65
Daniele CERRA(*), Pe e GEGE(*), S e an PLATTNER(*), Fede ico FELIZIANI(**),
Guglielmo GREChI(**), Gian Ma co MARMoNI(**),
F ancesca BoZZANo(**) & Sal a o e MARTINo(**)
(*)Ea h Obse a ion Cen e (EOC) - Ge man Ae ospace Cen e (DLR) - Wessling, Ge many
(**)Sapienza Uni e si y o Rome - Ea h Science Depa men and CERI Resea ch Cen e o Geological Risks - Rome, I aly
Co esponding au ho : daniele.ce a@dl .de
Remo e sensing-suppoR ed moni oRing o na uRal and
an hRopogenic hazaRds o cul uRal heRi age
in Ven o ene and s. s e ano islands, i aly
ex ended abs Rac
Le isole di Ven o ene e San o S e ano, si ua e nel ma Ti eno, ospi ano impo an i si i a cheologici come la cosidde a Villa
di Giulia, una esidenza impe iale di epoca omana, e Panop icon, ca ce e Bo bonico di San o S e ano. Ques i si i sono espos i a
pe icoli di o igine sia na u ale che an opica quali, in pa icola e, gli incendi boschi i e l’e osione cos ie a che causa ins abili à
delle sca pa e li o anee. Un moni o aggio e icace e una co e a alu azione dei ischi sono ondamen ali pe de ini e piani di con-
se azione e misu e di p o ezione a lungo e mine. Ques o a icolo p opone l’uso di ecniche di ele ile amen o basa e su immagini
sa elli a i o iche pe s ima e i danni causa i da incendi e de i a e pa ame i delle acque nelle isole a il 2017 e il 2024. In ques o
in e allo empo ale sono s a i iden i ica i o o incendi, alcuni dei quali in p ossimi à o all’in e no dell’a ea p o e a pe la p esenza
di si i di iel anza s o ico-cul u ale, e i danni sono s a i alu a i median e indici spe ali mul i empo ali.
In a ee pa icola men e p edispos e, gli incendi possono a o i e l’innesco di ane, al e ando la unzione delle adici e in luendo
sulle condizioni di s abili à delle cope u e de i iche dei e san i. I isul a i e idenziano che i si i di ile anza s o ico-cul u ale
sono espos i a ques i ischi in assenza di in e en i empes i i e s a egie di conse azione mi a e. Inol e, l’analisi di immagini
mul ispe ali pe me e la icos uzione della ba ime ia in acque poco p o onde e la s ima di pa ame i delle acque. A a e so l’uso
di modelli di in e sione e la alidazione con da i ba ime ici ad al a isoluzione acquisi i ami e ecosonde mul ibeam, sono s a e
o enu e mappe di p o ondi à e i le anza del ondale, anche g azie a spe i misu a i su campioni di sabbia accol i a Ven o ene. Da
ques e analisi possono esse e dedo i pa ame i e condizioni di con olli sui p ocessi geomo ologici che con ibuiscono all’e osione
delle scoglie e, minacciando di e amen e la s abili à s u u ale di si i come Villa Giulia, e suppo a e simulazioni di modelli id odin-
amici. Ques a ice ca sugge isce che l’in eg azione di ecniche di ele ile amen o consen e di alu a e e mi iga e minacce clima iche
e an opogeniche su la ga scala, suppo ando la conse azione dei si i nell’ambi o di inizia i e come il p oge o TRIQUETRA, con
me odologie as e ibili ad al i si i di in e esse s o ico-cul u ale nel bacino Medi e aneo, espos i a simili pe icoli.
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen
www.ijege.uni oma1.i
IJEGE, Special Issue 1 (2025): 65-81, DOI: 10.4408/IJEGE.2025-01.S-05
E-ISSN 2035-5688 | ISSN 1825-6635 / ©Au ho (s)
66 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
d. ceRRa, p. gege, s. pla neR, . eliziani, g. gRechi, g. m. maRmoni, . bozzano & s. maR ino
abs Rac
Cul u al he i age si es a e inc easingly a isk due o clima e
change and en i onmen al haza ds, which can include loods,
e osion, and g ound ins abili ies. Clima e o cing may also a ou
he impac o mo e se e e an h opogenic haza ds, as in he case o
wild i es. In his amewo k, emo e sensing may p o ide haza d
quan i ica ions and isk assessmen , suppo ing he de ini ion o
conse a ion planning and p o ec i e measu es. This s udy explo es
he analysis o op ical sa elli e images o moni o and assess na u al
and an h opogenic h ea s o Ven o ene and San o S e ano islands,
I aly. Speci ically, we quan i y damage by wild i es nea by cul u al
he i age si es om 2017 o 2024, while mul ispec al images allow
a i s assessmen o ba hyme y a ound he islands and de i ing
wa e cons i uen s pa ame e s. This enables a mo e comp ehensi e
haza d analysis wi h a lookou on he p ocess unde s anding and
de ini ion o he isks hese si es ace.
Keywo ds: cul u al he i age, Sen inel-2, emo e sensing, wild i es,
ba hyme y
in Roduc ion
Cul u al he i age (Ch) si es a e inc easingly ulne able o he
impac s o clima e change, which mani es s h ough luc ua ing
empe a u es, al e ed p ecipi a ion pa e ns, shi ing a mosphe ic
mois u e le els, and he ising o sea le els (Sesana e alii,
2021). These ac o s, coupled wi h ex eme wea he e en s,
accele a e he de e io a ion o cul u al he i age si es, posing a
signi ican h ea o hei p ese a ion (Kapsomenakis e alii,
2022, T inga e alii., 2023). UNESCo has ecognized clima e
change as a c i ical issue a ec ing cul u al he i age, leading
o a su ge in esea ch e o s aimed a de eloping mi iga ion
s a egies (UNESCo, 2008). howe e , while nume ous s udies
ha e been conduc ed (howa d, 2013; Fa o ic e alii, 2017;
Be olin, 2019; ha kin e alii., 2020; o e alii, 2021), he e
emains a lack o a s uc u ed and comp ehensi e app oach o
assessing and mi iga ing hese isks a a b oade scale.
To add ess his gap, he TRIQUETRA p ojec p oposes
a amewo k designed o e alua e and coun e ac clima e-
ela ed h ea s o cul u al he i age (Ioannidis e alii, 2024).
The ini ia i e seeks o c ea e a cen alized knowledge base ha
consolida es esea ch indings on clima e isks and p o ec i e
measu es while simul aneously de eloping a sys ema ic
me hodology o iden i ying and analyzing eme ging haza ds.
By in eg a ing ad anced echnologies, such as eal- ime isk
assessmen ools and moni o ing sys ems, he p ojec aims o
enhance he p ecision and e ec i eness o conse a ion e o s.
The TRIQUETRA me hodology is based on a s uc u ed,
h ee-phase p ocess designed o comp ehensi ely add ess isks
associa ed wi h clima e change and en i onmen al s esso s
(Ioannidis e alii, 2024). The i s phase ocuses on iden i ying
po en ial haza ds ha could a ec cul u al he i age si es. This
includes an ex ensi e assessmen o clima e-d i en h ea s,
such as ex eme hea , s o ms, and ising sea le els, as well
as hyd ological challenges like looding, e osion, and wa e
con amina ion, alongside chemical and biological de e io a ion
caused by pollu an s, acid ain, and mic obial g ow h.
Addi ionally, geological isks, including seismic ac i i y,
landslides and g ound subsidence, a e ca e ully analysed.
once isks ha e been iden i ied, he second phase in ol es
quan i ying hei impac using cu ing-edge modeling ools.
The p ojec employs high- esolu ion clima e models, emo e
sensing echnologies, and spec oscopy o p o ide an accu a e
assessmen o he se e i y o h ea s. These analy ical ools
enable esea che s o es ablish isk le els o di e en si es,
ensu ing ha mi iga ion s a egies a e bo h a ge ed and e ec i e.
The inal phase is dedica ed o he implemen a ion o
mi iga ion s a egies ailo ed o he speci ic condi ions and
ulne abili ies o each cul u al he i age si e. A key componen
o his phase is he de elopmen o he Decision Suppo
Sys em (DSS), which acili a es in o med decision-making by
p o iding a s uc u ed e alua ion o isk se e i y. This sys em
allows o he p io i iza ion o h ea s and he op imiza ion
o p o ec i e measu es, ensu ing ha esou ces a e alloca ed
e icien ly. The DSS inco po a es his o ical clima e da a, emo e
sensing image y, and ield obse a ions o e ine i s p edic i e
capabili ies and enhance conse a ion planning. Fo a de ailed
wo k low o he TRIQUETRA p ojec , he in e es ed eade is
emanded o (Ioannidis e alii, 2024).
This pape ocuses on he landslide, wild i e isk, and wa e
analysis a he pilo si e o Ven o ene and San o S e ano Islands,
which a e h ea ening, di ec ly o indi ec ly, cul u al si es.
Because o hei geog aphic and geomo phological ea u es, he
wo islands ha e his o ically ep esen ed a place o exile; i s in
Roman and hen in Bou bonic and Fascis imes. F om he la e
1s cen u y BCE onwa ds, se e al women o he impe ial amily
we e exiled in he egal impe ial palace enamed “Villa Giulia”,
loca ed in he no he nmos p omon o y o Ven o ene island
known as “Pun a Eolo”. La e , om he 18 h cen u y onwa ds,
he Bou bon p ison (named “Ca ce e Bo bonico”) o San o
S e ano was an impo an p ison acili y ha housed hund eds
o inma es un il 1965, including se e al poli ical dissen e s
exiled o he island by he ascis egime (Fig. 1).
Nowadays, bo h he Villa Giulia in Ven o ene and he
Ca ce e Bo bonico in San o S e ano ep esen impo an cul u al
he i age si es on a na ional le el, managed and p o ec ed by
he I alian Minis y o Cul u e and by he Special Go e nmen
Commissione o he eco e y and enhancemen o he o me
Bou bon p ison on he island o S. S e ano-Ven o ene - Da id
Sassoli. The p ese a ion o hese si es is howe e h ea ened by
se e al haza ds, o which wild i es and landslides a e he mos
67
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
impo an . In such con ex , he use o emo e sensing echniques
ep esen s an impo an ool o aming he abo e-men ioned
haza d o ge ing aluable in o ma ion o ancilla y da a o
app oaching haza d analysis. Conce ning wild i es, i is gene ally
impo an o be able o map a eas ha ha e been bu n in he
pas . Wild i e ca alogues a e indeed essen ial ools o apid
mapping, and moni o ing he damage in lic ed on he e i o y
on ege a ion and human goods. Rele an in o ma ion o such
pu poses can be ob ained by analysis o mul ispec al and he mal
sa elli e images (Chu ieco, 2020; Allison, 2016; Leblon,
2012). The de i ed maps can be used o moni o bo h loss and
eco e y o ege a ion co e , and a e he e o e c ucial o pe o m
analyses o o wa d scena ios. I is also known ha wild i es can
ep esen a p epa a o y ac o (sensu Gunzbu ge e alii, 2005)
o landslide igge ing, including bo h shallow mechanisms
(Di Napoli e alii, 2020) and ock alls (Sa o e alii, 2021), by
emo ing he esis an ac ion o he g ass o bushes’ oo s, as well
as jeopa dizing he mechanical pa ame e s (s eng h and s i ness;
heap e alii, 2018; Kushni e alii, 2021). Such impac a ou s
he ock mass wea he ing ope a ing a he mal s ess in he ock
nea he su ace. Wild i es a e also able o al e he local condi ions
o hillslopes in he long- e m, making hem mo e suscep ible o
ex e nal igge s, like ea hquakes o hea y ain alls (Gill &
Malamud, 2014; Abdollahi e alii, 2023; Chicco e alii, 2023;
Abdollahi e alii, 2024; Vahedi a d e alii, 2024).
Remo e mul ispec al and hype spec al sensing could
also suppo he lip side o he coin, making success ul
applica ions in wa e en i onmen s: ega ding landslide
haza d, some s udies a e ying o unde s and whe he he sea-
wa e ac ion can play a con olling p edisposing o p epa a o y
ole in coas al e ea p ocesses (Thompson e alii, 2019;
Va ley, 2019). In his con ex , he econs uc ion o shallow
wa e ba hyme y becomes p ominen o be e ocus on he
impac o sea wa es. Such opics ha e been examined in his
con ex using hyd odynamic modelling simula ions (Feliziani
e alii, 2024; 2025; Khos a i a dshi azi e alii, 2025).
Remo e sensing echniques (e.g., Gege, 2014) can be used o
econs uc he ba hyme y o a si e, ep esen ing an impo an
Fig. 1 - A) Ae ial iew o he Ven o ene and San o S e ano islands om he Pun a Eolo p omon o y wi h a de ail on Villa Giulia a chaeological si e;
B) The Ca ce e Bo bonico on island o San o S e ano; C) Geog aphic loca ion o he Pon ine a chipelago and D) o he Ven o ene and San o
S e ano islands (mod. a e Feliziani e alii, 2024)
Remo e sensing-suppoR ed moni oRing o na uRal and an hRopogenic hazaRds o cul uRal heRi age
in Ven o ene and s. s e ano islands, i aly
68 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
d. ceRRa, p. gege, s. pla neR, . eliziani, g. gRechi, g. m. maRmoni, . bozzano & s. maR ino
ool o hyd odynamics models, which oge he wi h s ess-
s ain slope s abili y analysis, can ep esen a alue chain o
landslide haza ds mi iga ion s a egies. In his sense, he use
o open Sen inel-2 image y which a e a ailable wo ldwide,
lay he undamen als o nume ical modelling applica ions.
Fu he mo e, wa e cons i uen s can be de i ed o cha ac e ize
wa e quali y and es ima e he amoun o op ically ac i e
na u al wa e componen s, such as phy oplank on, sedimen s,
and colou ed dissol ed o ganic ma e .
This s udy ea u es he esul s o a emo e sensing-suppo ed
analysis o haza d and analy ical app oach ca ied ou o
mi iga e isks associa ed wi h na u al (i.e. ock cli ins abili ies)
and an h opogenic haza ds (i.e. wild i es) o he Ven o ene and
San o S e ano islands. Speci ically, se e al wild i es occu ed
in he las se en yea s on bo h islands nea by ele an Ch si es
ha e been de ec ed, and wa e pa ame e s de i ed om ecen
sa elli e acquisi ions ha e been analysed.
geomoRphological se ing o
Ven o ene and san o s e ano islands
App oxima ely 50 kilome es o he Gae a Gul , he Pon ile
A chipelago is a g oup o islands ha includes he islands o
Ven o ene, San o S e ano, Ponza, Palma ola, and Zannone. (Fig.
1). Ven o ene and San o S e ano islands ep esen he summi
o a la ge s a o olcano which had o each a maximum heigh
o 800 m (Me ich e alii, 1988; Pe o a e alii, 1996).
The islands a e composed o basal ic o achy ic la as (0.80-
0.48 My s; Me ich e alii, 1988) uncon o mably co e ed by
py oclas ic p oduc s e up ed in he ime span 0.3-0.2 My s
(Me ich e alii, 1988). While he en i e base o he small San o
S e ano consis s o la a p oduc s (Bellucci e alii, 1999),
Ven o ene island’s cli s a e cha ac e ized by he ou c opping o
bo h la a p oduc s (in he Sou h-Wes e n pa ) and u s.
The geological se ing o Ven o ene and San o S e ano islands
makes hem highly p edisposed o apid geomo phological
e olu ion, especially con olled by coas al e osion p ocesses
and, he e o e, by landslide phenomena. Coas al e osion a ies
in in ensi y depending on he li ho- echnical cha ac e is ics o
he a ea: whe e so e py oclas ic ma e ials p edomina e, e osion
a es a e signi ican ly highe , whe eas la a ou c ops a e linked
o slowe coas al e ea . Inland landslides, o en igge ed by
ain all, occu a he in e ace be ween he olcanic bed ock and
loose ecen deposi s (i.e., elu ium-collu ium). The p edisposing
con ols o landslides (sensu Gunzbu ge e alii, 2005) a e
mos ly due o he li hology o which he cli s a e composed,
as well as hei geomechanical se ing. Among he p epa a o y
p ocesses o hese phenomena, he mos signi ican consis s in
he cons an impac o wa es b eaking on he cli s, which, o e
he long e m, can gene a e slope o e hang, and no ches capable
o d i ing he coas al cli owa ds a p og essi e ock ailu e.
The landslide e ec s cons i u e a ele an cause o isk o
he exposed elemen s o he island, including i s popula ion,
ou ism, his o ical-cul u al and a chaeological he i age si es
and he associa ed ou ism ac i i ies. In ecen imes, landslides
ha e h ea ened he p ese a ion o he Roman ancien po
and Villa Giulia. In his amewo k, se e al landslides ha e
a ec ed he wes e n lank o he Pun a Eolo p omon o y, e en
comp omising he island’s monumen al ceme e y p ese a ion.
o he landslides ha e impac ed he accessibili y o beaches such
as Cala Rossano and Pa a a G ande, as well as p i a e buildings,
as obse ed in he Cala Na e a ea (Rube i e alii, 2020).
Risk iden i ica ion: he geohazaRd
seVeRi y chaR
Wi hin he TRIQUETRA p ojec , he geological condi ions
cha ac e izing each pilo si e ha e been in es iga ed in o de o
iden i y he mos ele an geological haza d ela ed o he exposed
cul u al he i age. This was accomplished o he Ven o ene and
San o S e ano case s udy by d a ing a so-called “Geohaza d
Se e y Cha ” (GSC) (Fig. 2). A GSC is a ma ix-based analy ical
ool designed o assess and ca ego ize he se e i y o geological
haza ds a ec ing a gi en si e. I in eg a es wo key componen s:
Type o P ocess (ToP), which ep esen s he speci ic geological
haza d (e.g., landslides, seismic ac i i y, looding), and Time o
Recu ence (ToR), which de ines he expec ed e u n pe iod o
he haza d. By combining hese pa ame e s, he GSC assigns
an In ensi y Le el (IL) o each po en ial geohaza d scena io,
classi ying i in o p ede ined se e i y ca ego ies (e.g., low,
medium, high, e y high) using a colou -coded sys em. The
GSC p o ides a s uc u ed amewo k o e alua ing geological
isks, acili a ing haza d p io i iza ion, and in o ming mi iga ion
s a egies o cul u al he i age si es, in as uc u e, and o he
exposed elemen s (see Ioannidis e alii (2024) o u he de ails).
The geological haza ds cha ac e izing Ven o ene and San o
S e ano islands a e s ongly ela ed o he insula se ing o he a ea.
The islands a e cons an ly s uck by sea wa es and wind gus s,
which go e n coas al e ea p ocesses and ac as p epa a o y ac o s
o landslides igge ing. on he o he hand, sea wa es and wind
gus s ans e mois u e and saline solu ions in he su ounding a ea
con ibu ing o he de e io a ion o he a chaeological emnan s
o Villa Giulia and he Ca ce e Bo bonico. Simila e ec s a e
p oduced by hea wa es and he mal cycles in gene al, which can
cause a chaeological emains o de e io a e o e ime.
Despi e he small size o he wo islands, Ven o ene and San o
S e ano a e also h ea ened by wild i es. In ac , a numbe o
wild i es in ecen yea s ha e des oyed small po ions o he islands
nea he a chaeological si es o Villa Giulia and Ca ce e Bo bonico,
as well as o he a chaeological si es (e.g., Cis e na Villa S e ania),
which, despi e no being pa o he TRIQUETRA p ojec , a e
signi ican asse s o he islands’ a chaeological he i age (Fig. 3).
69
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
Remo e sensing-suppoR ed moni oRing o na uRal and an hRopogenic hazaRds o cul uRal heRi age
in Ven o ene and s. s e ano islands, i aly
Fig. 2 - Geohaza d Se e i y Cha (GSC) d a ed o he TRIQUETRA case s udy o Ven o ene and San o S e ano
Fig. 3 - Top: Wild i es occu ed on San o S e ano du ing S. Candida es i i ies, om (A) 2018 (Tempo eale, 2018) and (B) 2023 (La inaquo idiano,
2023). Bo om: wild i e on Ven one islands (C) om 21.3.2019 (La ina Today, 2019)
70 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
d. ceRRa, p. gege, s. pla neR, . eliziani, g. gRechi, g. m. maRmoni, . bozzano & s. maR ino
cases o s udy
Wild i e haza d
The use o sa elli e-based i e de ec ion o e s a powe ul
me hod o moni o ing and mi iga ing such i e isks. This
sec ion explo es he applica ion o sa elli e-based i e de ec ion
echnology in moni o ing wild i e isks on S. S e ano and
Ven o ene Islands. We used op ical sa elli e images acqui ed
by he spacebo ne Sen inel-2 senso , which is a mul ispec al
mission launched in he amewo k o he Eu opean Space
Agency (ESA) Cope nicus p og am. In his wo k, we employed
he ou Sen inel-2 bands a a 10 m spa ial esolu ion, namely in
he isible and nea -in a ed (NIR) ange. We elied on band 12
in he sho wa e in a ed (SWIR) a a 20 m spa ial esolu ion o
de ec bu ned a eas. The p oduc s used we e a p ocessing le el
2A, which p o ides da a ha a e adiome ically co ec ed,
geo e e enced, o ho ec i ied, a mosphe ically co ec ed, and
con e ed o he bo om-o -a mosphe e e lec ance. The da a
selec ion and p ocessing we e ca ied ou on Google Ea h
Engine (Amani e alii, 2020), which is a he same ime a mul i-
pe aby e eposi o y o geo e e enced and ha monized Ea h
obse a ion as e , ec o , and abula da ase s, which include
he whole Sen inel-2 a chi e.
To quan i y he damage caused by i e e en s o he ege a ion,
di e en Sen inel-2 scenes agg ega es a e analysed. To es ima e
ege a ion loss and o al bu ned a ea, we de i ed he no malized
bu n a io (NBR), de ined o a mul ispec al image x, as:
NBR(x) = (NIR - SWIR) / (NIR + SWIR) (1)
whe e NIR and SWIR indica e e lec ance in he nea -in a ed
and sho wa e in a ed, ep esen ed o Sen inel-2 by bands 8
and 12, espec i ely.
The NBR is a commonly used index o de ec bu ned a ea
and bu n se e i y (Key & Benson, 2006) and is pa icula ly
sensi i e o he changes in he amoun o li e g een ege a ion,
mois u e con en , and some soil condi ions, which may occu
a e a i e (Len ile e alii, 2006). Relying on he a ailabili y
o mul i empo al images, we used he di e enced NBR (dNBR)
since i pe o ms well in cap u ing he spa ial se e i y wi hin
i e pe ime e s (Pico e & Robe son, 2010). The dNBR
ela ed o p e- and pos -e en images, espec i ely acqui ed a
imes 0 and 1, is he del a o he wo measu emen s (mul iplied
by 1000 o con en ion):
dNBR(x o, x 1)=1000 (NBR(x o) − NBR(x 1)) (2)
A posi i e dNBR indica es damage, wi h se e i y
p opo ional o he alue. The a ec ed a ea a e de i ed by
applying he damage classes de ined in Key & Benson (2006),
illus a ed in Fig. 4, wi h one di e ence: in o de o de ec
damaged a eas wi h inc eased con idence, he in e al o alues
ela ed o low-se e i y damage is spli in wo equal anges, and
damage is conside ed only o alues la ge han 190.
The emainde o his subsec ion documen s an h opogenic
wild i es ha occu ed in he islands o S. S e ano and Ven o ene
om 2017 o 2024.
Island o S. S e ano
S. S e ano Island, a small, uninhabi ed island loca ed nea
Ven o ene in he Ty henian Sea, I aly, is ulne able o wild i e
haza ds du ing he annual adi ional S. Candida es i i ies held
e e y Sep embe . As pa o his celeb a ion, li lan e ns (named
“palloni”) a e eleased in o he sky on he 20 h o Sep embe om
nea by Ven o ene, wi h some occasionally landing on S. S e ano
Island, posing a signi ican i e isk. The island’s na u al ege a ion
and i s s a us as a p o ec ed a ea make i pa icula ly suscep ible o
damage om i es caused by hese ai bo ne lan e ns.
Sen inel-2 scenes acqui ed in a ela i ely sho ime span
we e agg ega ed o gene a e p e- and pos -e en images. An
image composi e o he island be o e he e en s was de i ed by
conside ing up o ou acquisi ions wi h cloud co e below 10 %
acqui ed om he beginning o Sep embe un il he day be o e
he main celeb a ion o S. Candida, o he yea s 2017-2024 and
conside ing he median e lec ance o each image elemen . This
allows he emo al o abno mal alues due o speci ic a mosphe ic
condi ions inducing e o s in he e lec ance es ima ion p ocess,
unde ec ed clouds, and cloud shadows in he scene.
The pos i e e lec ance image was chosen as he i s
cloud- ee acquisi ion a e ha day, wi h da es anging up
o 10 days a e he e en . P e-e en image composi es, pos -
e en images, and de ec ed damage compu ed acco ding o
equa ion (2) a e epo ed in Fig. 5. In addi ion o consequences
o San Candida i es, documen ed in (Tempo eale, 2018) and
(La inaquo idiano, 2023) an addi ional case is epo ed o
pa icula ly se e e damage caused by a ciga e e i e on he 28 h
o June 2022 (il Messagge o, 2022).
Rega ding eg ow h, i was analysed how long ege a ion
on he island needed o eco e a e he i e, as desc ibed in
(Gua ino, 2024). Vege a ion was conside ed o be eco e ed i
he dNBR index be ween he composi e be o e he e en and a
Fig. 4 - Legend o se e i y o i e damage maps de i ed in his sec-
ion, adap ed om (Keeley, 2009)
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I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
Remo e sensing-suppoR ed moni oRing o na uRal and an hRopogenic hazaRds o cul uRal heRi age
in Ven o ene and s. s e ano islands, i aly
la e image would no de ec any damage. In all cases, images
om mid-No embe showed he su ace a ec ed by wild i e
co e ed again by ege a ion, al hough no hing can be concluded
on he species o ege a ion domina ing he eg ow h. I is
in e es ing ha also he mos se ious e en , happened in June
2022, needed un il mid-No embe o he same yea o eco e ,
possibly because o he mos se ious damage combined wi h he
summe pe iod whe e p ecipi a ion is sca ce. In one case (2021)
no sui able cloud- ee images we e a ailable o he mon h o
No embe , so he abo e could only be e i ied o Decembe .
Island o Ven o ene
Th ee an h opogenic wild i e e en s we e analysed and
assessed o he island o Ven o ene. ou o hese h ee, one
was ela i ely close and one was inside he pe ime e o he
a chaeological si e o Villa Giulia, in he no h o he island.
Fi es p opaga ing o he a chaeological si e could damage he
a chaeological ma e ial, in pa icula he su i ing agmen s o
escoes disco e ed in he illa. Ano he i e ook place ins ead
in he p oximi y o he Roman cis e n o Villa S e ania.
The i s i e de ec ed, bo h in empo al o de and dis ance
Fig. 5 - S. S e ano Island wi h analysis o damage caused by i e e en s due o S. Candida es i i ies in Sep embe 2018, 2021, and 2023. The las ow docu-
men s he damage caused by a ciga e e i e in June 2022. Mapping om yellow o pu ple deno es mode a e o se e e damage (see Fig. 4). Images
a e a anged columnwise as p e-e en image agg ega e, pos -e en acquisi ion, and pos -e en acquisi ion wi h o e laid es ima ed damage. Resul s
we e alida ed by epo s in local newspape s abou he i e e en s on he ele an da es. Some pho os om a icles he ein a e epo ed in Fig. 3
72 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
d. ceRRa, p. gege, s. pla neR, . eliziani, g. gRechi, g. m. maRmoni, . bozzano & s. maR ino
Fig. 6 - Sen inel-2 p e-e en image composi e (Sep embe /Oc obe 2017) and pos -e en image (17.11.2017) acqui ed o e he a ea o Calaba aglia,
wi h e iden bu ned a eas ( ue colo combina ions)
Fig. 7 - De ec ed i e damage ( e . legend in Fig. 4), de i ed om images in Fig. 6, o e laid on a high esolu ion base map (© 2025 Ai bus, Maxa
Technologies) o p o ide con ex . Ci cled in ed in he uppe igh is he Roman cis e n o Villa S e ania. In he inse and ci cled in g een an
iden i ied gues house in he a ea, immedia ely a e he e en (Ma angon, 2018)
73
om he a chaeological si e o Villa Giulia, happened in he a ea o
Calaba aglia, in he sou hwes o he Island, on he 24 h o oc obe
2017. Fig. 6 epo s a Sen inel-2 median ue colo combina ion o
p e-e en acquisi ions, acqui ed in he ime ame 5.9 - 8.10 2017,
and a pos -e en image acqui ed on 17.11.2017, whe e bu ned
a eas a e e iden in bands in he isible ange o he spec um.
The dNBR compu ed as in equa ion (2) yields he esul s
epo ed in Fig. 7, which allows be e iden i ying he mos se e ely
a ec ed a eas. The epo ed maps ma ch e y well he epo s on
he wo main a eas whe e he i e de eloped, wi h highes damage
Remo e sensing-suppoR ed moni oRing o na uRal and an hRopogenic hazaRds o cul uRal heRi age
in Ven o ene and s. s e ano islands, i aly
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
Fig. 8 - Top: Sen inel-2 p e-e en image composi e (Sep embe 1 o Oc obe 7 2023) and pos -e en image composi e (Oc obe 9 o No embe 25 2023)
acqui ed o e he a ea o Calaba aglia, wi h e iden bu ned a eas ( ue colo combina ions). Middle: de ec ed i e damage, o e laid on a
high esolu ion base map (© 2025 Ai bus, Maxa Technologies) o p o ide con ex . Ci cled in g een is he same gues house iden i ied in Fig. 7.
Bo om: pho o acqui ed du ing he e en (La ina Oggi, 2023), wi h he same gues house ci cled in g een
epo ed in pu ple, wi h he i e s a ing in he sou hwes on he
image and sp eading o he no h, acco ding o locals who wi nessed
he e en (Ma ino, 2025). The Roman cis e n o Villa S e ania,
an impo an Ch landma k loca ed nea by o he No h-Eas o he
a ec ed a ea, is ci cled in ed in he same igu e. An a icle epo ed
on a na ional newspape (Ma angon, 2017) shows he i e in a
ideo, o which a ame is epo ed as an inse in Fig. 7 whe e a
gues house in he a ea (a coo dina es 40.792 N, 13.422 E) has been
iden i ied by he au ho s o his pape . The a icle he ein es ima es
he a ec ed ege a ion as abou 3 hec a es, which ag ees wi h he
80
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Recei ed Feb ua y 2025 - Accep ed Augus 2025
