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The Ala ming T end o Sexual Ha assmen
Occu ences in he Wo kplace and Wha Can Be
Done
Lim Woan Jinq
1
Cen e o Sou he n New Hampshi e Uni e si y P og am, Help College o A
and Technology, Kuala Lumpu , Malaysia
Rashad Yazdani a d
Cen e o Sou he n New Hampshi e Uni e si y P og am, Help College o A
and Technology, Kuala Lumpu , Malaysia
Abs ac
Resea ches ha e shown wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen (SH) as indeed a
sou ce o s ess a wo kplaces. I he o she is a ic im o SH, he o she is no he
only one. E e yone has he igh s o oice ou , as we ha e ou human igh s. The
pu pose o his pape is o c ea e an awa eness o SH in wo kplaces due o i s
impac on each ic im’s heal h, psychologically and physically. Mos o he
ic ims keep i as sec e in o de o a oid emba assmen . Ye , hese
emba assmen s hen lead o a highe pe cen age o wo kplace sexual
ha assmen . This pape has e iewed a o al o 25 jou nal a icles, ega ding he
pe cen age o wo kplace SH ic ims, he socie y’s s ance on i , he cha ac e is ics
o ic ims, he c i e ion o judge Sexual Ha assmen , he in luences o SH
pe cep ions, he in luences o he in en ion o SH in e en ion, he
consequences o SH on ic ims and he e ec s o implemen ing aining and
policies. In some employe s’ poin o iew, he con ibu ion o aining and
policies o p e en wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen inciden s a e small. Ye , hese
small con ibu ions on he o he hand c ea e a domino e ec in long e m iew
and a e be e han no ac ion aken. The e o e, companies should implemen
aining and policies as one o he s a egies o p o ec employees om
expe iencing SH inciden s as well as o uphold he company’s epu a ion.
Keywo ds: Quid p o quo ha assmen , hos ile wo k en i onmen ha assmen ,
dep ession.
Ci e his a icle: Jinq, L. W., & Yazdani a d, R. (2015). The Ala ming T end o Sexual
Ha assmen Occu ences in he Wo kplace and Wha Can Be Done. In e na ional Jou nal o
Managemen , Accoun ing and Economics, 2(5), 467-480.
1
Co esponding au ho ’s email: lwj_1996@ou look.com
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Accoun ing and Economics
Vol. 2, No. 5, May, 2015
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468
In oduc ion
Mos o he women ha e expe ienced Sexual Ha assmen , simply because hey a e
women. Bu does i mean men do no ace Sexual Ha assmen as well? Sexual Ha assmen
is de ined as unwan ed sex- ela ed beha io ha ecipien s ake o be o ensi e, such as
unwelcome e bal and non- e bal sexual beha io (Nielsen & Eina sen, 2012). The e
a e 2 ypes o Sexual Ha assmen : Quid p o quo ha assmen , he ha assmen in he o m
o employmen h ea o in exchange condi ion wi h someone mo e powe ul han he
ic im (Cha leswo h, McDonald & Ce ise, 2011). Hos ile wo k en i onmen e e s o
he wo kplace ha does no p ohibi sexual insul , idicule and disc imina o y
in imida ion (Sipe, Johnson & Fishe , 2009). Due o he ise o Sexual Ha assmen
complain s, laws ha e been es ablished ha goes agains wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen ,
such as he Sex Disc imina ion Ac 1984 in Aus alia. I is a se ious issue wo ldwide due
o he impac o wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen on ic ims, leading o dep ession. In
addi ion, mos o he ic im did no make a o mal epo on Sexual Ha assmen inciden s
due o di e en easons. The mos common eason would be, ‘ o p o ec hei job’. On
he o he hand, men s ill hink women a e o be blamed e en hough hey a e he ic ims.
Should aining and policies be implemen ed? I is s ill a ques ion o be asked, and e ec s
on ypes o aining we e analyzed in o de o he o ganiza ion o iden i y which aining
maybe mo e sui able o hei employees. T aining and policies ega ding Sexual
Ha assmen is now a mus , o p o ec he employees and mo eo e , o p o ec he
company’s epu a ion.
Sexual Ha assmen in wo kplace, a global issue and end wi hou an end
The pe cen age o wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen may be a ela i ely small issue o
ce ain o ganiza ions, ye i is s ill conside ed o be a conce n due o he cul u e, age,
educa ion o he wo kplace as well as he policies and aining implemen ed in an
o ganiza ion. Only 18 pe cen o emale employees in China, Nanjing, ha e ne e aced
Sexual Ha assmen ou o 100 esponden s (Zhang, 2012). All o he esponden s ha e a
leas 1 yea o wo k expe ience and we e ages be ween 21 and 50. Sexual Ha assmen
inciden s ha we e aced by esponden s include e bal/ a i ude Sexual Ha assmen (54
pe cen ), physical beha io (20 pe cen ), and exchange condi ion (8 pe cen ). Me hods o
dealing wi h Sexual Ha assmen we e also examined. Op ion ‘ equi es he compe en uni
p ocesses’ we e chosen by 27 pe cen o esponden s; 25 pe cen accoun ed ‘ epo o he
police’; and only 2 pe cen chose ‘ ega d as no hing’.
226 o he in e iewee in Aus alia ha e also aced wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen , ou
o 2,005 Aus alians ec ui ed ia elephone in e iew (Cha leswo h, McDonald &
Ce ise, 2011). 76 o he esponden s ha e expe ienced wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
acco ding o he Sex Disc imina ion Ac 1984 (SDA); de ined as Legal De ini ion G oup
(LDG). 150 esponden s ha e expe ienced wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen bu no based
on SDA; de ined as Beha io al De ini ion G oup (BDG). 46 pe cen o LDG we e
employed less han a yea , compa ed o 19 pe cen o BDG. 69 pe cen o 226
in e iewees ha e expe ienced non- physical ha assmen ; 31 pe cen expe ienced
physical Sexual Ha assmen . Non- physical ha assmen expe ienced a e such as sexually
sugges i e jokes (59 pe cen ); and ques ions ega ding p i a e li e o physical appea ance
being asked (42 pe cen ). The esul also sugges ed ha ing mo e wo k expe ience may
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Accoun ing and Economics
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469
lead o highe ole ance owa ds Sexual Ha assmen as 52.6 pe cen o LDG de ine mo e
on physical Sexual Ha assmen such as unwelcome ouching compa ed o BDG. Among
he 226 esponden s, 84 pe cen ha e ne e made a o mal epo . Common easons we e
‘ he beha io was no se ious enough’ and ‘p oblems we e o be sol ed indi idually’.
A s udy o wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen in Uni ed S a es o Ame ica (U.S) law
en o cemen was conduc ed by Lonsway, Paynich and Hall (2013). 2 s udies we e
conduc ed; S udy 1 consis ed o 679 pa icipan s om law en o cemen agencies and
s udy 2 consis ed o 531 emale police o ice s as pa icipan s. Sexual Expe ience
Ques ionnai es (SEQ) wi h 16 beha io s we e dis ibu ed o bo h s udies o de e mine
he ypes o Sexual Ha assmen expe ienced, he consequences and he esponse o Sexual
Ha assmen by pa icipan s. F om he esul o bo h s udies, an a e age o 88.65 pe cen
pa icipan s has aced a leas one o he beha io s lis ed in SEQ du ing he pas yea .
Non- physical ha assmen (mean o 1.5) such as di y jokes be ween cowo ke s we e
expe ienced mo e o en han unwan ed sexual a en ion (mean o 1.1) and quid p o quo
ha assmen (mean o 1). Howe e , he e we e 89 pe cen o esponden s in he s udy who
ha e ne e iled a o mal complain ; men only expe ienced ep isal a e epo ing ace
disc imina ion ins ead o sex disc imina ion like emale. The mos common easons o
no epo ing Sexual Ha assmen we e ha he esponden belie ed ha he beha io was
no se ious enough (49.2 pe cen ), wan ed o p o ec he job, o hough p oblems could
be sol ed indi idually.
Sexual Ha assmen complain s be ween yea 2000 and 2010 published by Equal
Employmen Oppo uni y Commission (EEOC), a U.S ede al law en o cemen agency
ha implemen laws agains wo kplace disc imina ion, was analyzed (Ca es & Machin,
2012). 26 pe cen d opped in numbe o Sexual Ha assmen complain s ecei ed by
EEOC in 2010 compa ed o he yea 2000. In addi ion, only app oxima ely 10 pe cen o
complain s we e sol ed each yea . EEOC also s a ed an app oxima e o $50 million we e
paid be ween yea 2000 and 2010 o hose cases wi h me i and held in cou . Al hough
he e a e housands o claims s ill unsol ed by EEOC, some o ganiza ions ha e ied o
se le hose claims by paying millions o dolla s.
The e ec o socie y owa ds wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
The e ec s o social o ganiza ion and ies owa ds wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
ic imiza ion was conduc ed by Snyde , Sche e and Fishe (2010). Yea s 2002 (1796
esponden s) and 2006 (1734 esponden s) Quali y o Wo king Li e su ey module om
Gene al Social Su ey in U.S we e analyzed in he s udy. Based on he 2 wa es o s udy,
11.32 pe cen o emale employees we e a ic im o wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
compa ed o 2.77 pe cen o men. Repo ed by emale employees, he e a e 5 a iables
o social o ganiza ion ha a e signi ican ly ela ed o wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen ; less
p oduc i i y, poo ime managemen , less wo kplace esou ces(no epo ed by male
employees) and ewe adminis a i e suppo s. On he o he hand, esponden s also
epo ed poo ela ionship wi h cowo ke s has led o highe pe cen age in expe iencing
Sexual Ha assmen ; emale employees addi ionally epo ed bad ela ionship be ween
managemen and employees. In addi ion, Female employees epo ed s onge social ies
and be e ela ions be ween managemen and employees can help in educing he e ec
o poo adminis a i e suppo and insu icien wo kplace esou ces on Sexual
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Ha assmen . Male employees on he o he hand epo ed good ela ionship be ween
managemen and employees can help in be e managing he wo kplace Sexual
Ha assmen .
Sexual Ha assmen in coun ies whe e women a e ega ded as ‘second
gende ’; he esul o gende inequali y
In Nige ia, women a e seen as he second gende and ha e no igh s o oice ou . This
hinde ed Johnson’s (2010) da a collec ion; only 34 Nige ian emale wo ke s olun ee ed
o answe he ques ionnai es dis ibu ed ia In e ne . The s udy ocused on he ype o
ha assmen expe ienced and esponses o ic ims owa ds he beha io . Wi hin he 34
esponden s, 70.6 pe cen admi ed being sexually ha assed and 61.8 pe cen we e
sexually ha assed by a supe io in a ypical mon h (Johnson, 2010). In addi ion, 64.7
pe cen o he esponden chose no o epo being sexually ha assed, mainly o p o ec
hei job. On he o he hand, 62.7 pe cen hough Sexual Ha assmen was awa e by he
socie y and 76.5 pe cen ag eed legisla ion should be passed on Sexual Ha assmen .
Albania is a pa ia chal- o ien ed coun y wi h gende disc imina ion, simila o
Nige ia (Zenelaj & De eni, 2013). This s udy ocused on how Albanian women pe cei e
Sexual Ha assmen and how hey iden i y wi h i . 283 emale s uden s we e andomly
chosen om Ti ana Uni e si y. The su ey applied a ing scale o sea ch o ypes o
Sexual Ha assmen aced by in e iewee and hei eac ions owa ds he beha io om 1
(ne e ) o 5 (almos all he ime). F om he s udy, i showed mos o he s uden conside ed
‘Ges u es o sexual na u e’ and ‘Exposu e o geni als by ouching’ as non- e bal Sexual
Ha assmen (Zanelaj & De eni, 2013). On he o he hand, mos esponden s conside ed
commen abou hips, b eas s and legs as e bal Sexual Ha assmen . By compa ing he
age g oup o emale esponden s, i sugges ed olde age will lead o highe ole ance
owa ds Sexual Ha assmen in wo kplace. Las ly, he esul s ha e also e iewed emale
s uden s li ed in he campus ha e expe ienced e bal and non- e bal Sexual Ha assmen .
The s udy o Sexual Ha assmen in Sudan was conduc ed by Shahi a and Widad (2009)
by in e iewing 10 emales and 5 males om an o ganiza ion ep esen ing he o mal
sec o ; 10 emale and 5 males in ma ke place o he in o mal sec o . Among he o mal
sec o in e iewees, only 5(100 pe cen emale) admi ed o ha e expe ienced Sexual
Ha assmen ; 2 epo ed o gene al manage and 3 kep silen . The key ha asse s in
wo kplace a e such as bosses and manage s. Fo pa icipan s who ha e no expe ienced
Sexual Ha assmen , hey would choose o ei he epo o he gene al manage o esign
om he job i hey encoun e Sexual Ha assmen . Based on he esponse, i sugges s
Sexual Ha assmen would led o dec ease in p oduc i i y and loss o aluable s a
h ough esigna ion. Wi hin in o mal sec o , mos o he women hink God made men o
be supe io s by na u e. Mos o he ma ke women ace Sexual Ha assmen such as
unwelcome sexual ges u es nea ly e e y day as ma ke women we e pe cei ed as easy
women. E en hough men did no expe ience Sexual Ha assmen , hey accused women
o w ong sel - ep esen a ion and misbeha io in ma ke place. The key ha asse s in
ma ke place a e such as clien s and supplie s.
The ic ims o wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
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522 samples wi h di e en occupa ions we e olun ee ed o he s udy o Sexual
Ha assmen ha asse s’ and ic ims’ cha ac e is ics, a s udy conduc ed by McLaughlin,
Uggen and Blacks one (2012). Based on he s udy, i sugges ed he signi ican p edic o
o ha assmen o emales is wo kplace powe . The esul was compa ed be ween emale
supe iso s and non-supe iso s in di e en occupa ional ca ego ies and showed emale
supe iso s ha e expe ienced mo e Sexual Ha assmen han non-supe iso s (44 e sus
21 pe cen o o icial o manage ial; 52 e sus 29 pe cen o p o essionals; 50 e sus 47
pe cen o echnical/ c a wo ke s; 45 e sus 33 pe cen o se ice). Men on he o he
hand ha e no signi ican ela ionship be ween Sexual Ha assmen and supe iso s.
Gende con o mi y is also a ac o as ‘ eminine emales’ epo ed less ha assmen han
‘masculine emales’.
Ano he simila s udy was conduc ed by Tyne and Clin on (2010) ha ocused on
human esou ces p o essionals as ic ims. A o al o 110 olun ee ed pa icipan s (26
males and 84 emales) we e ec ui ed om 3 Human Resou ce Socie y ia e-mail. Among
he 110 pa icipan s, 89.09 pe cen expe ienced gende ha assmen ; 47.27 pe cen
expe ienced unwan ed sexual a en ion; only 6.36 pe cen expe ienced sexual coe cion;
29.09 pe cen we e sexually ha assed. F om his s udy, i hen sugges ed e en hough
human esou ce p o essionals a e good a handling human esou ce issues, Sexual
Ha assmen inciden s a e s ill an issue wi hin he wo kplace he e o e policies and
aining should also be employed by he Human Resou ce Socie y.
C i e ia o judging Sexual Ha assmen inciden s by:
Bys ande s
106 olun ee s om a uni e si y in Sou hwes U.S pa icipa ed in a s udy abou he
eac ions o bys ande s owa d Sexual Ha assmen wi h equal amoun o gende
(Bena ides- Espinoza & Cunninghum, 2010). In he s udy, ques ionnai es we e
dis ibu ed a e pa icipan s ead he o e iew o he o ganiza ional cul u e and
desc ip ion o Sexual Ha assmen si ua ion wi hou Sexual Ha assmen being men ioned.
Acco ding o he esul , he ank o quid p o quo ha assmen (mean o 6.17 wi h 7 as e y
se ious) was highe han hos ile wo k en i onmen (mean o 5.04); and p e e ed
p oac i e depa men (mean o 5.46 wi h 7 as e y suppo i e o di e si y) han complian
depa men s (mean o 2.83). A s onge esponse owa d quid p o quo ha assmen was
esul ed in p oac i e a hle ic depa men s (wi h mean o 4.32) compa ed o complian
depa men (mean o 4) e en hough o ganiza ional cul u e does no a ec he p e e ed
punishmen o Sexual Ha assmen . In addi ion, he esul also sugges ed women would
p e e a ha she punishmen owa d Sexual Ha assmen han men (women wi h mean o
3.74, men wi h mean o 3.21).
Manage s
211 manage s om Michigan we e ec ui ed wi h mail ques ionnai e. Manage s we e
o choose om a scale anging om 0 ( e y une hical) o 10 ( e y e hical). The s udy
ocused on he in luences o esponse by manage s owa d simila Sexual Ha assmen
inciden s (S a e, Jung & Leidlein, 2009). The a e age was 4.2 (conside ed neu al) o
he si ua ion o ‘ he esul o oman ic ela ionship b eakup led o a cha ge o Sexual
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Ha assmen and a manage deal i by ans e ing a emale employee o esol e he issue’.
Manage s who scaled he si ua ion as e hical we e mos ly no in o med abou he law and
EEOC guidelines. The cha ac e is ics o esponden s who scaled 0 o 1 we e manage s
who wo k o la ge ci ies wi h la ge numbe s o emale employees. Gende on he o he
hand showed no signi ican wi h he esponse o si ua ion as a e age emales did no
judge he si ua ion o be mo e une hical. In addi ion, manage s who a ended Michigan
Local Go e nmen Managemen Associa ion mee ings we e signi ican o he esponse o
si ua ion by judging he si ua ion o be mo e une hical.
The in luences o he Sexual Ha assmen pe cep ions
The ac o s such as age and gende ha may a ec Sexual Ha assmen pe cep ions
we e examined in he US Midwes e n Uni e si y wi h 965 s uden s and s a employees
(Ohse & S ockdale, 2008). A si ua ion o Sexual Ha assmen , legal de ini ion o Sexual
Ha assmen and se ies o Sexual Ha assmen ques ions based on he si ua ion and legal
de ini ion we e dis ibu ed o he pa icipan s. Pa icipan s we e sepa a ed by s uden
s a us and gende . Acco ding o he answe s o pa icipan s, male & emale pa icipan s
and s uden & s a employees lis ed he si ua ion dis ibu ed o be conside ed as Sexual
Ha assmen . By analyzing each a iable, highe hos ile sexism and bene olen sexism
a ings we e exhibi ed by men and s uden s g oup han women and s a employees g oup.
In he a ing o non-welcome, women and s a employees a ed highe han men and
s uden s. Women on he same hand had a ed a highe Sexual Ha assmen pe cep ion han
men. In o e all esul , he s udy showed he pe cep ion o Sexual Ha assmen is less
sensi i e wi hin college-age samples (4.25 wi h 6 as highes a ing) compa ed o non-
college age samples (4.37) and no a ec ed by gende and sexis a i udes.
S udy o he wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen pe cep ion by males and emales among
he u u e p o essionals in India we e conduc ed by Bane jee and Sha ma (2012). 100
males and 100 emales’ s uden s we e ec ui ed om 4 colleges, s uc u e ques ionnai es
we e used o da a collec ion. Based on he knowledge o Sexual Ha assmen de ini ion
answe ed by he esponden s, only 24 pe cen males able o gi e comple e de ini ion
compa ed o 43 pe cen o emales. A o al o 70 pe cen males ag ee wi h he s a emen
o ‘women should be esponsible o hei own ha assmen ’ compa ed o a 49 pe cen o
emales. 46 pe cen o male ag ee wi h he s a emen ‘women enjoy being sexual
ha assed’ compa ed o 8 pe cen o emales. 60 pe cen o male ag ee o he s a emen
‘women should no d ess o a ac ’ compa ed o 44 pe cen o emales. Fo he s a emen
‘women mean ‘yes’ when hey say ‘no’, 27 pe cen male chose no commen and 28
pe cen ag eed; only 4 pe cen emale ag eed. 31 pe cen males expec ed Sexual
Ha assmen owa ds emale wo ke s, compa ed o 12 pe cen o emales. 8 pe cen male
expe ienced Sexual Ha assmen , compa ed o 16 pe cen o emales.
Uni e si y s uden s’ pe cep ion o Sexual Ha assmen we e also examined by Sipe,
Johnson and Fishe (2009). 1,373 unde g adua es we e ec ui ed as olun a y samples
om a public uni e si y in he Sou heas e n U.S. Ques ionnai es dis ibu ed ocused on
gende - based disc imina ion and sexual ha assmen in wo kplace. Acco ding o he
esul s, women end o pe cei e Sexual Ha assmen as happening o hemsel es and o he
women; Sexual Ha assmen may ad e sely impac hei ca ee s mo e han men. Non-
Caucasians pe cei ed he simila esul as women, bu did no pe cei e Sexual
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Ha assmen would a ec hei ca ee s. On he o he hand, mos o he esponden s
indica ed women a e likely o encoun e sexis ema ks o beha io (60 pe cen ) and
unwan ed ad ances (55 pe cen ) bu no o se ious o ms o sexual ha assmen such as
b ibe y and h ea s. In addi ion, 70 pe cen o esponden s did no belie e women would
encoun e sexual beha io o job oppo uni y. 63 pe cen o emales hink ha job
dissa is ac ion is led by Sexual Ha assmen compa ed o 30 pe cen by males. Non-
Caucasian s uden s esul ed o be less sensi i e owa ds he po en ial e ec o Sexual
Ha assmen compa ed o Caucasian s uden s.
The wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen pe cep ions we e s udied based on he Tu kish
Con ex wi h 353 Tu kish emale wo ke s om 4 di e en o ganiza ions in age wi hin 21
o 51 (Toke & Süme , 2010). Pa icipan s we e ec ui ed h ough pe sonal con ac s and
su ey hen in e iewed indi idually. I ocused on beha io s conside ed as Sexual
Ha assmen in wo kplace. The 5 mos conside ed beha io s a e ‘Insinua ion o In e es ’,
‘Sexual Hos ili y’ (such as sexual jokes), ‘Sexis Hos ili y’ (gende disc imina ion),
‘Physical Sexual O ense’ (such as ying o kiss a woman), and ‘Sexual B ibe y &
Coe cion’ (sexual coope a ion) (Toke & Sume , 2010). Mos o he pa icipan s
conside ed Physical Sexual O ense and Sexual B ibe y & Coe cion as he mos sexually
ha assing ac o s wi h he mean a ing o 4.52 (5 as ce ainly is Sexual Ha assmen ) o
bo h ac o s. Sexual Hos ili y has he mean o 3.76, hen Insinua ion o In e es wi h mean
o 3.09 and las ly, Sexis Hos ili y wi h mean o 2.21. The a iables o indi iduals we e
u he s udied as well and sugges ed sel - es eem does no a ec he pe cep ion o Sexual
Ha assmen wi h libe al a i udes; indi iduals wi h egali a ian a i udes pe cei e mo e
Sexual Ha assmen when sel - es eem dec eased.
Ano he s udy abou public pe cep ions o Sexual Ha assmen in Is ael based on he
consensus and eminis heo e ical pe spec i es was conduc ed by He zog (2007). The e
we e 630 Is aeli esponden s ec ui ed h ough elephone su ey o 7 o 10 minu es o
e alua e hypo he ical sho c ime scena ios ha ep esen cases o Sexual Ha assmen .
Each a ing o se iousness o each case was eco ded and he anking was om 1 (no
se ious a all) o 11 ( e y se ious). Acco ding o he esponden s, Sexual Ha assmen
scena ios p o ided we e conside ed as high se iousness and punishmen (mean o 8.65).
By compa ing Sexual Ha assmen scena ios wi h o he cases, iolen c iminal ac s’
scena ios ecei ed a highe se iousness (mean o almos 10) and p ope y o enses’
se iousness ecei ed a sligh ly lowe se iousness a ing. Howe e , he se iousness o he
scena io p o ided would ecei e a lowe a ing when he ic ims we e women as 75
pe cen o he esponden s we e old- ime ci izens, using he adi ional a i udes owa ds
women.
The in luences o he in en ion o epo ing Sexual Ha assmen in he
wo kplace
Whe he he in en ion o epo ing a Sexual Ha assmen si ua ion is in luenced by
employees’ pe cep ion o con lic , company in eg i y and c iminal e idence was
conduc ed by Tseng (2014). Ques ionnai es o 2 scena ios (quid p o quo Sexual
Ha assmen and hos ile en i onmen Sexual Ha assmen ) wi h 4 e sions (A and C a e
colleague ha asses cus ome s; B and D a e cus ome s ha asses colleague) each we e
dis ibu ed. 232 pa icipan s ec ui ed om li e insu ance companies in 4 di e en ci ies
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Vol. 2, No. 5, May, 2015
ISSN 2383-2126 (Online)
© IJMAE, All Righ s Rese ed www.ijmae.com
474
in Taiwan we e sepa a ed in o 4 g oups. Each pa icipan only ecei es one ques ionnai e
wi h ei he one scena io o e alua e he si ua ion. Based on he esul s, i showed
bys ande s would only ha e he in en ion o help ic ims epo a Sexual Ha assmen
si ua ion i he bys ande belie e he company can deal Sexual Ha assmen si ua ion
ai ly. Responden s o he s udy also ha e a highe in en ion o epo ing hos ile
en i onmen Sexual Ha assmen compa ed o quid p o quo Sexual Ha assmen . In
addi ion, employees a e mo e ole an owa ds ‘colleague ha asses cus ome s’ mo e han
‘cus ome s ha asses colleague’ si ua ion.
The in luence o he Sexual O ien a ion Ha assmen (SOH) in e en ion in wo kplaces
was conduc ed in 2 s udies (Ryan & Wessel, 2011). In he 1s s udy, 86 s uden s wi h 1
yea o wo k expe ience in Midwes e n campus we e ec ui ed as sample. Ques ionnai es
we e gi en o hem based on he Sexual Ha assmen si ua ion hey ha e wi nessed. Mos
o he si ua ion wi nessed by pa icipan s was non- physical ha assmen . Based on he
esul , bys ande would only ha e he in en ion o help when hey ha e a close
ela ionship wi h he a ge ; pe cei ed a clea in en o ha m; when o he s a e no p esen .
Bys ande s will also esul a g ea e in ol emen and immediacy o in e en ion when he
o she belie es he e is a lesse cos s o in e en ion and belie e he ha assmen would
ecu . In he 2nd s udy, 327 pa icipan s we e ec ui ed om a uni e si y psychology
subjec pool. 16 di e en scena ios we e dis ibu ed o pa icipan s andomly o e alua e.
F om he s udy, i showed a g ea e in en ion o in e ene was signi ican ly ela ed o a
mo e di ec ha assmen ; knowledge o o ien a ion; ecu ence belie s by he bys ande .
Gende and age also in luence he in en ion o in e en ion; emale and olde pa icipan s
show g ea e in e en ion in en ions han men and younge pa icipan s.
The esul s o Sexual Ha assmen owa ds ic ims
The s udy o he expec ed ela ionship be ween wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen and
psychological dis ess was conduc ed wi h 2 yea s (2005 as baseline da a o 2007 as
ollow-up da a) o longi udinal su ey da a collec ion wi h 1775 No wegian employees
(Nielsen & Eina sen, 2012). The longi udinal ela ionships be ween Sexual Ha assmen
and psychological dis ess o men and women we e sepa a ed wi h odd a ios. F om he
da a collec ed a he baseline, mo e women ha e epo ed psychological dis ess han men
wi h no di e ence compa ed o ollow- up da a. Based on he esul o adjus ed baseline
dis ess and age, i e ealed among women, he exposu e o Sexual Ha assmen a
baseline was associa ed wi h psychological dis ess wi h odd a io o 2.03; bu no o
men, wi h odd a io o 1.32. Howe e among men, he baseline dis ess was signi ican ly
ela ed o Sexual Ha assmen a ollow-up wi h odd a io o 3.03; bu no women wi h
odd a io o 1.15. The compa ison o he esul be ween baseline and ollow-up hen
sugges ed, Sexual Ha assmen was pa o a con ibu ion owa d psychological dis ess
among women.
The esul o Sexual Ha assmen , was compa ed be ween Pakis an and U.S. 146 o
Pakis ani (75 pe cen emale) and 102 o U.S pa icipan s we e ec ui ed o he s udy
conduc ed by Me kin and Shah (2014). O e all, bo h g oup pa icipan s we e young and
educa ed. A second s udy was conduc ed o U.S heal h ca e wo ke s as con ol g oup. All
pa icipan s we e equi ed o comple e a se o ques ionnai es in hei espec i e home
coun ies. Based on he s udy, Pakis anis has lowe job sa is ac ion a e expe ienced
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Accoun ing and Economics
Vol. 2, No. 5, May, 2015
ISSN 2383-2126 (Online)
© IJMAE, All Righ s Rese ed www.ijmae.com
475
Sexual Ha assmen compa ed o U.S employees (mean o 3.21 and 3.02 espec i ely).
Pakis anis who expe ienced Sexual Ha assmen also had highe u no e in en ions han
U.S employees (mean o 3.15 and 2.41 espec i ely); highe absen eeism (mean o 3.17)
compa ed o U.S employees (mean o 1.88). In addi ion, Pakis ani emales use mo e
indi ec s a egies o manage Sexual Ha assmen han U.S emale employees.
The e ec o policies and aining owa ds wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
The e a e di e en ypes o s a egies manage s can employ o coun e Sexual
Ha assmen . The s udy on he ypes o choice made by he manage s was conduc ed by
Salin (2008), along wi h he a iables a ec ing hei choices. Online ques ionnai es we e
sen o Finnish municipali ies’ pe sonnel manage s. Based on he esul s, mos o he
pe sonnel manage s used ‘discussions wi h he pa ies in ol ed’ and ‘consul ing
occupa ional heal h ca e se ices’ as s a egies o in e ene wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen
(78.5 and 72.7 pe cen espec i ely). T ans e o ei he he pe pe a o (24.4 pe cen ) o
he a ge (22 pe cen ) was a common s a egy. 6.8 pe cen epo ed he a ge chose o
esign. 12.2 pe cen epo ed no measu es we e aken by he o ganiza ion. The choices o
s a egies we e a ec ed by he cha ac e is ics o pe sonnel manage . Female a e likely o
u ilize e-concilia o y measu es o in e ene wo kplace Sexual Ha assmen (mean o
4.11) and ans e s a egy (mean o 2.96) compa ed o male (mean o 3.92 and 2.70
espec i ely). Male a e mo e likely o ake no ac ion (mean o 2.20) compa ed o emale
(mean o 1.76). Age and educa ional le el showed no signi ican di e ence in choice o
esponse s a egy.
The e ec o o mal sexual ha assmen policies owa ds o ganiza ions was s udied in
U.S by He zog, W igh and Bea (2008). The sample o his s udy is he 303
o ganiza ions ha employed a o mal sexual ha assmen policy. Da a was collec ed om
2002 Na ional O ganiza ion Su ey (NOS). Employe s and pe sonnel manage s we e
in e iewed by he Na ional Opinion Resea ch Cen e (NORC) o acqui e o ganiza ional-
le el da a. 4 beha io al a iables we e measu ed (hos ile en i onmen Sexual
Ha assmen , h ea ening, bullying and inci ili y) in he le el o 1 (ne e ) o 4 (o en).
A e compiling he esul s om 303 o ganiza ions, 29 pe cen o o ganiza ions ha e iled
a o mal Sexual Ha assmen complain . The compa ison o expe iencing beha io
be ween o ganiza ions wi h o mal complain s been iled and no been iled we e made;
Sexual Ha assmen beha io s (80.7 pe cen e sus 11.6 pe cen ), h ea ening beha io s
(72.7 pe cen e sus 32.1 pe cen ), bullying (60.2 pe cen e sus 23.3 pe cen ) and ac s
o inci ili y (85.2 pe cen e sus 65.1 pe cen ). O ganiza ions wi h o mal complain s
being iled a e also mo e likely o p o ide wo kshops on Sexual Ha assmen , di e si y,
wo kplace iolence, con lic esolu ion and es aining nega i e wo kplace beha io .
The e ec o a B ie Pilo Sexual Ha assmen p e en ion wo kshop was s udied based
on employees’ knowledge (Campbell e al., 2013). In he s udy, 80 employees o 3
di e en wo king sec o s (se ice, mili a y and social se ice) in u al no heas e n
Missou i we e ec ui ed a hei espec i e wo kplaces o he pa icipa ion o 1 hou
Sexual Ha assmen p e en ion educa ion wo kshop. 44 pe cen olun ee ed as an
expe imen al g oup o he s udy and 36 p eselec ed employees joined as con ol g oup.
Fo he expe imen al g oup, p e es (P e en ing Sexual Ha assmen o Employees
Knowledge Quiz) was conduc ed be o e he wo kshop. The wo kshop was lec u ed by 4
