oxins, me als, i uses, mic oo ganisms, an ibio ics) in ano he
ype o compa men ( ood, biological luids, o plan s); some o he e iews ocused on he
de ec ion o biomolecules in biological luids, o he diagnosis o diseases (Alzheime , cance ),
molecula moni o ing o me aboli es o d ugs in he body; and o he e iews ocused on he
ansduc ion sys em (elec ochemical, op ical). None o he 42 e iews we e o he sys ema ic
ype bu a he we e o he na a i e ype. In he eligibili y s ep, he es o he 13 e iews
we e excluded and no addi ional pape s e alua ed we e chosen. The consul a ion o he ull
ex s o he a icles o de e mine he inclusion and exclusion c i e ia led o he exclusion o
36 a icles, mainly because he a icles excluded in his s ep applied he ap asenso in simple
wa e samples such as bu e o dis illed wa e and hose applied in ood samples, al hough
he abs ac men ioned ha i could be applied in en i onmen al samples o en i onmen al
moni o ing. In o al, 73 s udies ha ully me he inclusion c i e ia we e subsequen ly analyzed
o answe he esea ch ques ions. The PRISMA low diag am empla e used in his sys ema ic
e iew is shown in Figu e 3. Table S1 o he Suppo ing In o ma ion de ails he 73 s udies
wi h he concep s de eloped in Table 1.
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 27
Figu e 3. Exclusion and inclusion esul s o he sys ema ic e iew in 2019–2023.
3.1. P oduc ion o Ap ame s as Recognizing Elemen s
The ap ame selec ion p ocess, called Sys ema ic Ligand E olu ion by Exponen ial
En ichmen (SELEX), is a echnique de eloped almos simul aneously by Tue k and
Gold [63], and Elling on and Szos ak [64] in he 1990s. The SELEX echnique consis s o
he ollowing s eps: selec ion, pa i ioning, and ampli ica ion (Figu e 4). To ca y ou he
selec ion, i is necessa y o syn hesize a lib a y o app oxima ely 10
13
–10
18
andom oligo-
nucleo ide sequences. Each oligonucleo ide con ains andom bases (20–50 NTs) lanked
by wo conse ed p ime binding si es, which a e used o PCR ampli ica ion. In he se-
lec ion s ep, he oligonucleo ide lib a y is incuba ed wi h a ge molecules, which a e
immobilized on solid phase suppo s; a e incuba ion, he unbound sequences a e sepa-
a ed using di e en me hods. The a ge -bound sequences a e ampli ied by PCR (DNA
SELEX) o e e se ansc ip ion PCR (RNA SELEX); he p oduc s a e used o he nex
selec ion ound, pe o ming he same sequence and a ge molecule in e ac ion p ocess.
A e se e al ounds o selec ion, he en iched oligonucleo ides a e sequenced and e al-
ua ed o hei binding capabili ies [63–66]. Howe e , he e a e some de iciencies o be
o e come; one o hem is s ingency, as SELEX assumes ha he mos en iched sequenc-
es a e he mos speci ic binde s, which is no always he case, and high-a ini y binde s
can some imes be o e looked due o insu icien s ingency in selec ion condi ions. The
p ocess can en ich o non-speci ic binde s ha bind o he ma ix used a he han he
a ge molecule, leading o alse posi i e esul s; in addi ion, minimal mis akes in he ini-
ial lib a y esul in a biased lib a y; ano he es ic ion is he limi ed scale. Mo eo e ,
SELEX can be limi ed in i s abili y o iden i y speci ic binde s o a ge s wi h low bind-
ing speci ici y o o a ge s wi h highly s uc u ed egions [37,67–71]. O e ime, di e -
en modi ied SELEX p ocedu es ha e been de eloped and con inue o be de eloped o
Figu e 3. Exclusion and inclusion esul s o he sys ema ic e iew in 2019–2023.
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 6 o 25
3.1. P oduc ion o Ap ame s as Recognizing Elemen s
The ap ame selec ion p ocess, called Sys ema ic Ligand E olu ion by Exponen ial En-
ichmen (SELEX), is a echnique de eloped almos simul aneously by Tue k and Gold [
63
],
and Elling on and Szos ak [
64
] in he 1990s. The SELEX echnique consis s o he ollowing
s eps: selec ion, pa i ioning, and ampli ica ion (Figu e 4). To ca y ou he selec ion, i
is necessa y o syn hesize a lib a y o app oxima ely 10
13
–10
18
andom oligonucleo ide
sequences. Each oligonucleo ide con ains andom bases (20–50 NTs) lanked by wo con-
se ed p ime binding si es, which a e used o PCR ampli ica ion. In he selec ion s ep,
he oligonucleo ide lib a y is incuba ed wi h a ge molecules, which a e immobilized
on solid phase suppo s; a e incuba ion, he unbound sequences a e sepa a ed using
di e en me hods. The a ge -bound sequences a e ampli ied by PCR (DNA SELEX) o
e e se ansc ip ion PCR (RNA SELEX); he p oduc s a e used o he nex selec ion ound,
pe o ming he same sequence and a ge molecule in e ac ion p ocess. A e se e al
ounds o selec ion, he en iched oligonucleo ides a e sequenced and e alua ed o hei
binding capabili ies [
63
–
66
]. Howe e , he e a e some de iciencies o be o e come; one
o hem is s ingency, as SELEX assumes ha he mos en iched sequences a e he mos
speci ic binde s, which is no always he case, and high-a ini y binde s can some imes be
o e looked due o insu icien s ingency in selec ion condi ions. The p ocess can en ich o
non-speci ic binde s ha bind o he ma ix used a he han he a ge molecule, leading o
alse posi i e esul s; in addi ion, minimal mis akes in he ini ial lib a y esul in a biased
lib a y; ano he es ic ion is he limi ed scale. Mo eo e , SELEX can be limi ed in i s abili y
o iden i y speci ic binde s o a ge s wi h low binding speci ici y o o a ge s wi h highly
s uc u ed egions [
37
,
67
–
71
]. O e ime, di e en modi ied SELEX p ocedu es ha e been
de eloped and con inue o be de eloped o imp o e he e iciency, speci ici y, o speed
o he selec ion p ocess, including a ia ions in he sepa a ion s age. Some examples a e
shown in Table S2.
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 27
imp o e he e iciency, speci ici y, o speed o he selec ion p ocess, including a ia ions
in he sepa a ion s age. Some examples a e shown in Table S2.
Figu e 4. Gene al scheme o SELEX and i s main applica ions.
3.2. O e iew o Da a Collec ion
As can be seen in Figu e 5 and Table S1, he 73 pape s epo ed he de ec ion o 30
aqueous con aminan s: 5 me als, 6 pes icides, 4 indus ial chemicals, 2 oxins, and 13
pha maceu ical compounds. In pa icula , he s udy o an ibio ics s ands ou due o he
p omo ion o bac e ial esis ance, an issue o global conce n. Di e en en i onmen al
wa e ma ices we e analyzed: municipal and indus ial was ewa e s, lakes, i e s,
ponds, and canal wa e . Howe e , mos o he assays we e pe o med in spiked wa e
samples, allowing o he s udy o he e ec s o na u al in e e en s, bu he concen a-
ions used in hese assays a e usually much highe han he en i onmen al ones. Mos o
he pape s s udied he selec i i y o ap asenso s using chemically simila analy es, add-
ed o he assay indi idually o in a mix u e o in e e en s, in signi ican ly highe con-
cen a ions. Howe e , e y ew add essed he s udy o he eusabili y o he ap asenso ,
a pa ame e o majo impo ance in he en i onmen al a ea, whe e a massi e numbe o
eadou s a e pe o med, which implies a high cos o an adequa e de e mina ion o con-
amina ion in ime and space.
Figu e 4. Gene al scheme o SELEX and i s main applica ions.
3.2. O e iew o Da a Collec ion
As can be seen in Figu e 5and Table S1, he 73 pape s epo ed he de ec ion o
30 aqueous con aminan s: 5 me als, 6 pes icides, 4 indus ial chemicals, 2 oxins, and
13 pha maceu ical compounds. In pa icula , he s udy o an ibio ics s ands ou due o
he p omo ion o bac e ial esis ance, an issue o global conce n. Di e en en i onmen al
wa e ma ices we e analyzed: municipal and indus ial was ewa e s, lakes, i e s, ponds,
and canal wa e . Howe e , mos o he assays we e pe o med in spiked wa e samples,
allowing o he s udy o he e ec s o na u al in e e en s, bu he concen a ions used in
hese assays a e usually much highe han he en i onmen al ones. Mos o he pape s
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 7 o 25
s udied he selec i i y o ap asenso s using chemically simila analy es, added o he
assay indi idually o in a mix u e o in e e en s, in signi ican ly highe concen a ions.
Howe e , e y ew add essed he s udy o he eusabili y o he ap asenso , a pa ame e
o majo impo ance in he en i onmen al a ea, whe e a massi e numbe o eadou s a e
pe o med, which implies a high cos o an adequa e de e mina ion o con amina ion in
ime and space.
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 27
Figu e 5. Applica ions o ap asenso in he en i onmen al ield om 2018 o 2023. The e m op o-
elec ochemical includes pho oelec ochemical and elec oluminescen senso s. The numbe s indi-
ca e he numbe o o al pape s. C ea ed wi h lou ish.s udio.
3.3. Analysis o Ca ego iza ions
3.3.1. En i onmen al Con aminan s
The sys ema ic analysis o he li e a u e on applying ap asenso s in en i onmen al
wa e o e he pas i e yea s shows ha pha maceu icals (PhCs) a e he mos s udied,
wi h 26 pape s and 13 compounds epo ed (Table S1). In ecen yea s, he e has been a
boom in he li e a u e on moni o ing PhCs as eme ging con aminan s [72,73]. An ibio ics
a e undoub edly he mos s udied PhCs, and he e a e se e al easons o his. Fi s , hey
a e he mos widely used d ugs wo ldwide o human, animal, and plan heal h; second,
because o he abo e, hey a e expec ed o be discha ged in o he en i onmen al com-
pa men s by a ious household, hospi al, and indus ial discha ges. Thi dly, hey a e
he cause o bac e ial esis ance, an issue o g ea conce n wo ldwide, whe e he global
ac ion plans agains an imic obial esis ance p omo e he moni o ing o bo h esis an
mic oo ganisms and he an imic obials commonly used as a e e ence [74]. In a ecen
wo k [2], i was ound ha , among he 53 compounds epo ed, hose wi h he highes
calcula ed ele ance we e PhCs, wi h an ibio ics ha ing he highes p opo ion.
In second place was he de ec ion o me als, wi h 21 wo ks o de ec ing coppe ,
me cu y, lead, cadmium, and a senic. Me als a e pollu an s wi h a b oade concen a-
ion ange, om mg/L o ng/L, because hey a e p oduced by in ensi e indus ial ac i i-
y om se e al sec o s; in addi ion, hey can be eleased in o he en i onmen om na -
u al sou ces. They ha e been s udied o many yea s, and hei oxic e ec s and en i-
onmen al impac a e known. Hence, he sea ch o accu a e, sensi i e, and s able me h-
ods o de ices will p omo e he de elopmen o esea ch and inno a ion in he ield. In-
deed, ap asenso s ha e been widely applied o de ec me als, as epo ed in ecen li e a-
u e e iews [32,53].
The o he amily o con aminan s analyzed using ap asenso s is pes icides. These
compounds a e widely discha ged in o aqueous compa men s upon sp aying o e
la ge a eas, so hey a e p one o being pa ially deposi ed ou side he a ge si es and
ca ied in o s eams o ese oi s by uno o il a ion. Thei p esence as con aminan s
is documen ed, as is hei e ec s on human and en i onmen al heal h [75–77]. Al hough
applied in la ge quan i ies, some unde go chemical and biological ans o ma ion eac-
Figu e 5. Applica ions o ap asenso in he en i onmen al ield om 2018 o 2023. The e m op o-
elec ochemical includes pho oelec ochemical and elec oluminescen senso s. The numbe s indica e
he numbe o o al pape s. C ea ed wi h lou ish.s udio.
3.3. Analysis o Ca ego iza ions
3.3.1. En i onmen al Con aminan s
The sys ema ic analysis o he li e a u e on applying ap asenso s in en i onmen al wa e
o e he pas i e yea s shows ha pha maceu icals (PhCs) a e he mos s udied, wi h
26 pape s and 13 compounds epo ed (Table S1). In ecen yea s, he e has been a boom
in he li e a u e on moni o ing PhCs as eme ging con aminan s [
72
,
73
]. An ibio ics a e
undoub edly he mos s udied PhCs, and he e a e se e al easons o his. Fi s , hey a e he
mos widely used d ugs wo ldwide o human, animal, and plan heal h; second, because
o he abo e, hey a e expec ed o be discha ged in o he en i onmen al compa men s
by a ious household, hospi al, and indus ial discha ges. Thi dly, hey a e he cause o
bac e ial esis ance, an issue o g ea conce n wo ldwide, whe e he global ac ion plans
agains an imic obial esis ance p omo e he moni o ing o bo h esis an mic oo ganisms
and he an imic obials commonly used as a e e ence [
74
]. In a ecen wo k [
2
], i was
ound ha , among he 53 compounds epo ed, hose wi h he highes calcula ed ele ance
we e PhCs, wi h an ibio ics ha ing he highes p opo ion.
In second place was he de ec ion o me als, wi h 21 wo ks o de ec ing coppe ,
me cu y, lead, cadmium, and a senic. Me als a e pollu an s wi h a b oade concen a ion
ange, om mg/L o ng/L, because hey a e p oduced by in ensi e indus ial ac i i y om
se e al sec o s; in addi ion, hey can be eleased in o he en i onmen om na u al sou ces.
They ha e been s udied o many yea s, and hei oxic e ec s and en i onmen al impac
a e known. Hence, he sea ch o accu a e, sensi i e, and s able me hods o de ices will
p omo e he de elopmen o esea ch and inno a ion in he ield. Indeed, ap asenso s ha e
been widely applied o de ec me als, as epo ed in ecen li e a u e e iews [32,53].
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 8 o 25
The o he amily o con aminan s analyzed using ap asenso s is pes icides. These
compounds a e widely discha ged in o aqueous compa men s upon sp aying o e la ge
a eas, so hey a e p one o being pa ially deposi ed ou side he a ge si es and ca ied in o
s eams o ese oi s by uno o il a ion. Thei p esence as con aminan s is documen ed,
as is hei e ec s on human and en i onmen al heal h [
75
–
77
]. Al hough applied in la ge
quan i ies, some unde go chemical and biological ans o ma ion eac ions, leading o
hei de ec ion a
µ
g/L o ng/L concen a ions. The mos s udied pes icides a e diazinon,
chlo py i os, a azine, ace amip id, quinclo ac, and mala hion, as epo ed in 13 pape s.
Fewe pape s ha e been de o ed o he de e mina ion o indus ial chemicals (8 pape s,
4 chemicals) and oxins (5 pape s, 2 oxins), as epo ed in Table S1. S udies pe o med
wi hin complex samples and in he p esence o many in e e en s indica e ha ap ame s
a e obus molecules capable o main aining hei a ini y owa ds he analy e o in e es in
en i onmen al condi ions.
3.3.2. Senso Design and Sensi i i y
Rega ding he mos used senso con igu a ions (Figu e 6), 77% o he cases (56 a -
icles) used he ap ame wi hou u he modi ica ion o a simple modi ica ion, such as
unc ionaliza ion wi h an amino g oup o hiol g oup o ancho a he su ace o he ans-
duce . On he ansduce side, h ee ypes we e documen ed. Elec ochemical, op ical,
and op o-elec ochemical echniques we e used wi hin hese ansduce s. Wi h he e m
op o-elec ochemical, we include bo h elec ochemiluminescen and pho oelec ochemi-
cal sys ems.
To enhance ap asenso pe o mance, nanoma e ials ha e become a p e alen s a egy.
Thei well-documen ed p ope ies enable hem o exe signi ican in luence on se e al
c i ical aspec s, including con olling assembly densi y, egula ing he accumula ion o
he ap ame s, op imizing he o ien a ion o hese elemen s o a ge in e ac ion, and
acili a ing he a e o elec on ans e a he senso in e ace [
78
]. In his e iew, 60% o
he pape s used composi es o wo o mo e ma e ials o me allic o ca bonaceous ype,
o hei combina ion. Among hose, noble me al nanopa icles, g aphene and g aphene
oxide, ca bon nano ubes, quan um do s, and me al–o ganic amewo ks a e he mos
widely employed. Pa icula ly, 18 pape s used elec ochemical ansduce s modi ied wi h
nanocomposi es, while 18 pape s used op o-elec ochemical ansduce s wi h a su ace
composed o wo o mo e ma e ials, and only 9 we e op ical wi h nanocomposi es. A
o al o 28 pape s used a “simple” in e ace wi h only one o no nanoma e ial, mos using
he op ical ansduce (colo ime ic analysis). Figu e 6a shows he numbe o pape s
classi ied based on he ansducing p inciple. Figu e 6b–d desc ibe a simpli ied subdi ision
o he wo ks in line wi h he he e os uc u e used, i.e., (i) simple: ba e su ace o one
nanoma e ial; (ii) composi e: he e os uc u es o wo nanoma e ials; (iii) complex: mo e
complex he e os uc u es. Mo eo e , a u he classi ica ion acco ding o sensi i i y is
also epo ed.
Rega ding sensi i i y, in he selec ed wo ks, he epo ed LODs displayed a wide in e -
al o alues, om mg/L o ag/L. A o al o 82% o LODs (60 pape s) all in he alue he e
de ined as high o ul ahigh sensi i i y (LOD < 1
µ
g/L), 14% showed a medium sensi i i y
(0.1 mg/L > LOD > 1
µ
g/L), and only h ee pape s showed a low LOD (
LOD > 0.1 mg/L
)
(Figu e 6). I is well known ha ap ame s p esen dissocia ion cons an s like hose shown
by an ibodies, wi h alues o app oxima ely 10
−9
M, which helps o achie e high sensi i i y.
Rega ding he ype o ansduce on he sensi i i y pa ame e , 100% o he pape s using
op o-elec ochemical ansduce s showed high and ul a-high sensi i i y, ollowed by 90%
o he elec ochemical and 50% o he op ical ansduce s (Figu e 6).
The da a p esen ed in Tables 2and S1 show ha he high sensi i i y o he ap asenso s
can be a ibu ed o he coupling o speci ic ap ame s wi h nanoma e ials.
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 9 o 25
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 27
Figu e 6. Con igu a ion and sensi i i y o ap asenso o con aminan de ec ion in en i onmen al
wa e om 2015 o 2023. Uppe pa : o al ap asenso acco ding o ansduc o used (a). Type o
in e ace and sensi i i y o op ical (b), elec ochemical (c), and op o-elec ochemical (d) ansduc-
o . C ea ed wi h lou ish.s udio.
The da a p esen ed in Tables 2 and S1 show ha he high sensi i i y o he ap asen-
so s can be a ibu ed o he coupling o speci ic ap ame s wi h nanoma e ials.
Table 2. Examples o ap asenso s o en i onmen al applica ions.
Sensi i i y
(LOD) T ansduce Nanoma e ials Ta ge Classi ica ion Re e ence
7.11 ag/L Op o-elec ochemical G aphi ic ca bon loaded by CoN
nanopa icles (CoN/g-C3N4) Pes icides [79]
0.33 pg/L Elec ochemical CoMoS4 hollow nanosphe es Myco oxins [80]
2.07 pg/L Elec ochemical Nanocomposi e s uc u e o
AuNPs/PPy/Ti3C2Tx Hea y me als [81]
Figu e 6. Con igu a ion and sensi i i y o ap asenso o con aminan de ec ion in en i onmen al
wa e om 2015 o 2023. Uppe pa : o al ap asenso acco ding o ansduc o used (a). Type o
in e ace and sensi i i y o op ical (b), elec ochemical (c), and op o-elec ochemical (d) ansduc o .
C ea ed wi h lou ish.s udio.
Table 2. Examples o ap asenso s o en i onmen al applica ions.
Sensi i i y (LOD) T ansduce Nanoma e ials Ta ge Classi ica ion Re e ence
7.11 ag/L Op o-elec ochemical G aphi ic ca bon loaded by CoN
nanopa icles (CoN/g-C3N4)Pes icides [79]
0.33 pg/L Elec ochemical CoMoS4hollow nanosphe es Myco oxins [80]
2.07 pg/L Elec ochemical Nanocomposi e s uc u e o
AuNPs/PPy/Ti3C2TxHea y me als [81]
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 16 o 25
and unequi ocal a ge selec i i y is essen ial o ensu e he accu acy and obus ness o
hese analy ical ools in complex en i onmen al ma ices.
Chemosenso s 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 27
Figu e 10. (a) Schema ic o la e al low assay o simula ion de ec ion o kanamycin and ampicil-
lin. (b) Fluo escen images o selec i i y analysis and (c) i s co esponding in ensi ies. The concen-
a ions o KAM and AMP on s ip 6 we e 30 ng/L, and he concen a ions o KAM and AMP on
s ip 7 we e 80 ng/L, espec i ely. The concen a ions o o he in e e ing an ibio ics (1, 2, 3, 4, and
5) we e 80 ng/L. Con. and In . ep esen he con ol line and in e nal line, espec i ely. Rep in ed
om e . [89] unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/) accessed on 10 Ma ch 2024.
The epo ed s udies exhibi ed excellen selec i i y in mos cases, wi h in e e ence
alues below 10%. No ably, he use o en i onmen al wa e samples did no signi ican -
ly impac analy e quan i ica ion, sugges ing a ole ance o po en ial na u al in e e en s.
Howe e , i is c ucial o acknowledge ha hese indings may no ansla e di ec ly o
eal-wo ld scena ios. En i onmen al wa e ma ices a e inhe en ly complex, o en ha -
bo ing mix u es o pollu an s. E en minimal c oss- eac i i y wi h common ions, o ganic
compounds, o a con luence o changing physicochemical and en i onmen al condi ions
can lead o inaccu a e eadings o alse posi i es. The e o e, while he cu en esea ch
sugges s adequa e selec i i y, u he op imiza ion in his a ea emains pa amoun o
eliable on-si e wa e quali y moni o ing applica ions. De eloping ap asenso s wi h high
and unequi ocal a ge selec i i y is essen ial o ensu e he accu acy and obus ness o
hese analy ical ools in complex en i onmen al ma ices.
3.3.5. S abili y
An impo an pe o mance c i e ion in en i onmen al moni o ing is he s abili y o
he me hod o de ice. In 43 pape s, s abili y s udies we e epo ed (Table S1). The s abil-
i y epo ed was mainly s o age s abili y, which is he abili y o he de ice o me hod o
gi e he same esponse a e being s o ed in sui able labo a o y condi ions, such as 4 °C,
neu al pH, e c. The esul s a ied in es ing ime; he mos p olonged ime epo ed was
30 days, whe e he same esponse was main ained as on day 1 [84,104,111,112]. Some
pape s discussed o he ypes o s abili y such as signal s abili y; in he case o op o-
elec ochemical ap asenso s, he de ice’s esponse o di e en cycles o ligh s imuli in
he same es was egis e ed. Repo s showed ha he pho ocu en esponse almos e-
Figu e 10. (a) Schema ic o la e al low assay o simula ion de ec ion o kanamycin and ampicillin.
(b) Fluo escen images o selec i i y analysis and (c) i s co esponding in ensi ies. The concen a ions
o KAM and AMP on s ip 6 we e 30 ng/L, and he concen a ions o KAM and AMP on s ip 7 we e
80 ng/L, espec i ely. The concen a ions o o he in e e ing an ibio ics (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) we e 80 ng/L.
Con. and In . ep esen he con ol line and in e nal line, espec i ely. Rep in ed om e . [
89
] unde
he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/) accessed on 10 Ma ch 2024.
3.3.5. S abili y
An impo an pe o mance c i e ion in en i onmen al moni o ing is he s abili y o
he me hod o de ice. In 43 pape s, s abili y s udies we e epo ed (Table S1). The s abili y
epo ed was mainly s o age s abili y, which is he abili y o he de ice o me hod o gi e
he same esponse a e being s o ed in sui able labo a o y condi ions, such as 4
◦
C, neu al
pH, e c. The esul s a ied in es ing ime; he mos p olonged ime epo ed was 30 days,
whe e he same esponse was main ained as on day 1 [
84
,
104
,
111
,
112
]. Some pape s
discussed o he ypes o s abili y such as signal s abili y; in he case o op o-elec ochemical
ap asenso s, he de ice’s esponse o di e en cycles o ligh s imuli in he same es was
egis e ed. Repo s showed ha he pho ocu en esponse almos emained s able a e
20 cycles [
79
,
94
], 7 cycles [
113
], 12 cycles [
83
,
85
] and 50 scanning cycles [
84
] unde ligh
o -on i adia ion. An addi ional ype o s abili y is gi en by conside ing he eusabili y
o egene a ion o he de ice. Liu e al. [
84
] epo ed an elec ochemical ap asenso o
Hg
2+
de ec ion consis ing o a gold elec ode modi ied wi h Cu@ca bon nanoneedles, in
si u cons uc ed h ough a con ollable py olysis p ocess o melamine and CuCl
2
. The
p inciple o de ec ion in ol ed an exonuclease-III-assis ed cycling ampli ica ion s a egy.
To egene a e he ap asenso , he modi ied elec ode was imme sed in dis illed wa e o
10 min a 80
◦
C o dissocia e he DNA-based signal- epo ing s uc u e, insed wi h bu e
and subjec ed o ano he eading cycle. The s abili y was measu ed h ough 30 cycles and
he signal esponse emained almos unchanged.
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 17 o 25
In he wo k o Yildi im-Ti gil e al. [
112
], a biosenso -con aining p obe-DNA immobi-
lized on unc ionalized SWCNTs o oxy e acycline (OTC) de ec ion was de eloped. The
p o ocol in ol ed an ini ial incuba ion s ep whe e OTC was exposed o i s speci ic ap ame
o 3 min. Following he comple ion o his binding phase, he incuba ed mix u e was
injec ed ac oss he su ace o a gold chip. This acili a ed he in e ac ion o any emaining
ee ap ame s wi h hei complemen a y immobilized DNA coun e pa s on he semicon-
duc ing su ace. The sensing su ace could be egene a ed o upwa ds o 20 cycles while
main aining minimal signal loss (less han 15%). This egene a ion p ocess was achie ed
h ough a simple washing s ep wi h a 0.5% SDS solu ion o 5 min, ollowed by a insing
s ep wi h a bu e solu ion a pH 7.2. The eusabili y o his senso was a ibu ed o he
p ecise con ol o assembly pa ame e s du ing he ap asenso ab ica ion p ocess, which
ul ima ely led o he c ea ion o a s able sys em.
In a sepa a e s udy, Song e al. [
96
] de eloped elec ochemical ap asenso s using
bime allic AgMo he e onanos uc u es o de ec bisphenol A (BPA). To demons a e he
eusabili y o he senso , a e each BPA measu emen , he ap asenso was insed wi h
1 mM NaOH a oom empe a u e o 5 min. This s ep dis up ed he bond be ween he
ap ame ( ecogni ion molecule) and BPA. The senso was hen insed wi h a la ge olume
o phospha e bu e solu ion, allowing he ap ame o e u n o i s o iginal shape. Finally,
he elec ode was dipped in o a esh BPA solu ion o he nex de ec ion cycle. No ably,
he senso ’s esponse signal showed minimal a ia ion e en a e se en cycles.
While ap asenso s ha e shown p omising s abili y in con olled en i onmen s, hei
sui abili y o comme cial applica ions, pa icula ly in pollu ion moni o ing, equi es
u he in es iga ion. En i onmen al moni o ing demands equen and geog aphically
dispe sed measu emen s, making eusabili y c ucial o cos -e ec i e implemen a ion.
In-dep h s udies inco po a ing cos –bene i analyses a e necessa y o de e mine he op imal
numbe o euse cycles ha balance senso pe o mance wi h economic iabili y. This will
help es ablish whe he ap asenso s can o e a cos -compe i i e and sus ainable solu ion
o en i onmen al moni o ing.
3.3.6. Scalabili y
All he inhe en ad an ages o ap asenso s posi ion hem a o ably o he design o
use - iendly and po able de ices o in- ield analyses. Indeed, (mic o) luidic app oaches
ha e gained wide in e es as a ool in he au oma ion o sample collec ion and handling,
allowing o on-line and con inuous measu emen s [
114
,
115
]. New sma phone-assis ed
pla o ms o o he compac analyze s based on colo ime ic and elec ochemical eadou s
ha e been in oduced in ecen yea s [
116
,
117
]. C. Xu and co-wo ke s [
118
], o ins ance,
eplaced he common mic opla e eade used o op ical eadou s wi h he came a o a
sma phone o he de ec ion o ace amip id. J. Wei e al. [
80
] de eloped a sunligh -d i en
sel -powe ed po able sys em based on a digi al mul ime e and ap ame s o he on-si e de-
ec ion o mic ocys in-a ginine-a ginine. Un o una ely, only e y ew wo ks ha e exploi ed
hei ad an ages and scalabili y o eal- ime decen alized moni o ing o con aminan s;
hus, he adi ional labo a o y-based p ocedu e emains he mos e ec i e app oach.
4. Conclusions
The de ec ion o en i onmen al con aminan s in wa e bodies is becoming inc easingly
impe a i e. Thus, de ec ion me hodologies capable o apidly de ec ing such con aminan s
o sc eening pu poses ha e been s udied and de eloped in he las decade. Among
hose, ap asenso s, namely biosenso s ha ely on ap ame s as bio ecogni ion elemen s,
ha e ecei ed g ea a en ion. This sys ema ic e iew p o ides an in-dep h analysis o
he ends in he use o ap asenso s o he de ec ion o con aminan s in en i onmen al
wa e samples. All scien i ic pape s on his opic, published om 2019 o 2023, we e
iden i ied, sc eened, and e alua ed acco ding o p ecise inclusion c i e ia. A o al o
73 s udies passed he phase o eligibili y and we e u he analyzed and ca ego ized
based on he en i onmen al con aminan (s) examined, ansduc ion sys em employed,
Chemosenso s 2024,12, 59 18 o 25
sensi i i y, accu acy and p ecision, selec i i y, and s abili y achie ed. A o al o 29 aqueous
con aminan s we e in es iga ed, including pes icides, me als, indus ial chemicals, oxins,
and pha maceu ical compounds, wi h he la e being he mos s udied.
Mos o he wo ks ocused on op ical ansduce s; ne e heless, elec ochemical ans-
duce s showed lowe limi s o de ec ion o e all. Ap asenso s ha e demons a ed eco e ies
o 90–110% in he de ec ion o en i onmen al con aminan s in spiked and eal en i on-
men al wa e samples. S abili y—conside ed ei he as he eusabili y o he de ice o he
abili y o p o ide compa able ou pu s upon long s o age imes—was e alua ed by ewe
wo ks among hose unde analysis. Al hough p omising, he esul s canno ensu e p ope
s abili y o comme cial applica ions o e long and con inuous moni o ing pe iods.
On balance, ap asenso s ha e p o en o be a aluable and cos -e ec i e ool in he
de ec ion o en i onmen al con aminan s o high conce n in wa e bodies. Indeed, hanks o
hei e sa ili y and ease o syn hesis, which o e come e hical p oblems linked o he mo e
widely used an ibodies, ap ame s migh encoun e inc easing demand in he u u e o e
hei p o ein coun e pa s. None heless, conside ing ha mos o he wo ks he ein epo ed
analyzed he analy es in bu e ed solu ions o spiked samples, u he in es iga ions
ocused on eal con amina ed samples o e long- e m moni o ing a e equi ed o be e
assess hei s eng hs and limi s.
Supplemen a y Ma e ials: The ollowing suppo ing in o ma ion can be downloaded a : h ps://www.
mdpi.com/a icle/10.3390/chemosenso s12040059/s1, Table S1: S udies included h ough sys ema ic
e iew. Table S2: SELEX a ian s and pu poses employing di e en echnologies.
Re e ences [119–167]
a e ci ed in he supplemen a y ma e ials.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, E.C.R., I.P. and E.T.; me hodology, E.C.R. and P.S.S.;
o mal analysis, E.T. and I.P.; in es iga ion, E.C.R. and M.G.-P.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion,
E.C.R. and P.S.S.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, E.T. and I.P. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: Edua do Canek Reynoso was unded by he Consejo de Ciencia y Tecnología del Es ado de
Puebla (CONCYTEP, Puebla, Mexico) h ough he g an Es ímulos a la In es igación pa a Doc o as
y Doc o es 2023 (SNII-01/2023) and by Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología
(CONAHCYT) (G an Numbe 754592), and ecei ed inancial suppo om he Ins i u o de Ciencias
and Posg ado en Ciencias Ambien ales o Benemé i a Uni e sidad Au ónoma de Puebla o an
in e na ional in e nship. Pa ick Se e in S agano and Ila ia Palche i we e unded by he Eu opean
Clima e, In as uc u e and En i onmen Execu i e Agency, HORIZON-MISS-2022-OCEAN-01,
p ojec iMERMAID, g an numbe 101112824.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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