______________________________________________________________________
Please ci e as:
S acke, C. M. (2025). Educa ion is a special sec o : Why we need e hical egula ion
o A i icial In elligence and Educa ion (AI&ED) and how we bene i om i
(submi ed, in pee - e iew). P ep in : h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17279562
Educa ion is a special sec o :
Why we need e hical egula ion o A i icial In elligence
and Educa ion (AI&ED) and how we bene i om i
Ch is ian M. S acke 1,2 * [h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9656-8298]
1 Uni e si y o Bonn, Ge many
2 The Eu opean Ins i u e o Lea ning, In o ma ion and Coope a ion
* s [email protected]
Abs ac . This pape analyses he e hical dimensions o he design and
e alua ion o A i icial In elligence (AI) and Educa ion and p o ides ela ed
ecommenda ions. I s a s wi h a li e a u e e iew and discussion o he
ela ionship be ween AI and Educa ion (AI&ED). We p esen ha educa ion is a
special sec o o h ee main easons: Educa ion is (1) a human igh , (2) a
complex ecosys em and (3) sel -lea ning. Thus, i equi es pa icula ules and
egula ions o he AI in oduc ion and use, leading o gene al bene i s. Ongoing
de elopmen s o AI egula ions a e cu en ly missing a ecogni ion o his
impo an demand and o he ulne abili y o he educa ional sec o . Human
igh s, democ acy, and ule o law as he key global alues should guide he
e hical deba e abou AI&ED in combina ion wi h speci ic educa ional
equi emen s. Based on ou li e a u e analysis and discussions, we p opose o
ans e and adap he h ee gene ic lea ning quali y dimensions o he AI&ED
design and e alua ion leading o he h ee dimensions: AI&ED objec i es,
AI&ED implemen a ions and AI&ED esul s. In u u e AI&ED esea ch, hey
can be alida ed o ocus educa ional pu poses o AI selec ion. Finally, we
ecommend h ee e hical impe a i es o he AI&ED design and esea ch
di ec ions: (1) impac -o ien ed, (2) echnology-independen and (3) socie y-
ocused o gua an ee posi i e achie emen s and bene i s by AI&ED o all h ee
educa ional le els and in ol ed s akeholde s. All s akeholde s in educa ion
should call o b oad discussions o gain consensus on AI pe mi s and
p ohibi ions and o acili a e egula ion o AI&ED e lec ing he equi emen s o
he special sec o and ou socie al u u e.
1. Keywo ds: E hical A i icial In elligence and Educa ion (AI&ED), AI use in educa ion and
AI li e acy, special sec o educa ion, AI&ED egula ion, global human igh s, heo e ical
amewo k o e hical AI&ED, impac -o ien ed, echnology-independen and socie y-
ocused AI&ED design & e alua ion.
1 In oduc ion
A i icial In elligence and educa ion (AI&ED) a e a combina ion ha equi es in-dep h
analysis and e lec ion due o he b oad implica ions o bo h concep s. This pape
discusses he e hical dimensions ha a e ele an o AI&ED and p o ides i s
ecommenda ions how o add ess hem in u u e esea ch, design and e alua ion.
In sec ion 2, we p esen a li e a u e e iew on AI&ED as backg ound. A e wa ds,
we discuss he special condi ions o he educa ional sec o and i s equi ed AI egula ion
(sec ion 3) and ela ed e hical ques ions in gene al (sec ion 4) and cu en AI&ED
challenges (sec ion 5). Based on ou indings, we p opose a heo e ical amewo k o
e hical AI&ED esea ch o u u e alida ion (sec ion 6). In he conclusions (sec ion 7),
we discuss how AI&ED egula ion, esea ch and p ac ices can suppo ou socie y.
2 Backg ound: Li e a u e e iew o (e hical) AI&ED
The concep o A i icial In elligence (AI) was coincided in he 1950s (McCa hy e al.,
1955) and is con o e sially deba ed since his o igin (Aiken & Eps ein, 2000, Chaka,
2022; Huang e al., 2023). A he s a o ou millennium, many b anches and sec o s
ha e s a ed o implemen AI (Bo ens ein & Howa d, 2021). I is s a ed ha he e hical
dimensions o AI need o be add essed gi en i s an icipa ed high impac (Kazim &
Koshiyama, 2021; La sson & Hein z, 2020). Many o ganisa ions, ini ia i es and
esea che s s a ed o ocus and de ine e hical and us wo hy AI (Eu opean
Commission, 2022; HLEG on AI, 2019) leading o he i s global s anda d adop ed by
UNESCO (2021). Fi s e lec ions a e al eady discussing he e hics o e hical AI
(Hagendo , 2020).
The concep o educa ion exis s much longe han AI (since an iqui y): The AI&ED
esea ch al eady s a ed mo e han o y yea s ago wi h key ocus on AI use in school
and highe educa ion while AI li e acy esea ch came la e (H as inski e al., 2019;
Ken , & du Boulay, 2022; Luckin e al., 2022; Pinkwa , 2016). AI&ED esea ch
concen a ed on in elligen u o ing sys ems (ITS) some decades ago (Deme al e al.,
2018; du Boulay, 2016), ollowed by AI&ED esea ch on se e al use cases including
eedback unc ions (Beno i e al., 2018), au oma ic g ading (Yang e al., 2019) and he
o e all ela ion be ween a i icial and human in elligence (Bake , 2016). Se e al
sys ema ic li e a u e e iews p o ide an o e iew o he cu en AI&ED esea ch
(Bond e al., 2024; Chen e al., 2020; Chiu e al., 2023; C omp on e al.; 2022; Deng e
al., 2025; Ku di e al., 2020; Mema ian & Doleck, 2023; Sanusi e al., 2022; S acke e
al., 2024; Tang & Su, 2024; Zawacki-Rich e e al., 2019). Today, in e na ional
ins i u ions including UNESCO a e de eloping policies o AI&ED o acili a e
sus ainable educa ion (Miao e al., 2021; Miao & Holmes, 2023).
Many p omises and ad an ages a e decla ed o AI&ED, in pa icula by
in e na ional s akeholde s and o ganisa ions such as G20 (2023), OECD (2021, 2023)
and Wo ld Economic Fo um (2024) including:
• Pe sonalisa ion and mo i a ion h ough di e si y and adap ed pa hways
• Indi idual suppo by AI cha bo s, agen s and in elligen u o sys ems
• Equal chances o all lea ne s independen om human eache s
• Inclusi eness o lea ne s wi h special needs and oppo uni ies
• Lea ning isks' iden i ica ion and educ ion o d op-ou s
• Au oma ic assessmen and g ading o knowledge and skills
A he same ime, many p oblems and disad an ages a e poin ed ou o AI&ED
(Bozku e al., 2023, 2024; Holmes, & Tuomi, 2022; Xiao e al., 2025) including:
• T adi ional pedagogies, eaching and sequencing
• Lack o emo ional, social and collabo a i e aspec s
• An h opomo phism and dumb us in AI and i s esul s
• Biases and inequi ies due o non- ep esen a i e da a sou ces
• Social sco ing o lea ne s and hei compa isons and selec ions
• Da a he and comme cialisa ion by pu e e enue in e es s
3 AI&ED and he special case o educa ion
Why is he educa ional sec o a special case? The e a e h ee main easons why
educa ion has o be ca e ully e lec ed and o be di e en ly ea ed compa ed wi h o he
sec o s: Educa ion is (1) a human igh , (2) a complex ecosys em and (3) sel -lea ning
(Figu e 1).
Figu e 1. Th ee main easons why educa ion is a special sec o .
Fi s o all, we need o unde line ha educa ion is a global human igh (Uni ed
Na ions, 1948). And i is app o ed and ocused as he Sus ainabili y De elopmen Goal
no. 4 (SDG 4) demanding special ecogni ion and e o s om he public au ho i ies
(Uni ed Na ions, 2015). SDG 4 calls o "ensu e inclusi e and equi able quali y
educa ion and p omo e li elong lea ning oppo uni ies o all" (Uni ed Na ions, 2015,
21). I includes any special needs o all pupils o be add essed wha is e en mo e
challenging o lea ne s handicapped by b ain mal unc ions o damages. Acco ding
SDG 4, each lea ne should ha e he same educa ional oppo uni y and chance o
quali y educa ion de ined h ough he en a ge s o SDG 4 and ela ed indica o s
(Uni ed Na ions, 2015).
Second, educa ion is no a sec o like any o he ones bu a complex ecosys em: I
does no deli e a p oduc like all manu ac u ing sec o s bu i o e s a p omise o
u u e lea ning p ocesses ha canno be p edic ed and p e-assessed (S acke, 2019).
Tha is ue in pa icula in o mal school educa ion wi h he manda o y pa icipa ion
o pupils and hei age as mino s. Mos o he school pupils a e no o legal age, canno
decide by hemsel es alone and equi e special a en ion and ca e: Thus, he UN
Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child gua an ees, p o ec s and de ines educa ion as a
global igh and de e mines and secu es manda o y eaching and lea ning o young
child en (Uni ed Na ions, 1990). Fu he mo e, he Con en ion on he Righ s o Pe sons
wi h Disabili ies equi es equal chances and inclusi eness in educa ion (Uni ed
Na ions, 2008) independen o he age wha includes school educa ion and causes
addi ional demands. The e o e, nex o he eache s o he pupils, he school leade s,
au ho i ies and policy-make s o he educa ional sec o ha e pa icula esponsibili ies
o espec and gua an ee he legal and e hical igh s o he pupils and hei pa en s as
well as o acili a e quali y educa ion o all.
Thi d, lea ne s a e sel -cons uc ing hei knowledge, skills and compe ences in
cons an communica ion and in e ac ions wi h hei en i onmen . This sel -lea ning
adds o he special si ua ion in he ield o ( o mal school) educa ion. Nex o he
di icul ies o e idence-based esea ch in educa ion, Ha ie (2008) has demons a ed
he ex ao dina y ela ionship be ween eache s and lea ne as well as he impo ance
and impac o (good) eedback. On he one hand, eache s canno o ce lea ne s o lea n
because lea ne s ha e always o build, de elop and imp o e knowledge, skills and
compe ences by hemsel es. And on he o he hand, he p o ided educa ion by he
eache s and he lea ning esul s achie ed by he lea ne s canno be o eseen and
gua an eed as hey a e always depending on many (ex e nal and in e nal) condi ions
and ac o s (S acke, 2019).
In consequence, hese h ee easons explain why educa ion is a special sec o as well
as why i equi es pa icula e hical conside a ions, p o ec ions and egula ions,
especially in he school educa ion. Those easons a e mos impo an and he basis o
he whole educa ional sec o o sa egua d and gua an ee he de elopmen o esponsible
ci izens o ou u u e socie y and o ensu e global human igh s o all (young and
adul ) lea ne s. And e hical conside a ions and egula ions a e in pa icula needed o
AI&ED gi en he po en ial huge AI impac and he cu en si ua ion in public educa ion
sys ems wi h lack o esou ces and dec easing in es men s. Fu he mo e, hey would
be bene icial because hey can p o ide clea guidelines and gua d ails o all
s akeholde s o he educa ional sec o wha is allowed and wha is o bidden.
4 AI&ED and e hical ques ions
When we ocus on e hics in gene al, h ee main e hical app oaches can be dis inguished
(K onq is , & Rousi, 2022): Applied e hics ( o speci ic e hical ques ions in p ac ice),
no ma i e e hics ( o e hical concep s and heo ies), and me ae hics ( o me a-analysis
o e hical heo ies om no ma i e e hics). In ou discussion he e, we concen a e on
gene al no ma i e e hical ques ions as hey a e mos ele an o he in oduc ion o
AI&ED: No ma i e e hics a e o en con o e sially deba ed in esea ch as well as in
poli ics because hey connec mo al p inciples wi h beha io and explain how hey a e
pe mea ed h ough socio-cul u al sys ems, bo h discu si ely and sys emically
(Gewi h, 1960).
In he e hics o AI, i e e hical p inciples a e deba ed in gene al and globally:
anspa ency, jus ice and ai ness, non-male icence, esponsibili y, and p i acy (Jobin,
Ienca, & Vayena, 2019). And he speci ic e hics o AI&ED a e al eady in he ocus o
in e na ional ins i u ions and public au ho i ies publishing i s AI&ED policies
(Eu opean Commission, 2019; Eu opean Pa liamen , 2021; Miao e al., 2021;
UNESCO, 2021). Thei i s analysis e ealed en common e hical p inciples o
AI&ED clus e ed in se en opics, namely: Go e nance & S ewa dship, T anspa ency
& Accoun abili y, Sus ainabili y & P opo ionali y, P i acy, Secu i y & Sa e y,
Inclusi eness and Human-cen e ed AIED (Nguyen e . al., 2023).
In he global AI&ED esea ch and de elopmen communi y, e hical discussions
we e launched ea ly bu hey we e no gaining a en ion and con inua ion (Aiken &
Eps ein, 2000). The iden i ica ion o he necessi y o e hical AI&ED and he
de elopmen o communi y-d i en p oposals and amewo ks o e hical AI&ED ook
wen y yea s (Akgun & G eenhow, 2021; Bo ens ein & Howa d, 2021; Choun a e al.;
2022; Holmes e al.; 2021, Holmes e al., 2022b). The need is con i med by cu en
esea ch e ealing ha many legal iola ions and issues a e occu ing in 89% o
in e na ional AI&ED p oduc s (Laza us e al., 2022).
Howe e , in e na ional e hical and binding egula ions o AI&ED a e no ye
exis ing and s ill unde de elopmen (despi e he long pe iod o ime o AI (as well as
AI&ED) esea ch and de elopmen be o e) because he b oad use o AI in educa ion
s a ed suddenly due o he new and easy usabili y o gene a i e AI when OpenAI
published Cha GPT on 30 h o No embe 2022 (Bozku e al., 2023). The Eu opean
Union s a ed a i s in e na ional ini ia i e wi h he AI Ac al eady in he yea 2021 o
egula e he AI p o ide s and in he mean ime, he AI Ac is app o ed and published in
he yea 2024 (Eu opean Union, 2024). In pa allel, he Council o Eu ope s a ed
ano he in e na ional law de elopmen o egula e he AI use wi h a special ocus on
he alues o human igh s, democ acy and ule o law (Council o Eu ope, 2023a) ha
is app o ed and published as he AI F amewo k Con en ion (T ea y 225) in he same
yea 2024 (Council o Eu ope, 2024). The AI Ac add esses AI p o ide s and deploye s
in con as o he AI F amewo k Con en ion ocusing AI use s and hei human igh s.
Despi e hese di e en a ge g oups, bo h legal ins umen s a e de eloped o all
sec o s and ha e o applied in all o hem (including educa ion).
While hese wo laws a e i s s eps owa ds an in e na ional AI egula ion, he global
deba e on AI egula ion igno ed educa ion as a special sec o wi h speci ic condi ions
and needs as explained abo e. Thus, he Council o Eu ope s a ed a sepa a e ini ia i e
o wo in e na ional con en ions on e hical AI&ED o ill his gap and appoin ed an
in e na ional AI&ED Expe G oup (Council o Eu ope, 2023b). The collabo a ion
be ween Council o Eu ope and he AI&ED Expe G oup and hei common
con e ences and wo kshops led o i s discussions and esea ch esul s (Council o
Eu ope, 2023d, 2024b; Holmes e al., 2022a, 2023; S acke e al., 2024, 2025b). Finally,
he a gumen a ion o speci ic AI&ED egula ions was con incing: I became ob ious
ha nex o gene ic AI egula ions like he ini ia i es by he Eu opean Union (AI Ac )
and Council o Eu ope (AI F amewo k Con en ion), i is u gen ly equi ed o es ablish
binding laws and condi ions speci ically in he ields o educa ion (Council o Eu ope,
2023b; Holmes e al., 2022a; S acke, 2024). Consequen ly, he Council o Eu ope go
he manda e om all 46 membe s a es o a binding law on AI egula ion in educa ion
and o a ecommenda ion on AI Li e acy (Council o Eu ope, 2023c). Bo h legal
ins umen s a e cu en ly unde de elopmen by he Council o Eu ope and i s AI&ED
Expe G oup o ensu e ha u u e AI&ED con ibu es o he global e hical alues
gua an eeing, acili a ing and suppo ing he human igh s, democ acy and ule o law
(Holmes e al., 2022a, 2023; S acke, 2024).
5 Cu en e hical challenges ela ed AI&ED
Today, we a e acing d ama ic changes in he whole wo ld ha a e s ongly a ec ing
educa ion and lea ning p ocesses, oo. AI is coming on op o undamen al de elopmen
p ocesses such as globaliza ion, in e ne connec i i y, mobile communica ion, social
media and las bu no leas he global COVID-19 pandemic wi h lockdowns and
closu es o schools and uni e si ies wo ldwide (Bozku , 2022; S acke, 2022a, 2022b).
The spon aneous answe s on he AI in oduc ion anged om immedia e hype o
comple e p ohibi ion and acco dingly, he guidelines and policies o AI use in
educa ion we e qui e di e se in he beginning (Dabis & Csáki, 2024; S acke e al.,
2025a).
Rega ding he echnological dimension o AI&ED, we ha e o no e ha AI sys ems
a e mos ly a ge ing cogni i e in elligence while Ga dne (1983) had al eady poin ed
ou he po en ial di e si y in his heo y o mul iple in elligences. Humans ha e al eady
p oblems o iden i y deep akes in ex s, pic u es, audios and ideos wha will inc ease
wi h he s eadily inc easing capabili ies o AI sys ems (G oh e al., 2024). The bigges
challenge is ha AI is he i s echnology ha can mimic human beha iou and ha
people wan o and do communica e wi h AI sys ems like wi h human beings, o en
wi h (o despi e?) he ac ha hey a e awa e o hei a i icial na u e.
Rela ed he pedagogical dimension o AI&ED, we need o emphasize i s o all, ha
e idence-based esea ch esul s on AI use in educa ion wi h posi i e e ec s a la ge
scale a e no ye exis ing despi e all e o s while i is epo ed ha gene a i e AI could
ha m lea ning (Bas ani e al., 2024; OECD, 2023). Thus, i is also di icul o decide
and de ine wha eache s and s uden s should lea n abou AI leading o a plu ali y o
di e en app oaches o AI li e acy (Miao & Cuku o a, 2024; Miao e al., 2024;
OECD, 2025).
Rela ed he human dimension o AI&ED, we need o e lec how AI can suppo he
o e a ching educa ional objec i es o pe sonal de elopmen and capaci y building o
become a success ul indi iduum and esponsible ci izen o ou socie y (Bu gos e al.,
2024). In o he sec o s such as medicine and heal hca e, i is sugges ed o mo e he
e hical deba e owa ds new de ini ions and decisions wha can be conside ed as
accep able o human o e sigh s ac oss he di e si y o AI applica ions and in pa icula
o gene a i e AI and La ge Language Models (LLMs) such as Cha GPT
(Hal au de heide & Ranisch, 2024). In educa ion, he e hical discussions we e s a ed
la e , also due i s special sec o condi ions and lack o esou ces, and a e cu en ly
domina ed by deba es abou ai ness, accoun abili y, anspa ency, and e hics wi h a
special ocus on he impac o cha bo s and u u e agen s (I elebuegu e al., 2023;
Mema ian & Doleck, 2023). Fi s p oposals a e he p omo ion o open educa ion o
e ec i e and sa e use o (gene a i e) AI in educa ion and o bene i om open
educa ional p ac ices as a amewo k o he AI use in educa ion (Mills e al., 2023; Tlili
e al., 2024).
O e all, we need clea guidance and policies o AI&ED and speci ic egula ions o
he AI use in educa ion as well as o he building o AI li e acy o gua an ee he global
human igh s, in pa icula o he young child en and mino s in schools. In pa icula
we should ensu e ha he e a e no AI expe imen s wi h mino s in school educa ion.
Howe e , i is a cu en challenge ha he AI egula ion is gene ally ques ioned
demanding ha exis ing laws should be so ened as i is discussed o he AI Ac o
e en wi hd awn as i is announced in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica (Schume e al.,
2024).
The e o e, i is c ucial o aise and inc ease he public deba es and in e nal
discussions in ins i u ions and among s akeholde s why AI egula ion is equi ed as
well as bene icial o indi idual human igh s as well as o he socie y. We need o
de ine wha we wan o allow and wha we wan o p ohibi wha will also ease he AI
use. Fo he special educa ional sec o , p ac ical guidelines de eloped by he AI&ED
communi y (such as S acke e al., 2024) a e aluable ins umen s o achie ing
consensus on he wo main ques ions how we wan o e hically use AI in educa ion and
how we lea n abou AI.
6 Theo e ical amewo k o e hical AI&ED
To design and alida e u u e heo e ical amewo ks in eme ging ields like AI&ED,
g ounded heo y esea ch is ecommended as a comp ehensi e s a egy (C esswell,
2014). Adop ing his app oach, we a e applying gene ic dimensions o a speci ic sec o
(in ou case AI&ED) o p opose a heo e ical amewo k o u u e esea ch and
alida ion (in ou case an e hical amewo k o AI&ED) ha will ollow he
cons uc i e g ounded heo y by Cha maz (2006). Ou basis is he exis ing adap a ion
o he gene al quali y dimensions (po en ial, p ocess, and esul ) o he educa ional
sec o (lea ning objec i es, lea ning ealiza ions, and lea ning achie emen s) by
S acke (2019). We p opose o ans e and de ine hem o he ields o AI&ED as:
AI&ED objec i es, AI&ED implemen a ions, and AI&ED esul s.
Ou li e a u e e iew and discussion o cu en challenges e ealed ha AI is aising
and causing many e hical conce ns and ques ions. Fo he special case o he
educa ional sec o , we could iden i y he speci ic need and equi emen s o AI&ED
egula ion due o he h ee condi ions o he sec o (human igh , complex ecosys em
and sel -lea ning) o ensu e educa ion as global alue and human igh o all. In any
design, de elopmen and e alua ion o AI&ED, he h ee ans e ed AI&ED
dimensions (objec i es, implemen a ions and esul s) should be conside ed and
add essed. Based on ou e lec ions o he global alues and e hical ques ions ela ed
AI&ED, we ecommend h ee co esponding e hical impe a i es and esea ch
di ec ions o he h ee AI&ED dimensions: Fu u e AI&ED should be impac -o ien ed,
echnology-independen , and socie y- ocused (as p esen ed in Table 1).
Table 2. Th ee AI&ED dimensions and ecommended e hical impe a i es.
Lea ning quali y
AI&ED dimensions
E hical impe a i es
Lea ning objec i es
AI&ED objec i es
Impac -o ien ed
Lea ning ealisa ion
AI&ED implemen a ions
Technology-independen
Lea ning achie emen
AI&ED esul s
Socie y- ocused
The i s e hical ecommenda ion demands impac -o ien ed AI&ED o ocus po en ial
e ec s and bene i s o all in ol ed s akeholde s and ins i u ions while planning
AI&ED implemen a ion and objec i es. Consequen ly, policy make s, public
au ho i ies and eache s, esponsible o AI&ED in oduc ion, should always analyse
he po en ial pe sonal, o ganisa ional and social implica ions and consequences o
AI&ED o a oid any AI isks including comme cial abuse o indi idual p o i s (Xiao
e al., 2024). And e e ybody should become awa e o he ac ha each AI use in
educa ion as well as in any o he sec o is always ini ia ed and accoun ed by human
beings and human decisions can and should egula e AI&ED o he esul s in a ou
o ou whole socie y (Holmes e al., 2022a, 2023).
The second e hical ecommenda ion calls o echnology-independen AI&ED.
The e should always be a p ecise de ini ion and decision o he in ended lea ning design
be o e implemen ing AI&ED (Bozku e al., 2024). Only echnology-independen
concep s can p o ide answe s on he ques ions how AI should be implemen ed and used
in educa ion (AIED) and how educa ion abou AI (AI li e acy) should be designed and
p o ided. In educa ion, echnology should no be applied only due i s possibili y bu
always as suppo o and in ela ion o lea ning objec i es de ined in ad ance (S acke,
2019).
The hi d e hical ecommenda ion eques s socie y- ocused AI&ED o add ess
planned achie emen s on all educa ional le els al eady du ing AI&ED design and
ealisa ion. Lea ne s should ge o know he sho - and long- e m impac s o AI&ED
du ing he AI use in educa ion (AIED) and h ough educa ion abou AI (AI li e acy)
(Nguyen e al., 2023). Tha should co e chances and isks o AI use in gene al and
oppo uni ies o building and imp o ing AI li e acy and digi al compe ences o all
lea ne s and ci izens (Bozku e al., 2023).
These h ee e hical ecommenda ions o he AI&ED design a e also applicable o
he e alua ion o u u e AI&ED esea ch o assess and measu e he achie emen s o
AI&ED in p ac ice. They a e simple bu impo an as design condi ions and e alua ion
c i e ia o a us wo hy and e hical use and e lec ion o AI&ED.
7 Conclusions: Recommenda ions o u u e AI&ED esea ch
The amous epo "Lea ning: he easu e wi hin" unde lines ha educa ion in gene al
(conside ed as a luid ela ionship be ween eache s and lea ne s) equi es ca e ul
hinking and e hical e lec ions due o he gi en impo ance o u u e de elopmen s o
indi idual lea ne s as well as o ou upcoming gene a ions o socie y (UNESCO, 1996).
Tha is e en mo e ue o he ields o AI&ED: In gene al, human beings should be
able o know, ecognise and e lec any use o AI, i s implemen a ion and esul . Nex
o he "s anda d" e hical ques ions ha a e ele an o all sec o s (including educa ion),
he educa ional sec o (wi h i s eaching and lea ning p ocesses and hei condi ions and
se ings) is aising addi ional e hical challenges. Thus, he e a e much mo e e hical
issues ela ed AI implemen a ion and impac in he educa ional sec o han in o he
sec o s (Holmes e al., 2022a; S acke, 2025). Many open e hical ques ions a e aised
while he AI&ED de elopmen is con inuously p og essing and accele a ing.
We could demons a e why he educa ional sec o is a special case and why i
equi es speci ic AI egula ion o gua an ee human igh s and sa egua d he objec i es
o he public educa ion. And we could highligh ha such AI egula ions would be
bene icial because hey can p o ide clea guidelines and gua d ails o all s akeholde s
wha is allowed and wha is o bidden. To in o m ou discussions and decisions abou
AI&ED egula ion, we need e idence-based esea ch a la ge-scale in sa e
en i onmen s. While esea ch including sys ema ic li e a u e e iews on gene al
AI&ED ha e al eady analysed speci ic esea ch ques ions as explained abo e, he ocus
on e hical aspec s o AI&ED is jus s a ing now (Bond e al., 2024; S acke e al., 2023,
2024). Fu u e esea ch on e hical AI&ED could and should alida e (o ejec ) he
e hical AI&ED dimensions o he p oposed heo e ical amewo k. Fu he mo e, i has
o c i ically e lec gene al challenges ela ed o AI such as inc easing monopolism and
powe concen a ions, ene gy and wa e consump ions, black box sys ems (due o
hidden sys em p omp s), and in es men s o esou ces ha a e lacking o o he
(educa ional and socie al) objec i es and asks.
In his way, u u e AI&ED esea ch can suppo and se e he global and sus ainable
socie y as he b oad and ambi ious objec i e o u u e AI de elopmen s and uses (Chen
e al., 2020; Choun a e al., 2022; Eu opean Pa liamen , 2021; Miao e al., 2021). To
achie e his goal, we equi e in pa icula socie y membe s and ci izens wi h AI li e acy
and digi al compe ences unde s anding, acili a ing and imp o ing ou sus ainable
socie y (Holmes e al, 2022a, 2022b; Holmes & Tuomi, 2022; S acke e al., 2022a,
2022b). We need AI&ED ollowing and ealizing he h ee e hical ecommenda ions o
achie e ou long- e m and sus ainable lea ning objec i es and posi i e pe sonal and
socie al impac s. O e all, all s akeholde s in educa ion should call o b oad discussions
o gain consensus on AI pe mi s and p ohibi ions and o acili a e egula ion o AI&ED
e lec ing he demands o he special sec o and ou socie al u u e.
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