Co esponding au ho : P on zas Dimi is
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
The Phenomenon o Co up ion is no a “c ime”
P on zas Dimi is *
Depa men o Sociology, Pan eion Uni e si y o Social and Poli ical Sciences, School o Social Science, A hens, G eece.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 032-037
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 23 Ma ch 2025; e ised on 28 Ap il 2025; accep ed on 01 May 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.26.2.1612
Abs ac
This a icle add esses a e y impo an issue, o aspi ing schola s s udying he o ms o he phenomenon o co up ion.
I conce ns he undamen al scien i ic e o o using he e m “co up ion c imes.” This e m, lacks g ounding in any
scien i ic heo y, axiom o me hodological amewo k. As will be analyzed, i is employed by schola s in ce ain
coun ies o wo p ima y easons. Fi s , o ad ance he p o essional in e es s o speci ic academic o p o essional
g oups, such as lawye s, economis s o c iminologis s. Second, because i con ines public and academic pe cep ion o
he phenomenon o co up ion, o only ce ain o ms, e ec i ely equa ing he phenomenon wi h hose alone. As a esul ,
all o he o ms o co up ion a e le unexamined and unhinde ed in p ac ice.
Keywo ds: Phenomenon o Co up ion; Theo y o he Phenomenon o Co up ion; C ime; Fo ms o Co up ion; Code
o Fo ms o Co up ion
1. In oduc ion
The phenomenon o co up ion, global in scope ye simul aneously mani es ing wi hin na ion-s a es, has, o mo e han
80 yea s, se ed as a ca alys o bo h he in ensi e use o he e m “co up ion” and he p oli ic p oduc ion o ela ed
li e a u e by schola s, academics and echnoc a s.[1] This eali y is indica i e o he pe sis en s imuli he phenomenon
has gene a ed and con inues o gene a e. The esul o his sus ained engagemen , has been he g adual imposi ion o a
wes e n cul u al amewo k and i s co esponding agendas, upon he ways in which “co up ion” is concep ualized.
This has occu ed a he expense o a mo e neu al, scien i ically g ounded app oach.[2]
Such imposi ion has con ibu ed o he eme gence o a dominan pe cep ion: ha he phenomenon, h ough i s a ious
o ms, is uni o m ac oss all coun ies—as i no sociocul u al o his o ical di e en ia ion exis s among global
popula ions, a no ion ha con adic s he e y ounda ion o disciplines, such as sociology. Mo e c i ically, i has led o
he unscien i ic con la ion o he en i e phenomenon o co up ion wi h a selec ew o i s o ms, such as embezzlemen ,
b ibe y o aud. This educ ionis pe spec i e is e iden in he my iad “de ini ions” ha ci cula e ac oss academic
li e a u e, legal ex s, documen s issued by in e na ional o ganiza ions and online pla o ms. These “de ini ions”, lack
any heo e ical g ounding o me hodological igo and in some cases, such as ha o G eece, an o icial de ini ion is
al oge he absen om he legal amewo k.[3]
To he a o emen ioned scien i ic o e sigh s, mus be added he p oblema ic use o an imp ecise and inapp op ia e e m:
“co up ion c imes”. This is an unscien i ic e m, delibe a ely employed. Fi s , i o igina es om one o he scien i ically
lawed “de ini ions” o he phenomenon, namely, he cha ac e iza ion o co up ion as “ he abuse o public o ice o
p i a e gain.” Second, i conspicuously dis ega ds, he as cul u al a ia ions ac oss he globe, which a e embedded in
human ac ions ha , while hey may o mally mee ce ain c i e ia o be labeled as co up ion o m, do no align wi h
ei he s a u o y o cus oma y law in a ious coun ies.[4] Thi d, he e m lacks any g ounding in scien i ic me hodology
o e iden ia y suppo ha would jus i y educing an en i e, mul i ace ed phenomenon and i s o ms, o he na ow and
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igid con ines o wha he e m “c ime” implies. This e m i sel , s ems om a highly speci ic and limi ed academic
domain: subs an i e c iminal law. Thus, he use o he e m “c ime” in e e ence o co up ion, a global human
phenomenon cha ac e ized by a wide di e si y o o ms and consequences, aises signi ican scien i ic conce ns. I
p esumes a le el o no ma i e uni o mi y ha simply does no exis ac oss legal, cul u al o socie al con ex s a ound
he wo ld.
The use o he e m “c ime” in conjunc ion wi h “co up ion”, e ec i ely con ines he pe cep ion o bo h popula ions
and hei espec i e leade s, o a na ow se o he phenomenon’s o ms, such as b ibe y o aud, while dis ega ding
o he , equally signi ican o ms, including legisla i e o e p oduc ion, legal inconsis ency, p i a e sec o co up ion,
poli ical co up ion, nepo ism and o he s. Mo eo e , a speci ic human ac classi ied as a o m o co up ion in one
coun y, acco ding o he Code o Fo ms o Co up ion, may be legally de ined and add essed s ic ly as a “c ime.” [5]
Ye , should he same ac , in a di e en coun y wi h a di e en “ideo ype o co up ion” and popula ion “p o ile homo
co up us”, be ea ed iden ically?[6] Whe e is he minimum scien i ic legaliza ion o do o impose some hing like his?
Why, hen, is his e m “c ime” so pe sis en ly appended o co up ion? Because i s in oca ion, exe s a powe ul
psychological and cogni i e e ec : i induces a o m o collec i e in ellec ual and p ac ical ine ia. Popula ions a e led
o awai he in e en ion o echnoc a s, aspi ing poli ical leade s, inancial manage s, accoun an s, o c iminal lawye s,
as mode n-day “deus ex machina “ igu es, who will “p o ec ” hem om o ms o co up ion, selec i ely iden i ied and
emphasized. These a e he o ms ha se e ins i u ional o pe sonal agendas, gene a e income o p o essional o ices,
enable empo a y poli ical o academic p es ige and c ucially, lea e he emaining and o en mo e en enched
mani es a ions o co up ion un ouched and unchallenged.
Thus, in esponse o he sel -e iden ques ion o why his complex o scien i ic e o s pe sis s, namely he con la ion o
he phenomenon wi h ce ain o i s o ms, he use o inadequa e "de ini ions" and he employmen o he unscien i ic
e m “co up ion c imes”, he answe is clea and unequi ocal: because i se es speci ic agendas and in e es s a bo h
he global and na ion-s a e le els. Incomple e knowledge, dis o ed pe cep ions, en apped hinking and an i-scien i ic
app oaches, ocus he a en ion o popula ions solely on hose o ms o co up ion, ha align wi h hese in e es s and
objec i es.
Consequen ly, a cons an low o discou se eme ges, om poli icians, en ep eneu s, lawye s, inancial analys s,
echnoc a s, c iminologis s and o he s, p esen ing analyses and in e p e a ions o a phenomenon hey nei he ully
unde s and, no can de ine, no g asp in i s ue scope. Ine i ably, his esul s in he phenomenon o co up ion being
e lec ed h ough he e y concep o chaos i sel . This delibe a e igno ance and indi e ence, owa d he heo e ical
unde s anding o co up ion wi hin each dis inc socie al con ex , along wi h he de alua ion o he schola in a o o
he “c ow-in ellec ual”, who ocuses exclusi ely on pa icula o ms, no only p e en s popula ions om pe cei ing
co up ion as a mul i ace ed phenomenon in insically linked o nume ous ields o knowledge, bu exploi s his lack o
unde s anding, o ad ance speci ic in e es s.
A pa icula ly illus a i e example o he a o emen ioned issues can be ound in he case o in e na ional o ganiza ions.
Fundamen ally, an in e na ional o ganiza ion is a coope a i e en i y es ablished by ea y among wo o mo e na ion-
s a es, aimed a p omo ing ma e s o common in e es . The ope a ional p ocesses o such o ganiza ions, unc ioning
as egula o y amewo ks a a global o egional scale, di e undamen ally om he s uc u es o na ion-s a e
go e nance. In he case o he la e , he subjec s o egula ion a e popula ions; in con as , in e na ional o ganiza ions
ope a e h ough na ion-s a es, ep esen ed by hei go e nmen s o heads o s a e. Wha bo h amewo ks sha e,
howe e , is he a emp o egula e he coexis ence o au onomous and unequal en i ies. So, wha occu s wi hin hese
in e na ional o ganiza ions in ela ion o he phenomenon o co up ion?
Thei engagemen s wi h he co up ion phenomenon, o en e lec a dishea ening combina ion o sa is ying he
in e es s o speci ic membe s-s a es, a conspicuous ailu e in managing e en selec ed o ms o he phenomenon, o
some ambiguous s a e in be ween. This ailu e s ems om se e al co e issues: he ini ial concep ual e o o equa ing
he en i e phenomenon wi h one o i s speci ic o ms. [7] he pu sui o global egula o y ini ia i es wi hou a
ounda ional unde s anding o he na ion-speci ic dimensions each o m o co up ion, he lack o applica ion o
igo ous scien i ic me hodology and o e ec i e c i e ia o e alua ing s a egies, objec i es and ou comes o hei "an i-
co up ion ini ia i es". These de iciencies o m he s uc u al pilla s o hei ine ec i eness, o he managemen o
co up ion o ms, in any scien i ically alid manne . [8]
Mo eo e , hese o ganiza ions, emain en enched in he agendas o hei mos powe ul membe s a es, as well as in
he bu eauc a ic logic o ules, egula ions, esolu ions and ins i u ional dispu es. Such en enchmen , lea es li le oom
o add essing he i al di e ences among na ion-s a es di e ences, such as esou ce inequali y, a ia ions in
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go e nmen al s uc u es and cul u al dis inc ions. Equally conce ning, is he limi ed academic eedom a o ded o he
esea che s employed by hese o ganiza ions, eedom o analyze o ms o co up ion u ilized by ce ain s a es which,
pa adoxically, inance hese e y o ganiza ions and hus, by ex ension, he esea che s hemsel es.
Wi hin his con ex , beginning in he 1990s, he e eme ged a p oli ic wa e o s udies ocused no on he phenomenon o
co up ion i sel , bu on he e m co up ion. Technoc a s, economis s, c iminologis s and lawye s, con ibu ed hei
di e se pe spec i es o his “p oduc ion,” which has culmina ed in a ange o so-called “an i-co up ion con en ions.”
These con en ions, ep esen ins i u ional cons uc s in ended o imposi ion, o a uni e sal dimension o a
phenomenon, bu wi hou he sligh es knowledge o bo h he e hnoc a ic and he scien i ically co ec meaning o he
e ms “co up ion” and “ o m o co up ion”. E en a cu so y examina ion o he con en s o hese ag eemen s, e eals,
he supe iciali y o hei ounda ions and unde sco es he ex en o which hey a e disconnec ed om bo h empi ical
complexi y and scien i ic igo .
The Uni ed Na ions Con en ion Agains Co up ion (UNCAC), adop ed by he UN Gene al Assembly on Oc obe 2003
and en e ed in o o ce on Decembe 2005, wi h he Eu opean Union also among i s signa o ies, cons i u es he mos
widely ecognized ins umen among exis ing in e na ional ea ies o he so-called “ igh agains co up ion”.[9] The
con en ion, ou lines h ee p ima y pilla s o ac ion: p e en ion (Chap e II), c iminaliza ion-law en o cemen (Chap e
III) and in e na ional coope a ion (Chap e IV). Wi hin he co e pilla o c iminal law en o cemen , he c iminaliza ion
ocuses on b ibe y (A icles 15–16), embezzlemen (A icle 17), ading in in luence (A icle 18), abuse o unc ions
(A icle 19) and illici en ichmen (A icle 20). This is an in e na ional ea y, undamen ally g ounded, in an unscien i ic
de ini ion o he phenomenon o co up ion: “ he abuse o public o ice o p i a e gain.” Ye , abuse cons i u es, only one
o m o he phenomenon o co up ion. By wha c i e ia, hen, is such a “de ini ion” es ablished, one ha concep ually
equa es he en i e phenomenon, wi h a single o m, ha o abuse? Wha a e he jus i ica ions o p i ileging his
pa icula o m o e o he s? Why is he de ini ion con ined o he public o iceholde ? Does he p i a e sec o no exis ?
A e he e no o ms o co up ion wi hin i ? Is i no in e connec ed wi h he public sec o ? Mo eo e , his “de ini ion,”
apa om educing he phenomenon, o he powe dynamics o public o ice and au ho i y, imposes a pa icula
ou come: pe sonal gain. Bu wha kind o gain, is mean he e and why mus i necessa ily be pe sonal? Fo ins ance, i a
pe son in a posi ion o au ho i y, uses hei in luence o help secu e someone else’s igh o li e, de i ing in angible
pe sonal sa is ac ion (a o m o mo al ul illmen ), does his cons i u e he eme gence o u iliza ion o a o m o
co up ion? Finally, is his “de ini ion” analy ical, desc ip i e, o scien i ically alid? [9]
All hese epis emological ques ions, un o una ely, canno be answe ed in he sligh es , wi hin he amewo k o his
Con en ion. Beginning om such an unscien i ic p emise, he Con en ion addi ionally p esen s he ollowing p oblem:
e en i one we e o accep i s unscien i ic p ac ice o imposing a globalized egime o c iminaliza ion o ce ain o ms
o he phenomenon, assumed “a p io i” and “uncondi ionally” o be iden ical ac oss all coun ies o he wo ld, i es ic s
he manda o y ex ension o c iminaliza ion in he o eign public sec o o ac i e b ibe y solely in he con ex o
in e na ional business ansac ions. In his way, wha is essen ially p ojec ed is he o ganiza ion’s anxie y, o impose
“ ules” upon he global economic sys em (shadow and o he wise), e en o e he minimal need o p o ec he public
se ice o o eign na ions as a legally ecognized good unde in e na ional law. [10]
Gi en ha he unscien i ic challenges posed by he UN Con en ion, ega ding he phenomenon o co up ion, a e no
limi ed o he poin s abo e (bu canno be ully analyzed wi hin he scope o his a icle), ano he “an i-co up ion
ag eemen ” wo h no ing, is he Con en ion on Comba ing B ibe y o Fo eign Public O icials in In e na ional Business
T ansac ions by he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD), adop ed on Decembe 1997
and en e ed in o o ce on Feb ua y 1999. This con en ion cons i u es a delibe a e scien i ic pa ody, hailed as a
“miles one” by hose who bene i om he scien i ic dis o ion o he co up ion phenomenon. The ollowing elemen s
o he Con en ion, a e pa icula ly indica i e:
• I p o ides i s own scien i ically unsubs an ia ed “de ini ion” o he e m co up ion.
• I does no app oach b ibe y, as a o m o co up ion, bu a he equa es i en i ely wi h he phenomenon i sel .
• I e e s o he use o c iminal law exclusi ely o comba ac i e b ibe y o o eign public o icials wo ldwide,
solely in he con ex o in e na ional business ansac ions.
• I comple ely omi s he na ional dimension o he b ibe y o m o co up ion in each espec i e coun y.
• I en i ely dis ega ds he dimension o passi e b ibe y, e en when commi ed by o eign public o icials.
This pa icula con en ion he e o e, does no cons i u e an in e na ional legal ins umen , add essing ce ain o ms o
he phenomenon o co up ion, le alone he phenomenon in i s en i e y. Ra he , i e lec s he in e es o an
in e na ional o ganiza ion, in sa egua ding he in e es s o i s membe s a es, agains he p essu es and p ac ices a ising
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om global business compe i ion. I is an ini ia i e ha , e iden ly, o e s no scien i ic con ibu ion o he p ope
concep ualiza ion and in e disciplina y analysis equi ed o he s udy o he phenomenon o co up ion. On he
con a y, i ac i ely hinde s such inqui y, di e ing he s udy o he phenomenon o co up ion, om i s scien i ic
domain, con ining i , wi hin he amewo k o he in e es s se ed by he o ganiza ion i sel .
Τhe p ac ical esul s o i s implemen a ion, emain o be seen, speci ically, i s eal-wo ld e ec i eness, o he
adminis a ion o o ms o co up ion, wi hin he na ion-s a es ha ha e adop ed he con en ion. No ably, in he case
o his pa icula o ganiza ion, i is wo h ecalling he ollowing: a he onse o he global inancial c isis in 2007, he
OECD, p omp ed by he G20 leade ship, compiled a “blacklis o ax ha ens”. In o de o a coun y o a oid inclusion on
his lis , i was equi ed o sign wel e in o ma ion exchange ag eemen s wi h o he s a es, he eby implemen ing a
con es ed OECD model ( e e ed o as an "in e na ional s anda d") o he p o ision o in o ma ion, upon eques .
Ne e heless, e en unde hese condi ions, he lis emained emp y, hus ensu ing he con inued dominance o a ious
global banking ins i u ions and ax-ha ens.
The nex in e na ional ini ia i e, ch onologically, owa d he scien i ically un ounded so-called “ igh agains
co up ion”, o igina ed om he Council o Eu ope, h ough he adop ion o he C iminal Law Con en ion on Co up ion
on Janua y 1999, which en e ed in o o ce on July 2002. This con en ion, cons i u es ye ano he cha ac e is ic example,
o he endu ing p ac ice among bu eauc a s (aided by legal p o essionals) o o e look e en he mos minimal scien i ic
g ounding when add essing complex issues. The p eamble o his con en ion, s a es: “co up ion h ea ens he ule o
law, democ acy and human igh s, unde mines good go e nance, ai ness and social jus ice, dis o s compe i ion,
hinde s economic de elopmen and endange s he s abili y o democ a ic ins i u ions and he mo al ounda ions o
socie y.” I is e iden ha , he au ho s o he abo e ex , ailed o ecognize ha co up ion, is no some inde e mina e
o au onomous o ce, inhe en ly capable o unde mining o dis o ing he unc ioning o na ion-s a es. Ra he , i is
indi iduals, h ough hei ac ions, who u ilize he o ms o co up ion and he eby gene a e he consequences ha a ec
democ a ic p ocesses, social jus ice, compe i ion and he mo al ounda ions o socie ies. This con en ion, he e o e,
s ands as ye ano he in e na ional legal documen in which no e o has been made o o mula e, e en a single
scien i ically alid de ini ion o he phenomenon o co up ion, no has any me hodologically sound amewo k been
p oposed o suppo he sys ema ic examina ion and managemen o i s o ms.
The Council o Eu ope, howe e , p oceeded u he , by adop ing he Ci il Law Con en ion on Co up ion, which was
signed on No embe 1999 and en e ed in o o ce on No embe 2003. In his ins ance, he no ion o "co up ion" is
de ined in a icle 2 as ollows: “Fo he pu pose o his Con en ion, ‘co up ion’ means eques ing, o e ing, gi ing o
accep ing, di ec ly o indi ec ly, a b ibe o any o he undue ad an age o p omise o such ad an age which dis o s he
p ope pe o mance o any du y o beha io equi ed o he ecipien o he b ibe, he undue ad an age o he p omise
o such ad an age.” By his de ini ion, limi ing an en i e phenomenon o he dimensions o a “gi ” o an unspeci ied
“bene i ”, no only exceeds he limi s o he scien i ic discipline equi ed by he s udy o he phenomenon· i e en exceeds
he limi s o idiculousness.
Thus, when an in e na ional o ganiza ion exp esses in e es in ce ain o ms o co up ion, equa ing hese wi h he
phenomenon as a whole, his canno be conside ed a genuine conce n o he wel a e o i s membe s a es, no can i be
ega ded as a scien i ic endea o . Ra he , i cons i u es an ac o hypoc isy, a se o communica i e maneu e s, and a
clea p omo ion o es ed in e es s. One need only e lec s on he a ious o ms o co up ion wi hin he Eu opean
Union, lobbying, a o i ism, bu eauc a ic co up ion, legisla i e o e complexi y, clien elism and pa onage among
o he s. No only a e hese o ms i ually nonexis en in he discou se and scope o he a o emen ioned con en ions,
bu e en when we ocus solely on o m o co up ion o lobbying, wha do we obse e?
Ten yea s ago, in 2014, he Eu opean Commission in oduced a manda o y equi emen o he heads o i s
Di ec o a es-Gene al o egis e hei mee ings wi h lobbyis s. This e e s o a ype o “ egis y”, in which, lobbyis s a e
equi ed o en oll be o e engaging wi h Eu opean o icials. Acco ding o he 2022 epo by he Eu opean Pa liamen , a
o al o 13.366 lobby ep esen a i es we e egis e ed. Conside ing ha he Eu opean Pa liamen comp ises 705
membe s, his co esponds o app oxima ely 19 lobbyis s pe Membe o he Eu opean Pa liamen . These lobbyis s,
include no only indi iduals, bu also co po a ions, ade associa ions, labo unions and no ably, non-go e nmen al
o ganiza ions (NGOs).
Two pa icula ly no ewo hy poin s eme ge he e. Fi s , be ween 1979, he yea o he i s di ec elec ions o he
Eu opean Pa liamen and 2014, when he a o emen ioned egis y was inally in oduced, he e was a 35yea pe iod,
o un egula ed lobbying ac i i y. Impo an ly, all o he a o emen ioned Eu opean con en ions add essing “co up ion”,
we e adop ed be ween 1997 and 2002· a pe iod ma ked by he ull, un e e ed ope a ion o a ious Eu opean and
in e na ional lobbies.
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The second poin , conce ns he ole o lobbying, wi hin a widely celeb a ed ins i u ional p ocedu e: s akeholde
consul a ion. In p ac ice, his p ocedu e o en esembles he specula i e “bubbles” commonly seen in inancial c ises.
In e ac ions be ween lobbyis s and o icials in ol ed in legisla i e p ocesses, anging om p elimina y consul a ions o
inal plena y o es, a e he e o e pi o al. I he lobbying objec i e in ol es he ad ancemen o au omobile indus y
in e es s, in e ac ions a e di ec ed owa d o icials om coun ies wi h s ong indus ial sec o s. Con e sely, i he
lobbying goal aligns wi h en i onmen al p inciples and policies, he a ge ed o icials a e ypically om s a es wi h
demons a ed en i onmen al “sensi i i ies.” In all cases, he di ec ion and e ec i eness o hese engagemen s a e
la gely de e mined by he p o ile o he lobbying en i y be i an NGO, a mul ina ional co po a ion o a ep esen a i e o
hea y indus y. Beyond he p e iously, discussed issue o hypoc isy, one migh pose he ollowing ques ion: can he
“in e es o ci il socie y,” as claimed by a lobbying en i y, be me ely a açade o se ing o he , less anspa en in e es s?
The answe lies in a simple, ye c ucial obse a ion: i is no easible o any ac o o consis en ly p omo e only he
in e es s o o he s, wi hou simul aneously pu suing hei own.[11]
Wha can one obse e ac oss all hese con en ions? Tha hey ocus exclusi ely and epea edly, on speci ic o ms o
co up ion, he eby commi ing a undamen al scien i ic e o : equa ing he b oade phenomenon wi h only hose
pa icula o ms and limi ing i s impac o a pu ely economic dimension. Meanwhile, o he powe ul and s uc u ally
embedded o ms o co up ion, wi hin bo h he membe s a es and he in e nal ope a ions o hese e y in e na ional
o ganiza ions, such as o m o co up ion o lobbying, he o m o poli ical co up ion, he o m o co up ion in
in e na ional ela ions and he o m o bu eauc a ic co up ion, a e conspicuously absen om any discussion. I mus
be poin ed ou he e ha , acco ding o i s de ini ion, co up ion e e s o " ha human phenomenon comp ised o a se o
o ms, which a y om coun y o coun y, in e ms o hei sou ces o eme gence, hei dimensions and hei e ec s". [12]
The concep o a o m o co up ion, in u n, deno es " ha human ac which, exp essing he in en ionali y o a human
being-homo co up us-, p oduces an impac , wi hin he amewo k o coexis ence". [13] So o he ques ions abou why, in
none o hese con en ions, do o he o ms o he phenomenon ha we encoun e bo h in na ion s a es and in he
unc ions o hese o ganiza ions hemsel es no appea , why an en i e phenomenon is iden i ied wi h one o wo o ms
ha hese o ganiza ions choose, wi h unknown and non-exis en scien i ic c i e ia, he answe is absolu ely speci ic:
because he pe cep ion o he popula ion and he esea ch o aspi ing schola s o he phenomenon o co up ion, mus
be di ec ed o speci ic o ms o i . This combina ion, o he use o he e m “co up ion c imes” and he
exis ence/in oca ion o hese con en ions, wo ks in combina ion owa ds he manipula ion o he popula ion’s hinking
and he esea ch o schola s, in a phenomenon iden i ied wi h selec ed o ms o i . O cou se, in such a combina ion, one
canno ind he elemen a y scien i ic documen a ion and legi ima ion· howe e , i is clea wha is sough , while i is
con i med ha one o he mos “in e es ing p o essions” is none o he han o sel -iden i y as a “ eache ” o co up ion.
2. Conclusion
In conclusion, he phenomenon o co up ion, his global collec ion o human ac ions, e i ied by hei e ec s as dis inc
o ms, equi es he u h. This u h, ha is he abili y o a esea che o e eal whe he a gi en human ac ion cons i u es
a o m o co up ion, s ems om a kind o knowledge ha embodies a ha monious syn hesis o scien i ic ce ain y,
logical easoning and empi ical con i ma ion. A genuine schola o he co up ion phenomenon, mus esis he
emp a ion o subs i u e scien i ic analysis wi h i olous wi icisms o supe icial labels such as “co up ion c imes”.
They mus no indulge in slogan-like simpli ica ions whe he poli ical, syndicalis o co po a is in na u e, such as
“c iminological ime ames o co up ion” o “co up ion c imes in sys ems o economic/o ganized c iminali y.” No
should hey be swayed by pseudo-scien i ic po ayals o co up ion as me ely a “de ian beha io ,” he in e p e a ion
o which is le o he subjec i e amewo ks o an economis , a legal schola o a c iminologis . To do so, would be o
all in o he ap o con la ing he concep wi h i s supposed meaning in a mechanis ic and con enien manne . I would
mean imp isoning he phenomenon wi hin unde ined “c iminal space- imes”, hus be aying bo h he in ellec ual igo
and e hical esponsibili y demanded by he s udy o such a complex and deeply human eali y.
Re e ences
[1] Fo a comp ehensi e accoun o he documen a ion, analysis and codi ica ion o he ele an schola ly p oduc ion
o e app oxima ely a cen u y, D. P on zas, Co up ion: F om Theo y o Geog aphy, A hens, Papazisis, 2017. Fo
he dynamic managemen and isualiza ion o his body o wo k, e e o he online pla o m:
h ps://www.co up ion-map.o g.
[2] D. P on zas, Co up ion: F om Theo y o Geog aphy, A hens, Papazisis, 2017, p.24.
[3] D. P on zas, The Phenomenon o Co up ion, A hens, Papazisis, 2023, pp.80-90.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 032-037
37
[4] D. P on zas, "Co up ion Phenomenon's Misleading De ini ions: Scien i ic E o o Delibe a eness?",
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Enginee ing, Science and Managemen , Volume 7, Issue 9, 2024.
[5] Fo he analysis o he a ious o ms o he co up ion phenomenon and he “Code o Co up ion Fo ms”, D.
P on zas, The Phenomenon o Co up ion, A hens, Papazisis, 2023, pp.128-156.
[6] D. P on zas, Co up ion: F om Theo y o Geog aphy, A hens, Papazisis, 2017, pp.61-70.
[7] D. P on zas, "Co up ion Phenomenon's Misleading De ini ions: Scien i ic E o o Delibe a eness?",
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Enginee ing, Science and Managemen , Volume 7, Issue 9, 2024.
[8] Co up ion as a phenomenon, is no some hing o "be ough ". Acco ding o he heo y o he phenomenon, i s
o ms, mus be subjec ed o a egime o "managemen "· only when speci ic condi ions a e me should he ield o
“comba ing” begin. Fo he analysis o his c i ical epis emological issue, D.P on zas, The Phenomenon o
Co up ion, A hens, Papazisis, 2023, pp.49-62· - "The in e p e a ion o he Fo m o Co up ion and he concep o
he Code o Co up ion Fo ms", Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 24(03), 2547-2554, 2024.
[9] D. P on zas, Co up ion: F om Theo y o Geog aphy, A hens, Papazisis, 2017, pp.71-85.
[10] A. S oila, “The in e na ional and G eek dimension and i s co e in G eek c iminal law”, D.D., Democ i us Uni e si y
o Th ace, School o Law, Komo ini, 2016, pp.15-30.
[11] D. P on zas, The Phenomenon o Co up ion, A hens, Papazisis, 2023, pp.150-151.
[12] D. P on zas, "The Co up ion Phenomenon: a Sho In oduc ion o he Wo ld", In e na ional Jou nal Fo
Mul idisciplina y Resea ch (IJFMR), R.P., 14208, 2024.
[13] D. P on zas, " The in e p e a ion o he Fo m o Co up ion and he concep o he Code o Co up ion Fo ms",
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 24(03), 2547-2554, 2024.
