Conceptual origins and geomorphic evolution of the temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak (Luxor, Egypt)

1
Concep ual o igins and geomo phic e olu ion o he emple o Amun-Ra a Ka nak
(Luxo , Egyp )
Benjamin T. Penning on1, Angus G aham2,*, Au élia Masson-Be gho 3,4, Ma ie Mille 5,
Jan Pee e s6, Willem H. J. Toonen7,8, Timo heus G. Winkels9, Luke H. Solla s10,
Vi ginia. L. Eme y11, K is ian D. S u 12, Dominic S. Ba ke 12
1 Geog aphy & En i onmen al Science, Uni e si y o Sou hamp on, UK
2 Depa men o A chaeology, Ancien His o y and Conse a ion, Uppsala Uni e si e ,
Sweden
3 Depa men o G eece & Rome, The B i ish Museum, London, UK
4 Depa men o Egyp & Sudan, The B i ish Museum, London, UK
5 Depa men o Egyp ian An iqui ies, Musée du Lou e, Pa is, F ance
6 Jebel Ba kal A chaeological P ojec , Kelsey Museum o A chaeology, Uni e si y o
Michigan, Ann A bo , USA
7 Facul y o Science, Ea h & Clima e, V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, The Ne he lands
8 Egyp ology Uni , Ka holieke Uni e si ei Leu en, Belgium
9 Wa e and En i onmen G oup, WSP, Nieuwegein, The Ne he lands
10 Independen Resea che , Salisbu y, UK
11 Na ional Pa k Se ice, Fo Union Na ional Monumen , Wa ous, USA
12 Depa men o A chaeology, Uni e si y o Sou hamp on, UK
*Co esponding au ho (email: angus.g a[email p o ec ed])
Abs ac
Despi e almos a cen u y and a hal o exca a ion, he dynamic landscape in o which he
emple complex o Ka nak was embedded is no well unde s ood. P esen ing he esul s
o he i s comp ehensi e geoa chaeological su ey o he a ea, he au ho s show ha
Ka nak was buil upon a lu ial e ace segmen su ounded by i e channels in an island
con igu a ion po en ially ecalling he ‘p ime al mound’ o Egyp ian c ea ion my hs.
Pe manen occupa ion o he si e became possible a e 2520 BC ±420 yea s, likely
2
du ing he Old Kingdom. Subsequen landscape changes we e d ama ic, wi h he
occupan s o he island esponding bo h oppo unis ically and p oac i ely.
In oduc ion
Fi e hund ed me es eas o he p esen cou se o he Ri e Nile nea Luxo (Egyp )
s ands one o he ancien wo ld’s la ges emple complexes—Ka nak—a he ancien
Egyp ian eligious capi al o Thebes (Ba gue 1962). Occupied o some h ee housand
yea s, eligious a eas we e dedica ed o h ee main dei ies: Amun-Ra, Mon u and Mu
(Figu e 1), wi h addi ional dei ies also inco po a ed in o he buil a chi ec u e. Ka nak’s
p incipal domain is he app oxima ely 30ha emple p ecinc o Amun-Ra (Figu e 2).
A chaeological in es iga ions ha e been ongoing a he si e o app oxima ely 150 yea s
(Leg ain 1929; Ba gue 1962; A naudiès & La oze 2007; Gabolde 2018), ye he dynamic
i e ine landscape wi hin which he emple was concei ed, buil and ex ended has no
been unde s ood in de ail and he age o ea lies occupa ion con inues o be deba ed. Mos
esea che s a ou a Fi s In e media e Pe iod (c. 2152–1980 BC; see also online
supplemen a y ma e ial (OSM) Table S1) o igin o Ka nak based on in-si u exca a ed
a chaeological emains and a w i en e e ence o a emple o a ‘Ra-Amun’ om he eign
o In e I, II o III ( adi ionally In e II c. 2066–2017 BC; Pos el 2004: 72–73; Ho nung
e al. 2006: 491; Ullmann 2007: 4; Mille 2008: 308–9; Cha loux & Mensan 2011: 231;
La ché 2020: 121). These ea lies exca a ed emains a e ound in he eas e n pa o he
complex and sou h-eas o he Sac ed Lake (Figu e 2: E4–6) and a iously consis o
mudb ick walls (including silos a E4) associa ed wi h ce amic ma e ial om he Fi s
In e media e Pe iod/ea ly Ele en h Dynas y (Cha loux e al. 2021: 928, 931; Gabolde
2018: 154–66; Mille 2007, 2008). Fu he no h, nea he P ah Temple (Figu e 2), a
hea h is da ed o he mid-Ele en h Dynas y (Ele en h Dynas y = c. 2080–1940 BC;
Ho nung e al. 2006: 491) (Cha loux e al. 2021: 24, ig. 4). O he au ho s sugges
P edynas ic occupa ion (3900–3100 BC) a Ka nak, based on ma e ial om old
exca a ions and objec s ex si u (Leg ain 1906a: 21; F anche 1917: 87, 99; Gabolde 2018:
135–36, 167).
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Figu e 1. Loca ion o s udy a ea: a) wi hin Egyp ; b) locally. A chaeological ea u es: 1 Amun-Ra
emple complex, Ka nak; 2 Mon u emple complex, No h Ka nak; 3 Mu emple complex; 4 Kom el-
Ahma ; 5 A enue o Sphinxes; 6 Luxo Temple; 7 Nume ous emples and nec opoleis (no all shown).
The co e ansec s ou side he Ka nak a ea a e published (Toonen e al. 2018, 2019; Pee e s e al.
2024).
Recen a emp s o econs uc he palaeoen i onmen al se ing o ea ly Ka nak (Gabolde
2018; Cha loux e al. 2021) ha e p ima ily elied on de ails ob ained om a chaeological
exca a ions and limi ed co ing (Mille 2007: pl. 39; Bunbu y e al. 2008; Ghila di &
Bo aik 2011). These a emp s ha e o en ied o loca e ancien i e channels by
iden i ying palaeosu aces sloping down o p esumed channel dep essions, and by c oss-
compa ing po e y le els ound in di e en exca a ions. They b ing oge he ideas ha an
uniden i ied i e channel, o unknown da e and size, likely exis ed eas o he si e
(Red o d 1988: 37, ig. 8), and ha a second channel was p obably p esen du ing he
Middle Kingdom (c. 1980–1760 BC) wes o he no h-sou h axis o he Amun-Ra
emple—an axis de ined by he monumen al ga eways o he se en h o en h pylons
(Figu e 2) (Leg ain 1906b: 137–61; Bunbu y e al. 2008: 364, 367). This second channel
may ha e subsequen ly shi ed wes wa d (Bunbu y e al. 2008: 364, 367; Ghila di &
Bo aik 2011; Bo aik e al. 2017: 130–35). The si e was hus a some poin possibly
si ua ed on an island (Egli 1959: 40–43; Mille 2008: 324–30; G aham 2010), whose
no he n limi may ha e been a No h Ka nak (Figu e 2). A channel could ha e exis ed
u he no h o his poin , as an ea ly Middle Kingdom su ace slopes downwa ds o he
no h-wes (Jacque 1983: 95), and ce amics po en ially da ing om he Middle Kingdom
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onwa ds a e ound a ela i ely deep le els, sugges ing a opog aphic dep ession
(Bunbu y e al. 2008: 365; G aham 2010: 134; Bo aik e al. 2017: 123). Sou h o he
Amun-Ra emple, La e Pe iod ce amics (664–332 BC) a dep hs o up o 12m may
sugges ano he channel dep ession, cons aining he sou he n limi o he se lemen
(Lau ay 1968: 339).
Figu e 2. Loca ion o co ing si es and ansec s. a) Temple o Amun-Ra, Ka nak. Pylons (monumen al
ga eways) a e indica ed wi h Roman nume als; a chaeological exca a ions as ollows: E1 Ka nak
No h (Jacque 1983: 80, 95–96, 2001: 13–14); E2 P ah Temple (Cha loux e al. 2018, 2021: 924–26);
E3 MK Cou (Ca lo i e al. 2010; Cha loux & Mensan 2011; La ché 2020); E4 Osi ian Ca acombs
(Cha loux e al. 2021: 928); E5 Eas Ka nak (Red o d e al. 1991); E6 SE Sac ed Lake (Mille 2007,
2008; Masson-Be gho 2021); E7 Ope Temple (Cha loux e al. 2012: 255); E8 X h pylon cou
(Azim 1980). The Che ie D ain is mode n. b) hand auge in use a AS040; c) pe cussion co e in use
a PC026; d) ex ac ing d illed sedimen s a PC027.
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Al hough in o ma i e, hese ecen econs uc ions emain incomple e, d awn as hey a e
om da a ha a e agmen a y, spa ially es ic ed o exca a ion locali ies—limi ing he
scope o palaeoen i onmen al conclusions—and o en collec ed as a byp oduc o o he
esea ch objec i es. Few dedica ed palaeogeog aphic su eys o he a ea ha e been
conduc ed, and ewe han 10 deep (>5m) sedimen co es ha e been published in any
de ail (Lau ay 1968, 1969; Bunbu y e al. 2008; Ghila di & Bo aik 2011; Cha loux e
al. 2021). The geoa chaeological su ey conduc ed by Bunbu y and colleagues (2008)
p o ides a no able excep ion, as pa o a esea ch p og amme ha p eceded he p esen
s udy. The p elimina y econs uc ion p esen ed he ein was based p ima ily on 15
sedimen co es wi h an a e age dep h o 4.9m se in loca ions limi ed by he hand-
auge ing me hod.
As de ailed below, he p esen p og amme builds on his ea lie wo k wi h a da ase mo e
han ou imes la ge , de i ed om co es s a egically placed o align wi h he esea ch
objec i es. Co ing co e s bo h he Ka nak si e and i s su oundings, and he da a
collec ed a e syn hesised wi h a chaeological in o ma ion (Gabolde 2018; Cha loux e al.
2021), luminescence da ing as well as an upda ed unde s anding o local loodplain
dynamics (Toonen e al. 2018; Pee e s e al. 2024). As a esul , he econs uc ions
p esen ed he e a e he mos comp ehensi e in e p e a ions cu en ly a ailable.
We p esen in o ma ion om 61 sedimen co es (a e age dep h: 6.4m, maximum dep h:
11.65m) (Figu e 2, Table S2), mos o which we e a chaeologically da ed h ough
analysis o he ens o housands o ce amic agmen s hey con ained (Table S3). By
posi ioning hese co es a ela i ely e en in e als, b oadly along no he n (‘N’) and
sou he n (‘S’) wes –eas ansec s h ough he si e (Figu e 3), wo c oss-sec ions o sub-
su ace deposi s we e c ea ed. These c oss-sec ions we e hen in e p e ed using s anda d
geoa chaeological me hods (Miall 1996; B own 1997; Toonen e al. 2018). Isoch ons,
based on ypologically da ed ce amic agmen s, e eal he palaeo opog aphy (Figu e 3)
and shed ligh on he dynamic na u e o he en i onmen (Figu e 4).

6
The wo k is palaeogeog aphically con ex ualised (Figu e 1) using li hological and
ch onos a ig aphic in o ma ion om app oxima ely 150 co es simila ly d illed ac oss he
wide local a ea (Toonen e al. 2018, 2019; Pee e s e al. 2024), and a no el se o 48
op ically s imula ed luminescence (OSL) ages om he icini y o Ka nak (Pee e s e al.
2024).
Me hods
Sedimen s we e e ie ed using an Eijkelkamp hand auge (ASnnn) and/o a Cob a TT
pe cussion co e (PCnnn) (Figu e 2b–d) and hei basic sedimen ological cha ac e is ics
we e analysed in he ield (see OSM). Reco e ed sedimen s we e we -sie ed in
app oxima ely 100mm in e als, and ac ions we e manually so ed in o ce amic and
non-ce amic ma e ial. Ce amic agmen s we e assigned an age wi hin a Ka nak-speci ic
ypology (see OSM). Th ough his, a chaeological ch onos a ig aphies we e asce ained
o mos co es in as much de ail as possible (Table S3).
Resul s
Ou su ey e eals ha he en i e Ka nak zone is ul ima ely ounded on sandy deposi s
(Figu e 3: Uni s T, A, B). Based on hei sedimen a y cha ac e is ics, pa icula ly hei
ine o medium sand g ade, well-so ed na u e and ining-upwa ds sequences, hese
deposi s a e in e p e ed as i e channel sedimen s, hough no all we e laid down
simul aneously. Fu he eas , and also a isola ed locali ies wi hin he emple p ecinc ,
sil s p e ail (Uni s C & D). These eco d in ills o abandoned i e channels (Uni C) o
loodplain sedimen a ion (Uni D), as ine ma e ial is d opped om suspension in low-
ene gy condi ions. A op hese sands and sil s ypically lies se e al me es o cul u al
ma e ial: he e ogeneous deposi s comp ising he ‘a chaeology’ o he si e (Uni E), as
well as windblown co e (Uni F).
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Figu e 3. Simpli ied ansec s h ough Ka nak: a) ansec N; b) ansec S. Co es/exca a ions
indica ed o aid loca ion (no all shown). Figu es S1–3 p o ide u he de ail. Ele a ion: masl, me es
abo e sea le el.
Ka nak’s i e e ace ounda ion
Al hough all he basal deposi s a e sands, a di e ence in age is in e ed be ween he
lowe mos sands in he cen al/eas e n zone o Ka nak (Uni T: om he Middle
Kingdom Cou o Eas Ka nak/eas o he Sac ed Lake), and he sands a ei he side
(Uni s A & B) (Figu e 3). Uni T con ains no in-si u ce amic agmen s excep a i s
su ace, bu Uni s A and B (and all o he s) usually con ain ens o hund eds o ce amic
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agmen s pe e ical me e o co ed sedimen . This sugges s ha Uni T was deposi ed
p e-occupa ion, bu Uni s A and B we e deposi ed con empo aneously wi h occupa ion.
These uni s a e also li hologically dis inc .
Fu he de ail is p o ided by ce amic ypology. The oldes ce amics a op Uni T da e
om some ime be ween he Six h and ea ly Ele en h dynas ies: c. 2305–1980 BC (co e
AS012 and exca a ions E4–6) (Figu e 2, Table S3), placing hem wi hin he Fi s
In e media e Pe iod o possibly he la e Old Kingdom (Old Kingdom = c. 2591–2152
BC). They a e o a simila age o he oldes ce amics wi hin Uni s A and B (ea ly
Ele en h Dynas y: c. 2080–1980 BC; Ho nung e al. 2006: 491), in co es AS143 and
PC014. This also sugges s Uni T is olde han Uni s A and B.
This age di e ence is e lec i e o he ac ha Uni T, a an ele a ion o app oxima ely
72m abo e sea le el (masl), is an old i e e ace—a p ese ed emnan o an ea lie
i e plain—a conclusion suppo ed by 29 mo e co es d illed o he eas o Ka nak
(Pee e s e al. 2024) (Figu e 1). The ela i ely la ge g ain size (150–350µm) o Uni T
sands sugges s deposi ion by as - lowing wa e . La e , his allu ial plain was e oded on
bo h i s eas e n and wes e n sides by incising i e channels, lea ing a segmen o high
g ound—a e ace (island)—in he eas /sou h-eas o he p esen si e ha hen became
occupied. The cou ses o he i e channels ha ca ed ou his island a e ma ked by
Uni s A and B. Uni A is in e p e ed as lowe channel ba sedimen s: sands laid down
nea he ma gins o he channels (Miall 1996), which gene ally ine upwa ds in o he
uppe ba and le ee sedimen s o Uni B. A e deposi ion o Uni T ceased, he e ace
op lay abo e he no mal le el o inunda ion; since Uni B deposi s da ing o he ea ly
Middle Kingdom a e nowhe e si ua ed a op his e ace.
The 29 co es d illed u he eas (Pee e s e al. 2024) show ha he e ace exis ed o
se e al kilome es in his di ec ion, and hey also p o ide an OSL age o he e minal phase
o deposi ion a his le el o 4.54±0.42 ka (2520 BC ±420 y ). The lu ial e osion on ei he
side ha o med he e ace/island would hus ha e aken place a e his da e.
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The age o his i e e ace is impo an because i places a empo al cons ain upon
ea lies occupa ion a Ka nak. When his a ea was being ac i ely deposi ed by as -
lowing wa e , a and p io o 2520 BC ±420 yea s, i was unsui able o pe manen
occupa ion/cons uc ion, al hough non-pe manen ac i i ies may ha e occu ed he e
du ing annual s ages o low low. A e his da e, incision esul ed in he o ma ion o he
e ace segmen /island, upon which occupa ion could ha e been ini ia ed. This
ch onology co obo a es he ce amic in o ma ion: he ea lies ce amics da e om
some ime be ween c. 2305–1980 BC, wi hin he OSL 68.27% (1σ) con idence in e al.
The co ing esul s canno p ecisely delimi he no he n o sou he n ma gins o he island.
Fi e co es u he sou h, a he emple o Mu , p o ide li le in o ma ion, p ima ily
encoun e ing Uni E only (AS024–028: Figu e S3). Howe e , he na owness o he
e ace obse ed in ansec S (Figu e 3b) sugges s p oximi y o i s sou he n ip,
co obo a ing p e ious ideas (see In oduc ion). The no he n limi may be a No h
Ka nak, based on ea lie co es and exca a ion da a (Bunbu y e al. 2008). The island
may, he e o e, ha e ex ended om No h Ka nak o nea he sou he n enclosu e wall, an
a ea o app oxima ely 10ha (Figu e 4a). A small channel c ossed he e ace a he ea o
he ex an Amun-Ra emple, shown by Uni C in PC030 and PC061(Figu e 3a); he
ce amic eco ds o hese co es sugges ha he channel g adually sil ed up h ough he
Middle Kingdom and Second In e media e Pe iod (Second In e media e Pe iod = c.
1759–1539 BC) (Table S3).
I also appea s ha ano he , smalle e ace segmen lay in he sou h-wes co ne o he
si e, upon which he Ope Temple was cons uc ed (Figu es 3b & 4a), since ea ly Middle
Kingdom a chaeology is ound a op Uni T (AS030) in his loca ion (Cha loux e al.
2012). The deposi s he e (Uni T) a e li hos a ig aphically co ela ed wi h he main
e ace segmen . They we e deposi ed concu en ly and we e o iginally con inuous ac oss
he a ea. Howe e , by he ea ly Middle Kingdom (i no be o e) he a eas we e in e posed
by an incised channel (Uni s A, B, C in AS033, AS143, PC060, AS011, hos ing ea ly
Middle Kingdom ce amics), hus placing ea ly occupa ion on indi idual islands (Figu e
4a).
16
aba ed, he mound upon which Ka nak was buil would ha e appea ed o ise om he
eceding wa e .
The illusion o Ka nak ising om he inunda ion would also ha e been enhanced by a
u he aspec o he si e’s geological con igu a ion. A su ace o ea ly Middle Kingdom
ce amics lying a op ba deposi s in PC026, AS029 and PC048 ( ansec N) and PC045
and PC073 ( ansec S) (Figu es 3 & 4a) indica e ha an a ea o land 1m lowe han he
e ace op (a app oxima ely 71masl) su ounded he e ace in he ea ly Middle
Kingdom. Du ing lood condi ions his le el would ha e been inunda ed, since ea ly
Middle Kingdom le ee deposi s o Uni B lie di ec ly abo e, while he op o he e ace
emained d y. As he lood eceded, he island could ha e doubled in a ea (Figu e 4a) as
he ba deposi s ‘came ou ’ o he wa e , hus comple ing he imp ession o he upwa d
mo emen o he mound. Seasonal ac i i y would ha e been possible on he lowe le els.
The occupan s o he island we e also oppo unis ic in adap ing o changes in he local
lu ial en i onmen . The pos -New Kingdom wes wa d expansion o he emple
(Bunbu y e al. 2008: 351) demons a es he p og essi e u ilisa ion o new land, wi h he
cons uc ion o he se en h o en h and i s o hi d pylons as he wes e n channels sil ed
up (Figu e 4b–d). In some ins ances, changes o he landscape we e made p oac i ely,
indica ed by he dumping o dese sand in o a channel jus sou h o wha was sho ly o
become he Hypos yle Hall (PC060).
Gi en ha a la ge i e channel o iginally lay o he eas o he si e, i would be
ins uc i e o conside u he a chaeological su eys in ha a ea. Ea ly a chaeological
ea u es may be ocused he e, da ing om be o e he eas e n channel mo ed away and
he wes e n channel became a la ge , mo e clea ly-de ined ea u e in he landscape
(Figu e 4a–e). A change o emple o ien a ion om eas o wes based upon a chi ec u al
e idence has e en been p oposed, wi h he ea lies emple acing eas (La ché 2007: 481–
83), hough his emains con en ious (Gabolde 2018: 225–26).

17
Conclusion
New da a om 61 sedimen co es has allowed o a mo e de ailed palaeogeog aphic
econs uc ion o e ol ing landscape se ings a Ka nak. Ea lies possible occupa ion a
he si e is cons ained p obably o he Old Kingdom, and ac i i y he e demons a es a
coupling be ween he na u al en i onmen and he eligious, unc ional, and
cons uc ional aspec s o he emple. Unde s anding he e olu ion o Ka nak— om a
small island o one o he de ining ins i u ions o Ancien Egyp —is hus only possible
wi h ad ancing knowledge o i s e e -changing en i onmen .
Acknowledgmen s
We hank he Egyp ian Minis y o Tou ism and An iqui ies, all a he Cen e F anco-
Égyp ien d'É ude des Temples de Ka nak (CFEETK), and a Chicago House (Luxo /
Uni e si y o Chicago), he Fa ouk amily, and ou local eam membe s. The esea ch
was ca ied ou unde he auspices o he Egyp Explo a ion Socie y (London).
Funding S a emen
The wo k was suppo ed by he Knu och Alice Wallenbe gs S i else (KAW 2013.0163)
and Uppsala Uni e si e (HUMSAM 2014/17) o A.G. as Wallenbe g Academy Fellow
2014 –20, oge he wi h a small g an om M och S Wångs ed s S i else (A.G.).
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The summa y geological da a suppo ing he indings o his s udy a e a ailable in
Zenodo a h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.11581016. Technical de ails o he
sedimen a y in e p e a ion as well as de ailed sedimen a y igu es, co e me ada a and
ce amic ch onos a ig aphies a e p o ided in he Online Supplemen a y Ma e ial.
Compe ing In e es Decla a ion
Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s decla e none. The iews exp essed in he a icle do no
necessa ily ep esen he iews o he NPS o he go e nmen o he Uni ed S a es.
18
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Mülle (ed.) Ci ies and U banism in Ancien Egyp : 125–43. Vienna: Ös e eichischen
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HASSAN, F.A. 1997. The dynamics o a i e ine ci iliza ion: a geoa chaeological pe spec i e
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B ill.
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—. 2001. Ka nak-No d IX (Fouilles de l’Ins i u ançais d’a chéologie o ien ale 44). Cai o:
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592.
—. 2020. Ch onologie des es iges décou e s sous le emple de Ka nak. Tu nhou : B epols.
—. 2023. Sous le sol de la Salle Hypos yle e de son oisinage à Ka nak, in F. Colin (eds.) Au-
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—. 1969. Rappo su les a aux de Ka nak. Ac i i és du Cen e anco-égyp ien en 1967-
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—. 1929. Les emples de Ka nak. B ussels: V oman & Co.
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—. 2008. Ins alla ions an é ieu es au Nou el Empi e au sud-es du Lac sac é du emple
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ancien Egyp ian landscapes. Na u e Geoscience 17: 645–53.
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POPIELSKA-GRZYBOWSKA, J. 2016. Con ex s o he appea ance o wa e in he Py amid Tex s:
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POSTEL, L. 2004. P o ocoles des sou e ains égyp iens e dogme mona chique au débu du
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—. 1994. The Exca a ions o Kom el-Ahma and En i ons. To on o: Akhena en Temple
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Ins i u e o he Uni e si y o Chicago.
21
[ONLINE SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL]
Concep ual o igins and geomo phic e olu ion o he emple o Amun-Ra a Ka nak
(Luxo , Egyp )
Benjamin T. Penning on1, Angus G aham2,*, Au élia Masson-Be gho 3,4, Ma ie Mille 5,
Jan Pee e s6, Willem H. J. Toonen7,8, Timo heus G. Winkels9, Luke H. Solla s10,
Vi ginia. L. Eme y11, K is ian D. S u 12, Dominic S. Ba ke 12
1 Geog aphy & En i onmen al Science, Uni e si y o Sou hamp on, UK
2 Depa men o A chaeology, Ancien His o y and Conse a ion, Uppsala Uni e si e ,
Sweden
3 Depa men o G eece & Rome, The B i ish Museum, London, UK
4 Depa men o Egyp & Sudan, The B i ish Museum, London, UK
5 Depa men o Egyp ian An iqui ies, Musée du Lou e, Pa is, F ance
6 Jebel Ba kal A chaeological P ojec , Kelsey Museum o A chaeology, Uni e si y o
Michigan, Ann A bo , USA
7 Facul y o Science, Ea h & Clima e, V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, The Ne he lands
8 Egyp ology Uni , Ka holieke Uni e si ei Leu en, Belgium
9 Wa e and En i onmen G oup, WSP, Nieuwegein, The Ne he lands
10 Independen Resea che , Salisbu y, UK
11 Na ional Pa k Se ice, Fo Union Na ional Monumen , Wa ous, USA
12 Depa men o A chaeology, Uni e si y o Sou hamp on, UK
*Co esponding au ho (email: angus.g a[email p o ec ed])
Ex ended Me hodology
Sedimen s we e e ie ed using an Eijkelkamp hand auge (co es coded ASnnn), o
Cob a TT pe cussion co e (co es coded PCnnn), be o e being analysed wi h a hand lens
in he ield in e ms o hei basic sedimen a y cha ac e is ics (g ain size, sedimen a y
ex u e (Di zle e al. 2017), so ing, ounding, mine alogy, Munsell colou , o ganic

22
ma e ial, inclusions). Summa y suppo ing geological in o ma ion a e p o ided on
Zenodo as ou lined in he Da a A ailabili y S a emen . The co es and he ansec s along
which hey we e placed we e hen in e p e ed using s anda d sedimen ological,
geomo phological and geoa chaeological me hods (Miall 1996; B own 1997). The wo
ansec s (N and S) we e p ima ily d illed in 2017–2018 (Table S2) using he pe cussion
co e , which was able o pene a e a chaeological deposi s e ec i ely. P io o his da e
(see Table S2), ea lie in es iga ions wi h he hand auge we e o en limi ed o
exca a ions wi hin he emple complex and we e less spa ially sys ema ic. This was due
o he ac ha i was o en no possible o hand-auge h ough he some imes dense
an h opogenic deb is, which o en included (pebble-sized) ce amic and s one agmen s.
Co e loca ions we e p ima ily su eyed using ei he RTK-DGPS o o al s a ion using he
Su ey o Egyp da um (Table S2). The sedimen s eco e ed we e di ided in c.10cm
in e als, we -sie ed h ough 2mm and 4mm mesh, and each sie ed ac ion so ed
manually in o ce amic and non-ce amic ma e ial. Fo he majo i y o co es, wi hin each
sie ed ac ion o each sample, each i em o non-ce amic ma e ial was iden i ied ( hizo-
conc e ions, bone, qua z, mudb ick e c.) and coun ed and o e all ab asion and ounding
was eco ded. All sie ed non-ce amic and ce amic ma e ial is s o ed a Ka nak in he
s o e ooms o he Minis y o Tou ism and An iqui ies, o possible u u e e-s udy.
A e he ce amics eco e ed om he co es had been sie ed and isola ed, hey we e
s udied om each co e in sequen ial o de o p o ide ull a chaeological s a ig aphies o
he majo i y o he co es (G aham e al. 2012: 30–32). The ce amic ma e ial was s udied
wi h no knowledge o he sedimen a y da a o in e p e a ion o a oid bias. All she ds
om each sie ed ac ion wi hin each 10cm sample in hese co es we e analysed in e ms
o o al numbe o she ds, o al weigh , size ange, agmen ype ( im, base, handle,
body), deco a ion, echnique (handmade, slow wheel, quick wheel), ab asion, ounding,
ha dness, ma e ial (Nile sil , ma l clay, oasis, Aswan, impo ), ab ic and pe iod. The
ab ic sys em used is a local sys em based upon analysis o ma e ial o igina ing om
s a i ied se lemen con ex s om he Fi s In e media e Pe iod h ough o he Roman
Pe iod in Ka nak, exca a ed be ween 2001–2007 (Masson 2007, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2015,
2016; Mille 2007, 2008; Da id e al. 2016; Masson-Be gho 2021): some o hese
23
ab ics co espond o he well-known Vienna sys em (A nold & Bou iau 1993; Bou iau
e al. 2000). Each diagnos ic she d was d awn, pho og aphed, and eco ded indi idually.
Th ough his p ocess, a ch onology o each co e was es ablished (Table S3). In
nume ous ins ances, changes in he ce amic assemblage co esponded o independen ly-
obse ed changes in he hos ing sedimen s, lending weigh o bo h in e p e a ions. Using
bo h a e ac ual and ‘a iclas ’ (Rapp & Hill 2006: 29, 51–52) in o ma ion om he
she ds, i was also possible o iden i y when downhole con amina ion du ing he co ing
p ocess had occu ed, uling ou he use o ce ain ma e ial om he ch onology o he
emaining assemblage.
P io i y o comp ehensi e ce amic de e mina ion as desc ibed abo e was gi en o deep
(>c.5m) co es ha yielded plen i ul, well s a i ied ce amics in signi ican loca ions. Fi e
co es which e mina ed a shallow dep hs did no ha e hei ce amics s udied, while 15
o which i would no necessa ily ha e been mo e p oduc i e o look a exhaus i ely
we e analysed ia a ‘bulk assessmen ’ (Table S3, Figu es S1–S3 indica e which ones).
The ce amics om hese co es we e no sys ema ically examined wi h a esh b eak and a
lens. Ins ead, p io i y was gi en o diagnos ics ( o ms and speci ic ab ics) o she ds ha
e ained su ace ea men s (slip, deco a ion), al hough gene al obse a ions on he
amoun o ma e ial and he s a e o p ese a ion we e also no ed o each sample; some o
hese co es also did no ha e hei non-ce amic clas s indi idually s udied. None heless,
he la ge numbe o ce amics p esen in many o hese co es – including nume ous
diagnos ics – s ill allows o a e y high deg ee o con idence in hei ch onological
in e p e a ion: a sequence was no ed only when he e we e clea shi s and none o he
ma e ial was con adic o y.
This esea ch p og amme om which his wo k o igina es – he Theban Ha bou s and
Wa e scapes Su ey (THaWS) – has been di ec ed since 2010 by Angus G aham. The
pe mi g an ed by he Minis y o Tou ism and An iqui ies o he Egyp Explo a ion
Socie y co e s an a ea o app oxima ely 70 km2 wi hin he Nile Valley om a -Ta i in
he no h o sou h o Bi ke Habu on bo h he eas and wes banks o he loodplain and
includes he Temple o Ka nak complex. A p ecu so esea ch p og amme, he Ka nak
24
Land- and Wa e scapes Su ey (KLaWS) was co-di ec ed by Judi h Bunbu y (Uni e si y
o Camb idge, UK) and Angus G aham (a he ime Uni e si y College London, UK)
om 2002 un il 2009 (Bunbu y e al. 2008). This esea ch p og amme wo ked p incipally
wi hin he a ea o he Ka nak complex.
Sedimen a y in e p e a ion – echnical de ails
The deposi s encoun e ed in he sedimen co es can be di ided in o eigh main
sedimen a y uni s (Figu es S1–3). They display many simila i ies wi h o he deposi s
wi hin he Theban loodplain egion (Toonen e al. 2018, 2019; Pee e s e al. 2024), and
in he icini y o o he a chaeological si es in Egyp si ua ed in p oximal lu ial con ex s
(T onchè e e al. 2009; Penning on & Thomas 2016; Hassan e al. 2017; Penning on
2019; Toonen e al. 2022).
A he base o he sequence lies Uni T ( e ace), localised bo h wi hin cen al/eas e n
Ka nak and also in he icini y o AS030. This uni usually consis s o e y well so ed,
micaceous ine o medium sands (150–350µm), al hough nea he op he e a e also
in e bedded coa se sil s. Tex u ally he uni comp ises loams o sands (Di zle e al.
2017). The deposi s include sho (1–2m) ining upwa d sequences and usually ha e a
Munsell colou in he icini y o 10YR 4/2. Small calca eous hizoli hs (Klappa 1980),
o he small conc e ions (manganese and i on suspec ed), and black mo ling ( educ ion
haloes a ound o ganic ma e as i decomposes) a e equen , especially wi hin he ine
uppe pa s o he uni ; some plan emains and o he o ganic ma e ials a e also p esen in
hese uppe sec ions. The ela i ely la ge g ain size o he sedimen s sugges s deposi ion
by easonably as -mo ing wa e , while he conc e ions sugges mino soil o ma ion
p ocesses wi hin a se ing ha was subsequen ly subae ially exposed.
The uni con ains no con incing in si u ce amic agmen s. While 17 iny (mm-scale),
unda able, ab aded agmen s we e eco e ed om he uni (all o which would likely
ha e been missed in a s anda d a chaeological in es iga ion o hese laye s), hey a e all
hough o esul om downhole con amina ion om he co ing p ocess. When a co e
segmen was e ie ed o s udy (e e y ~10cm wi h he hand auge / 1m wi h he
25
pe cussion co e ), some imes a e y small amoun o su ace sedimen ell down he hole,
despi e bes e o s. A Ka nak, whe e he mode n-day su ace (Uni F, below) con ains
plen i ul minu e ab aded agmen s, on occasion a ew mm-scale she ds would ha e
una oidably allen in oo. They a e no conside ed o ha e been o iginally hos ed wi hin
Uni T. Such iny numbe s o miniscule agmen s a e o cou se p esen as 'backg ound
noise' wi hin he o he uni s. Howe e , hese o he uni s also con ain ens o housands o
in si u agmen s (as 'signal'), so he noise is los . In Uni , whe e a signal is absen , such
noise is o cou se no iceable in Table S3.
Some aspec s o Uni A (ba deposi s) a e simila o Uni T, in ha Uni A also comp ises
sandy deposi s wi h ining upwa ds sequences. Howe e , he sequences a e longe , Uni
A is less a iable in g ain size and i con ains e y li le (i any) o ganic ma e ial o
hizoli hs, no any black mo ling. Ins ead, i con ains equen ce amic ma e ial, o en
smoo hed by wa e e osion. I is also ex u ally mo e homogeneous (sandy loams o
sands), o en a li le ine (125–250µm), a li le less micaceous, and has a sligh ly ligh e
colou (commonly 10YR 4/3). The uni comp ises a ex book example o lu ia ile ba
sedimen s deposi ed in an ancien b anch o he Nile. The ining-up sequences a e ypical,
while he lack o hizoli hs and o ganic ma e a e o be expec ed in a lu ial channel
whe e deposi ion is aking place wi hin lowing wa e and he e is no subsequen
subae ial exposu e. The uni is e y simila o o he such deposi s encoun e ed elsewhe e
in Egyp (Ga zan i e al. 2015; Penning on & Thomas 2016; Penning on 2019; Toonen e
al. 2022).
Uni A o en ines upwa d in o Uni B (uppe ba /le ee), which usually comp ises e y
da k b own (o en 10YR 3/2), well-so ed, micaceous e y ine sands (loams o sandy
loams) wi h equen black mo ling, hizoli hs, ce amics and o he an h opogenic
ma e ial. The ine g ain size (30–150µm) e lec s a lowe ene gy o deposi ion han he
lowe ba deposi s o Uni A, and he p esence o hizoli hs e lec s mino soil o ma ion
p ocesses wi hin a pe iodically subae ially exposed en i onmen , as would be expec ed
on a le ee o uppe ba .
32
Table S1. Ch onological pe iodisa ion. Calenda da es ollow dynas y numbe s, and a e
app oxima e p io o 664 BC. Dynas y numbe s 9, 10, 14 and 15 a e no applicable o
he Theban egion.
Time pe iod
Abb e ia ion
Dynas y
Age
Neoli hic Pe iod
-
-
5500 – 3900 BC (Tassie 2014)
P edynas ic Pe iod
-
-
3900 – 3100 BC (Dee e al. 2013; Tassie 2014)
Ea ly Dynas ic Pe iod
ED
D1 – D2
3100 – 2592 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006; Dee e al.
2013)
Old Kingdom
OK
D3 – D6
2592 – 2152 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
Fi s In e media e Pe iod
FIP
D7 – Ea ly
D11
2152– 1980 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
Middle Kingdom
MK
La e D11 –
D13
1980 – 1760 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
Second In e media e Pe iod
SIP
D16 – D17
1759 – 1539 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
New Kingdom
NK
D18 – D20
1539– 1077 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
Thi d In e media e Pe iod
TIP
D21 – D25
1076 – 664 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
La e Pe iod
LP
D26 – D31
664 – 332 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006; Pay audeau
2020)
Macedonian and P olemaic
Pe iods
PP
-
332 – 30 BC (Ho nung e al. 2006)
Roman and Byzan ine Pe iods
RP
-
30 BC – AD 642 (Lloyd 2010)

33
Table S2. Loca ions o co es d illed a Ka nak. Eas ing and No hing a e in UTM 36N;
Ele a ion e e s o he op o he co e wi h espec o he Su ey o Egyp da um.
Co e
Eas ing
No hing
Ele a ion
(masl)
To al Dep h
(m)
Da e
AS001*,†
466078.75
2844874.52
76.41
0.29
Sp ing 2002
AS002*,†
466083.13
2844872.10
76.79
10.95
Sp ing 2002
AS003*,†
466106.18
2844940.01
76.55
5.51
Sp ing 2002
AS004*,†
466102.92
2844938.89
76.66
3.70
Sp ing 2004
AS006*,†
466106.42
2844939.77
76.67
7.80
Sp ing 2004
AS007*,†
466115.41
2844946.12
76.05
2.88
Sp ing 2004
AS008*,†
466111.91
2844948.47
75.91
7.32
Sp ing 2004
AS010†
465767.72
2844529.70
72.88
5.48
Sp ing 2004
AS011†
465597.96
2844386.59
74.19
8.64
Sp ing 2004
AS012†,‡
465807.64
2844221.76
75.30
7.20
Sp ing 2004
AS013†
465414.57
2844710.93
76.11
2.24
Sp ing 2004
AS014†
465489.19
2844675.48
71.97
2.34
Sp ing 2004
AS015†
465487.54
2844673.29
71.98
1.91
Sp ing 2004
AS016†
465487.79
2844666.41
72.40
3.79
Sp ing 2004
AS017†,‡
465792.87
2844492.80
72.84
3.68
Sp ing 2004
AS024*
465414.96
2843764.80
73.35
1.18
Sp ing 2006
AS025*
465409.45
2843767.48
73.12
4.42
Sp ing 2007
AS026*
465434.28
2843758.77
73.26
2.81
Sp ing 2007
AS027*
465349.07
2843822.63
71.91
6.46
Sp ing 2007
AS028*
465587.37
2844001.45
76.85
4.76
Sp ing 2007
AS029‡
465748.63§
2844507.74
71.74
3.99
Sp ing 2007
AS030‡
465423.70
2844348.16
71.44
2.84
Sp ing 2007
AS031
465445.98
2844547.16
71.17
2.37
Sp ing 2007
AS032
465860.90§
2844807.75
79.27
3.87
Sp ing 2007
AS033
465514.36
2844310.23
77.39
9.20
Sp ing 2008
AS034
465528.58
2844727.42
71.97
4.30
Sp ing 2008
AS039‡
465486.45
2844653.72
70.85
3.85
Sp ing 2012
AS040
465733.39§
2844617.71
74.71
1.66
Sp ing 2012
AS113‡,¶
466045.30
2844460.98
74.70
7.00
Au umn 2017
AS114¶
466568.98
2844391.83
74.89
7.60
Au umn 2017
AS143
465583.45
2844266.02
75.70
10.88
Sp ing 2018
AS165
465829.09
2844465.60
72.76
6.20
Sp ing 2018
* Co e no shown on Figu es 2–4. AS001–008 lie u he no h and a e p esen ed elsewhe e (Bunbu y
e al. 2008); AS024–028 a e u he sou h: hei eco ds a e shown on Figu e S3.
† Co e p e iously published (Bunbu y e al. 2008), al hough eco d and ce amic s a ig aphy e-
examined in he cu en wo k, whe e applicable.
‡ Co e d illed wi hin a chaeological exca a ion. Ce amics om he exca a ions lying di ec ly abo e he
op o AS012 and AS030 we e also s udied by he p ojec .
§ The XY loca ions o co es AS029, AS032, AS040 a e co ec o app oxima ely 75cm, 1m and 4m
espec i ely (wi h associa ed e ical e o s). All o he co e loca ions we e su eyed by o al s a ion
(AS001–AS039) o RTK-DGPS (o he s) wi h a negligible XYZ e o .
¶ Basic co e eco d included in a p e iously published da ase (Pee e s e al. 2024).
34
AS167
466468.58
2844370.78
74.22
3.10
Au umn 2018
AS169¶
466483.01
2844360.38
74.84
9.20
Au umn 2018
PC013
465812.93
2844178.72
77.39
6.00
Au umn 2016
PC014
465798.77
2844178.67
76.61
6.90
Au umn 2016
PC025¶
465707.04
2844628.59
74.81
7.00
Au umn 2017
PC026‡,¶
465748.90
2844570.53
73.31
4.20
Au umn 2017
PC027¶
465834.94
2844558.14
74.89
9.80
Au umn 2017
PC028
465903.11
2844527.63
74.76
1.20
Au umn 2017
PC029¶
465981.76
2844473.09
75.22
8.20
Au umn 2017
PC030¶
465894.29
2844512.92
74.41
11.20
Au umn 2017
PC031¶
466164.74
2844387.35
76.10
11.20
Au umn 2017
PC032¶
466343.62
2844397.21
76.70
10.00
Au umn 2017
PC033
465572.53
2844723.51
77.14
2.20
Au umn 2017
PC034¶
465572.23
2844668.68
74.37
10.70
Au umn 2017
PC042¶
465479.98
2844726.80
75.82
7.50
Au umn 2017
PC043¶
465447.01
2844744.85
76.41
10.00
Au umn 2017
PC044¶
465309.58
2844791.32
77.05
5.00
Au umn 2017
PC045
465686.94
2844214.24
76.65
9.80
Sp ing 2018
PC046
465739.27
2844194.58
76.94
9.90
Sp ing 2018
PC047¶
465661.14
2844654.99
75.01
10.10
Sp ing 2018
PC048¶
466129.62
2844407.31
77.91
11.00
Sp ing 2018
PC049¶
466251.71
2844411.59
77.31
11.65
Sp ing 2018
PC060
465633.48
2844519.57
74.24
8.60
Sp ing 2018
PC061
465888.01
2844480.71
73.85
9.85
Sp ing 2018
PC062
465522.61
2844555.75
74.68
10.00
Au umn 2018
PC063
465806.83
2844515.42
73.68
5.40
Au umn 2018
PC071
465973.79
2844104.66
77.06
9.00
Sp ing 2019
PC072
465919.02
2844103.08
77.63
9.00
Sp ing 2019
PC073
465853.04
2844135.68
77.50
7.00
Sp ing 2019
35
Table S3. Co e ch onos a ig aphies om ce amic da a (all co es on Figu es 2–4).
Dashes (–) indica e ha he ma e ial may encompass he ange gi en, o da e om any
poin wi hin he ime pe iod. B.A. indica es "Bulk Assessmen " (see ex ended
me hodology).
Co e
Yea
s udied
She ds
(numbe )
Ele a ion
(masl)
A chaeological pe iod
AS010*
2005
99
72.42–72.88
MK–LP
69.24–72.12
MK–NK
68.00–69.24
Mainly MK
67.40–68.00
No ce amics
AS011
2005 &
2009
3073
71.15–73.55
NK–PP
69.83–71.15
MK–LP
66.91–69.83
Ea ly MK–MK (mid-Dynas y 12)
65.55–66.91
No da ing possible
AS012
2005
141
72.61–75.30
MK
72.43–72.61
La e OK–FIP (Dynas y 6 – ea ly Dynas y 11)
68.1–72.29
Ve y ew she ds, hough o be downhole
con aminan s
AS013
No
s udied†
-
-
-
AS014
No s udied
-
-
-
AS015
No s udied
-
-
-
AS016*
2005
376
68.61–71.49
MK–RP
AS017*,‡
2005
14
72.46–72.84
NK–RP
72.29–72.46
SIP–TIP
71.89–72.29
No da ing possible
69.16–71.89
No ce amics
AS029
2009
247
70.56–71.74
Ea ly MK
67.75–70.56
Va ious small ce amics, no da ing possible§
AS030
2009
2
-
No ce amics excep wo downhole
con aminan s
AS031
2009
119
68.80–71.17
TIP–PP
AS032
2007
1106
77.42–79.27
NK–PP
76.43–77.42
NK–LP
75.40–76.43
NK
AS033
2009
1869
75.52–77.39
RP
74.40–75.14
NK–RP
73.61–74.40
NK
73.31–73.61
MK–SIP
72.57–73.31
MK
* Ce amics om co es AS010, AS016 and AS017 we e s udied by Sally-Ann Ash on and I mga d
Hein, wi hou he insigh s o some o he local exca a ions.
† AS013–015 all e mina ed a e y shallow dep hs due o impene able deb is.
‡ Only la ge she ds looked a in his co e.
§ She ds hea ily ab aded.
36
71.51–72.57
MK, p obably Dynas y 12
68.31–71.51
Ea ly MK
68.19–68.31
No da ing possible
AS034
2009
613
67.67–71.97
NK–PP
AS039
2012
485
68.94–70.85
NK
68.45–68.94
MK–NK
67.00–68.45
MK–ea ly NK
AS040
2012
187
73.41–74.71
TIP–PP/RP?
73.05–73.41
NK
AS113
2019
113
72.60–74.70
MK–NK / MK–SIP
72.48–72.60
Ea ly MK?
71.01–72.48
5x iny she ds, possibly con aminan s
67.70–71.01
No ce amics
AS114
2018
B.A.
68.49–74.89
No da ing possible
67.29–68.49
NK–PP
AS143
2018
2076
73.40–75.70
NK–RP
73.00–73.40
NK
72.70–73.00
SIP–NK
72.10–72.70
(MK–)SIP
71.25–72.10
MK
69.28–71.25
Ea ly MK
68.55–69.28
FIP (Dynas y 11)
65.65–68.55
Ve y ew she ds; no da ing possible
64.82–65.65
No ce amics
AS165
2019
318
70.96–72.76
MK–NK¶
70.16–70.96
Ea ly MK–MK
66.56–70.16
No ce amics
AS167
No
s udied#
-
-
-
AS169
2019
B.A.
74.24–74.84
No da ing possible
69.49–74.24
NK–PP?
66.04–69.49
No da ing possible
PC013
2017
1150
76.79–77.39
Mixed
75.79–76.79
SIP–NK
75.39–75.79
MK–NK
74.29–75.39
MK–SIP
73.89–74.29
MK
71.99–73.89
Few she ds; MK in e ed
71.39–71.99
Ea ly MK
PC014
2017
1682
76.11–76.61
Mixed
76.01–76.11
SIP–NK
75.01–76.01
MK–SIP
72.51–75.01
MK
¶ Some she ds ha e conc e ions.
# Te mina ed a a e y shallow dep h; AS169 ega ded as ep esen a i e o he a ea.
37
71.01–72.51
Ea ly MK
69.71–71.01
FIP (Dynas y 11?)
PC025
2018
B.A.
74.61–74.81
RP
74.31–74.61
MK–RP
72.61–74.31
TIP–PP (mos ly Dynas y 25–26)
71.51–72.61
MK–NK
67.81–71.51
SIP–NK
PC026
2019
471
72.91–73.31
No da ing possible
72.51–72.91
Mixed MK–NK?
70.56–72.51
MK–SIP
69.11–70.56
No ce amics
PC027
2018
B.A.
65.09–74.89
Mixed NK–RP
PC028
No
s udied||
-
-
-
PC029
2019
1035
72.55–75.29
MK–NK
72.12–72.55
SIP–NK
67.02–72.12
No ce amics
PC030
2018
B.A.
73.91–74.41
RP
73.51–73.91
No da ing possible
73.31–73.51
TIP–PP
72.41–73.31
MK–NK?
64.71–72.41
Ea ly MK–MK? Mix u e o ma e ial
64.31–64.71
MK
63.21–64.31
Ea ly MK?
PC031
2018
1594
75.80–76.10
Mixed
74.70–75.80
SIP–NK
73.10–74.70
Downhole con amina ion
69.50–73.10
Ea ly MK plus downhole con amina ion
64.90–69.50
Spo adic she ds h oughou ; no da ing possible
PC032
2018
B.A.
66.70–76.70
Mixed NK–RP?**
PC033
2019
B.A.
75.94–77.14
RP
74.94–75.94
No ce amics
PC034
2018
B.A.
73.77–74.37
PP–RP
72.57–73.77
LP–PP
72.07–72.57
Spo adic she ds h oughou ; no da ing possible
70.57–72.07
MK–NK
63.67–70.57
Spo adic she ds h oughou ; no da ing
possible††
PC042
2019
B.A.
70.72–75.82
PP–RP
69.82–70.72
MK–RP
69.62–69.82
RP
68.32–69.62
NK–RP?‡‡
|| Te mina ed a a e y shallow dep h.
** In lowe pa o co e, she ds a e e y olled and blackened by wa e .
†† Possibly all downhole con amina ion.
‡‡ The she ds a e ew, e y ab aded, and di icul o da e.

38
PC043
2018
B.A.
75.81–76.41
RP–Mode n
75.11–75.81
RP?
66.42–75.11
Spo adic she ds h oughou ; no da ing possible
PC044
2019
B.A.
75.85–77.05
No ce amics
75.35–75.85
RP
72.05–75.35
No ce amics
PC045
2019
2335
76.15–76.65
NK–RP
75.55–76.15
NK
73.65–75.55
SIP–NK
73.35–73.65
SIP?
72.65–73.35
MK–SIP
71.35–72.65
MK (below 72.35m is Dynas y 12)
71.25–71.35
No da ing possible
68.25–71.25
Ea ly MK?
67.45–68.25
No da ing possible
66.85–67.45
No ce amics
PC046
2018
B.A.
76.44–76.94
Mixed RP–Mode n?
75.94–76.44
RP
74.74–75.94
MK–RP?
74.04–74.74
MK–NK
73.84–74.04
Ea ly MK
67.04–73.84
Ve y ew she ds, hough o be downhole
con aminan s
PC047
2019
2457
71.81–75.01
TIP–LP
71.01–71.81
NK–TIP
69.61-71.01
NK
66.31–69.61
SIP–NK (Dynas y 17/Ea ly Dynas y 18)§§
64.91–66.31
No ce amics
PC048
2018
794
76.61–77.91
NK–RP/Mixed
75.51–76.61
NK–PP
73.71–75.51
NK/Mixed
73.31–73.71
NK
72.81–73.31
MK (ea ly MK?)
72.21–72.81
Ve y ew mm-scale she ds
71.41–72.21
MK
70.51–71.41
Ea ly MK?
68.91–70.51
No ce amics
68.51–68.91
MK?/Possibly downhole con amina ion
66.91–68.51
No ce amics
PC049
2018
1411
73.01–77.31
Mixed
72.81–73.01
NK–TIP
68.71–72.81
MK (Dynas y 12)¶¶
65.66–68.71
Ea ly MK
§§ She ds damaged by wa e .
¶¶ She ds ab aded in lowe pa o his sequence.
39
PC060
2018
665
73.64–74.24
RP
72.49–73.64
SIP–NK (la e Dynas y 17/ea ly Dynas y 18)
67.44–72.49
No da ing possible
65.64–67.44
SIP–NK (la e Dynas y 17/ea ly Dynas y 18)
PC061
2018
1670
73.25–73.85
NK
71.65–73.25
SIP
70.35–70.75
SIP
68.05–70.25
MK–SIP
66.35–68.05
ea ly MK?
64.75–66.35
ea ly MK? ( ewe she ds)
64.00–64.75
No ce amics
PC062
2018
B.A.
73.98–74.68
LP–PP
73.68–73.98
MK–NK?
70.18–73.68
Downhole con amina ion
64.68–70.18
No ce amics
PC063
2018
25
72.58–73.74
RP?/Mixed?
69.48–72.58
Ve y ew mm-scale she ds, hough o be
con amina ion
68.28–69.48
No ce amics
PC071
2019
B.A.
75.93–77.06
TIP–PP
74.56–75.93
No da ing possible
72.86–74.56
NK–TIP
72.36–72.86
NK
69.06–72.36
SIP–NK
68.06–69.06
Few small she ds; no da ing possible
PC072
2019
B.A.
76.93–77.63
Mixed? TIP–PP?
73.83–76.93
Mixed? Mode n?
69.87–73.83
NK? Mixed? Mode n?
68.63–69.87
MK?/NK?
PC073
2019
3454
77.20–77.50
No da ing possible
75.60–77.20
MK–NK
74.90–75.60
MK–NK (Dynas y 17?)
73.90–74.90
MK–NK (Dynas y 13?)
73.10–73.90
MK–NK (Dynas y 12?)
72.10–73.10
MK–SIP
71.20–72.10
Ea ly MK##
70.70–72.10
No da ing possible
70.50–70.70
No ce amics
## She ds damaged by wa e .
40
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