95
A emios OIKONOMOU(*, **) & Themis oklis BILIS(*)
(*)Ge man A chaeological Ins i u e - A hens, G eece.
(**)Uni e si y o Wes A ica - Depa men o Conse a ion o An iqui ies and Wo ks o A - A hens, G eece
Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]
KALAPODI, GREECE: THE PROBLEM OF FROST AT THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRIQUETRA PROGRAMME
ExTENDED ABSTRACT
Il si o a cheologico di Kalapodi, si ua o in F hio is, nella G ecia cen ale, u ilizza o inin e o amen e dal pe iodo p eis o ico ino
all’epoca bizan ina, è s a o ampiamen e sca a o e s udia o dall’Is i u o A cheologico Tedesco di A ene. Kalapodi è uno dei san ua i più
impo an i della G ecia cen ale e gli sca i hanno po a o alla luce due complessi empla i pa alleli e al e s u u e che dimos ano sia
lo s iluppo dell’a chi e u a sac a dell’an ica G ecia sia delle a i i à i uali, sop a u o nel p imo millennio a.C. Tu a ia, le condizioni
clima iche che in luenzano i ma e iali da cos uzione, in pa icola e il gelo, app esen ano un se io p oblema pe la conse azione del
si o. Pe ques o mo i o, il si o di Kalapodi è uno degli s udi pilo a del P og amma TRIQUETRA, inanzia o dall’acco do quad o Ho izon
Eu ope dell’UE (GA 101094818) (Ioannidis e alii, 2024).
Ques o s udio mi a a indi idua e s a egie di conse azione a a e so analisi scien i iche e moni o aggio delle condizioni me eo ologiche.
Il clima a Kalapodi è di ipo medi e aneo, con es a i ela i amen e calde e secche, men e l’in e no è esco e umido, con equen i gela e che
app esen ano una minaccia impo an e pe le s u u e in pie a del si o con un mic oclima in luenza o p incipalmen e dalle mon agne ci cos an i,
come il icino Pa naso (massima ele azione ci ca 2500 me i). I cicli di gelo e disgelo, comuni nelle s agioni di ansizione, sono esponsabili di
s ess meccanici sui ma e iali po osi come il calca e, causando un de e io amen o signi ica i o. Inol e, l’aumen o delle p ecipi azioni, combina o
con pe iodi più lunghi di sicci à a causa dei cambiamen i clima ici, in ensi ica indi e amen e il de e io amen o del monumen o.
Come pa e del P og amma TRIQUETRA, è s a o condo o uno s udio app o ondi o sia sul clima che sui ma e iali u ilizza i a Kala-
podi. Pe alu a e le endenze clima iche passa e e u u e, sono s a i analizza i da i osse a i i, egis azioni s o iche del clima e modelli
clima ici egionali (RCM). I isul a i indicano un aumen o signi ica i o della empe a u a, con p oiezioni che sugge iscono un ischio
c escen e di impa i mic oclima ici sul pa imonio cul u ale.
Sono s a e quindi e e ua e analisi app o ondi e sui ma e iali delle pie e di due complessi empla i (quello classico e quello a caico) del san-
ua io. Ol e alla ca a e izzazione dei ma e iali edilizi, i campioni sono s a i so opos i a es di esis enza al gelo e a p ocessi di in ecchiamen o
a i iciale. I isul a i hanno mos a o che, sebbene i calca i dimos ino una buona du abili à, so ono comunque di danni conside e oli causa i
dal gelo, con e osione supe iciale ed indebolimen o s u u ale. In alcuni campioni sono s a i applica i ma e iali di consolidamen o a base di
nano ecnologia pe alu a e il lo o compo amen o so o le s esse condizioni di p o a. I p imi isul a i indicano che, men e ques o a amen o
o e una ce a esis enza ai danni da gelo, non miglio a signi ica i amen e la du abili à delle pie e con o l’azione del sale e dell’umidi à.
Inol e, è in co so la cos uzione di una eplica su la ga scala di una pa e impo an e dei g adini e dello s iloba e del empio se en io-
nale, u ilizzando ecnologia CNC e pie e calca ee mode ne con p op ie à isiche simili a quelle o iginali. Ques a s u u a spe imen ale
pe me e à di alu a e in empo eale gli e e i dei enomeni a mos e ici e l’e icacia delle s a egie di conse azione pe idu e i danni
causa i dal gelo. Pe ques o mo i o, è s a o ins alla o anche un sis ema di moni o aggio me eo ologico sul si o, che accoglie da i locali di
empe a u a e umidi à, consen endo di comp ende e meglio le a iazioni mic oclima iche.
In ine, è s a o ealizza o un nuo o sis ema di p o ezione dal gelo, che inco po a ele odi iscalda i e e mome i di ile amen o.
Ques o sis ema, s iluppa o in e namen e, si a i a au oma icamen e quando la empe a u a aggiunge i 3°C, p e enendo la o mazione
di b ina sulla eplica. Il unzionamen o di ques o sis ema sa à moni o a o ami e elecame e e miche a luce isibile, pe alu a ne
l’e icacia nel lungo pe iodo. Sono in co so anche ice che pe o imizza e l’applicazione di nanocoa ing p o e i i, che miglio ino la
esis enza delle pie e alle condizioni a mos e iche.
In conclusione, il si o di Kalapodi app esen a un impo an e caso di s udio sull’impa o dei cambiamen i clima ici, sop a u o nel co so
della s agione in e nale, quando si e i icano enomeni es emi.
L’implemen azione del P og amma TRIQUETRA so olinea quan o sia ondamen ale un app occio in e disciplina e alla conse azione
del pa imonio cul u ale, combinando scienza dei ma e iali, moni o aggio e modellazione clima ica, e s a egie di u ela pe a on a e i p o-
blemi lega i al cambiamen o clima ico e ga an i e la p o ezione dei monumen i in u u o.
I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen
www.ijege.uni oma1.i
IJEGE, Special Issue 1 (2025): 95-106, DOI: 10.4408/IJEGE.2025-01.S-07
E-ISSN 2035-5688 | ISSN 1825-6635 / ©Au ho (s)
96 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
A. OIKONOMOU & T. BILIS
ABSTRACT
In cen al G eece, in oday’s F hio is, whe e in an iqui y
Phokis bo de ed eas e n Lok is and Boeo ia, he e is a sanc ua y
ha is one o he mos impo an o ancien Phokis. Sys ema ic
exca a ions we e ca ied ou in he sanc ua y in he second
hal o he 20 h cen u y, unde he di ec ion o he Ge man
A chaeological Ins i u e and hey con inue o his day. As pa
o he TRIQUETRA p og amme an in eg a ed me hodological
model o p o ec a chaeological emains a Kalapodi om
os is p oposed. The TRIQUETRA p ojec (EU HE esea ch
and inno a ion p og amme unde GA No. 101094818) aims
a c ea ing an e idence-based assessmen pla o m ha allows
p ecise isk s a i ica ion, and also c ea es a da abase o a ailable
mi iga ion measu es and s a egies, ac ing as a Decision Suppo
Tool owa ds e icien isk mi iga ion and si e emedia ion
(Ioannidis e alii, 2024). This pape will p esen clima ic da a
o Kalapodi oge he wi h ma e ials analysis o he building
ma e ials o he sanc ua y highligh ing he os p oblem.
Keywo ds: Kalapodi, Cen al G eece, clima e change, T ique a
p ojec , s one ma e ials.
INTRODUCTION
The si e
A Kalapodi in cen al G eece, in oday’s F hio is, which
in an iqui y bo de ed eas e n Lok is and Boeo ia (Fig. 1), he e
is a sanc ua y ha is one o he mos impo an o ancien
Cen al G eece (Niemeie , 2013; Spo n, 2021; Spo n &
G igo opoulos, 2024). The ancien sanc ua y is si ua ed a an
al i ude o abou 310 m and a a dis ance o abou 1,300 m eas o
he se lemen Kalapodi in F hio ida on he sou he n slope o he
low hill Koumma o achi, which is pa o he sou he n oo hills
o he Kallid omo moun ain (1,399 m) (Fig. 2) (Galanou e
alii, 2017). A a sho dis ance, sou h o he exca a ion, he
small alley o Ala ginos s eam is o med, loca ed be ween he
moun ains o Kallid omo and Chlomos Moun ain (1,079 m).
The wa e s o Ala ginos, like o he s eams, ollow an eas e n
cou se and a e concen a ed in he ca chmen a ea o eas e n
Lok is and a e abou 13 km end up in he N. Euboean Gul .
The p o incial oad, which connec s A alan i wi h Delphi,
uns pa allel o he s eam and passes a sho dis ance om he
exca a ion, a he si e o Ag. Apos oloi, whe e he homonymous
chapel is loca ed (Galanou e alii, 2017).
Sys ema ic exca a ions we e ca ied ou in he sanc ua y only
in he second hal o he 20 h cen u y, unde he di ec ion o he
Ge man A chaeological Ins i u e and hey con inue o his day.
The sanc ua y was in he same egion as he amous pan-Hellenic
o acle o Apollo a Delphi. Acco ding o he exca a o s he
sanc ua y was possibly ano he o acle o Apollo, he amous one
o Abae. Recen disco e ies ha e also es i ied monumen s ela ed
also o he cul o A emis (Spo n & G igo opoulos, 2024).
The esul s o he exca a ions we e imp essi e, especially
on he issue o he con inui y o wo ship om p ehis o ic
imes o he Roman e a. The a chi ec u al emains we e also
signi ican o he e olu ion o ancien G eek a chi ec u e.
Temples o di e en pe iods, wi h a ious ypes o s uc u e
and ma e ials, a e a es amen o he g adual de elopmen o
ancien G eek emple a chi ec u e o e ime. The i s la ge
scale building o a cul si e all o e G eece was made he e in
Mycenean imes, while g adually om he Geome ic pe iod and
in he A chaic pe iod a monumen aliza ion ook place. Finally,
du ing he Classical pe iod Kalapodi sanc ua y ollows he
sys ema ic mode o exp ession based on he ules o he pe iod.
These cul buildings a e a anged in wo pa allel monumen al
uni s, a no he n and a sou he n one. A e exca a ion, he
a chi ec u al emains had o yea s been p o ec ed ei he
unde embankmen s (no he n monumen al uni ) o unde a
low and empo a y oo shel e (sou he n monumen al uni ).
Many exca a ed sec ions we e back illed. E en he uins ha
we e unde he p o ec i e canopy we e i ually inaccessible,
pa ly because hey we e unde geo ex iles, and pa ly because
he canopy i sel was pa icula ly low and dange ous o he
pe sonnel and he scien is s (Fig. 3 uppe pho o).
The subsoil in he a ea whe e he sanc ua y was buil is
cha ac e ized by pliocene o ma ions, consis ing o ma ls,
clays, sands ones, conglome a e ocks, ma gaic limes ones and
o he lake deposi s (Fig. 4) (Dounias, 2017). The e is in ense
seismic ac i i y in he a ea, as i is e y close o he aul zone
o A alan i (Palybou 2001; Galanou e alii, 2017). In his
di ec ion and in he amewo k o TRIQUETRA p og amme
(Ioannidis e alii, 2024) in 2023 a seismic assessmen o he
a chaeological si e has been comple ed by P o . S. Ma ino
and he Sapienza Uni e si à di Roma – Resea ch Cen e o
Geological Risk (CERI).
Fig. 1 - Kalapodi si e in cen al G eece (38°38’11”N 22°53’44”E).
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KALAPODI, GREECE: THE PROBLEM OF FROST AT THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRIQUETRA PROGRAMME
P esen a ion Wo ks
In 2017, he Ge man A chaeological Ins i u e had s a ed
wo king on a plan o he cul u al he i age managemen and he
p esen a ion o he sou he n emple complex. In au umn 2018, he
main enance and p esen a ion wo ks we e almos comple ed. In
2023 he empo a y p esen a ion o he no he n emple was also
comple ed. The shape o he soil was es o ed, and he uin o he
a chaic emple now eme ges na u ally om he soil, jus as i was
he case in G eek a chaic a chi ec u e (Spo n & G igo opoulos,
2024; Bilis & So i opoulos, 2024).
Acco ding o he a chi ec u al s udy, ou ch onological
phases emain isible and in e wined wi h each o he , shedding
conside able ligh on he his o ical e olu ion o he sanc ua y om
Geome ic imes o he Roman e a (Fig. 5). Indeed, wi h he wo k o
ma king he Geome ic emple p oposed wi h eplicas o aw b icks,
o he i s ime he scale o his g ea emple is so well unde s ood.
The pedimen was p oposed, a e i s sys ema ic esea ch, o be
exhibi ed as an exhibi o majo impo ance a he place whe e i
was ound (Bilis, 2021a; 2021b; Bilis & So i opoulos, 2024).
Clima e condi ions o he wide a ea o F hio is and
Kalapodi
The egion o F hio is ea u es a Medi e anean clima e
wi h no iceable con inen al in luences. This clima e is gene ally
cha ac e ized by wa m, d y summe s and cool, we win e s,
hough he geog aphical di e si y o he a ea in oduces signi ican
local a ia ions. The low-lying a eas, such as he plains whe e
Kalapodi is loca ed, di e om he moun ainous zones, which
expe ience colde win e s and highe p ecipi a ion le els.
Summe s in F hio is a e ypically ho , wi h empe a u es
anging om 25°C o 35°C. Du ing hea wa es, he empe a u es
can climb e en highe . Win e s, on he o he hand, a e ela i ely
mild in he lowland egions bu colde in he uplands. A e age
win e empe a u es ange om 0°C o 10°C, and os is a
equen occu ence, especially in he alleys and o he a eas
shel e ed om wind. P ecipi a ion is mos common du ing
au umn and win e , wi h he egion ecei ing an a e age
annual ain all o 600-800 mm. The moun ainous a eas o en
see mo e ain all due o o og aphic e ec s, and occasional
Fig. 2 - Kalapodi si e plan wi h a ious isible uins. The ed do indica es he place whe e he emple eplica has been cons uc ed (si e plan P.
Gou goule i, DAI-A hen)
98 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
A. OIKONOMOU & T. BILIS
snow all is common in hese highe ele a ions.
Humidi y le els a e mode a e, wi h highe eadings
du ing he coole mon hs when p ecipi a ion inc eases, and
e apo a ion a es dec ease. Winds in he a ea a e gene ally
mild o mode a e, in luenced by seasonal sys ems such as he
E esian (Mel emi) winds du ing he summe and sou he ly o
eas e ly winds du ing win e s o ms.
The local clima e a he Kalapodi a chaeological si e,
posi ioned in a low-lying a ea su ounded by hills, is sligh ly
mode a ed compa ed o he su ounding egion. I is cha ac e ized
as con inen al wi h he a e age empe a u e pe yea anging
om 8.3°C o 25.9°C. The highes empe a u es occu du ing
he summe mon hs and some imes each 40°C, while he lowes
occu om Decembe o mid-Ma ch and can each −-2°C. In
2014, a o al o 15 days o os we e eco ded. The a e age daily
ain all is gene ally low and anges om 3 mm o 36.6 mm. In
2014 o e all ain all eached 627.7 mm, wi h he highes heigh
eco ded in he mon h o Decembe , which eached 131 mm in
one day. Winds blow in he SE, E-SE di ec ion, wi h an a e age
speed anging om 1.3-1.8 km/h and an a e age maximum o
33.8-51.5 km/h (Galanou e alii, 2017).
Du ing win e , he si e o en expe iences os due o
adia ion cooling in i s alley-like geog aphy, whe e cold ai
masses coming om Pa nassus moun ain on he wes become
apped. F eeze- haw cycles, which a e pa icula ly damaging
o po ous ma e ials like limes one and ma ble, a e a ecu ing
issue du ing ansi ional seasons such as ea ly sp ing and la e
au umn. Summe s a Kalapodi a e ma ked by high empe a u es,
which can cause he mal s ess o he a chaeological ma e ials,
leading o he desicca ion o exposed su aces and con ibu ing
o he wea he ing o s one s uc u es. Ex eme wea he e en s,
such as hea y ain all, pose addi ional isks o e osion and
wa e logging, which can dis u b he a chaeological laye s and
inc ease he ulne abili y o he si e.
Pas en i onmen al da a and simula ions
The eme ging and g adual changes in empe a u e,
p ecipi a ion, wind in ensi y, a mosphe ic mois u e, as well as
he occu ence o ex eme e en s as mani es a ion o clima e
Fig. 3 - Kalapodi sanc ua y. The uins o he si e be o e (uppe pho o)
and a e (lowe pho o) p esen a ion wo ks (DAI-A hen a chi e)
Fig. 4 - Geological map o he Kalapodi egion. The a ea (yellow col-
ou ) consis s mos ly o ma ls, clays, g a els, sands ones, con-
glome a es and ma ly limes ones. The a ea on he igh co -
ne (pink colou ) con ains compac dolomi es usually whi e
and some imes g ey (Hellenic Su ey o Geology & Mine al
Explo a ion (H.S.G.M.E.)
Fig. 5 - Kalapodi sanc ua y es o a ion wo ks oday (DAI-A hen a chi e)
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KALAPODI, GREECE: THE PROBLEM OF FROST AT THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRIQUETRA PROGRAMME
change, a e well ecognized o impac cul u al he i age (CH)
si es (Colle e, 2007; Sesana e alii, 2021).
To assess clima e change- ela ed e ec s and isks in CH
si es, clima e pa ame e s and induced isks should be linked o
p ocesses impac ing cul u al he i age. Fo example, changes
in a mosphe ic mois u e due o hea y ain all may a ec
soil chemis y, cause g oundwa e luc ua ions, and inc ease
we ness. These ac o s can al e s uc u al changes in po ous
building ma e ials due o p olonged exposu e o mois u e and
changes in he pH o wa e . Tempe a u e a ia ions may u he
h ea en he in eg i y o cul u al he i age si es by causing
he mal s ess ha accele a es he de e io a ion o acades.
F eeze- haw cycles also con ibu e o os damage in his o ical
s uc u es, comp omising hei s abili y. Wind is ano he ac o
which indi ec ly can cause damage o s uc u es by inc easing
he pene a ion o mois u e in o po ous ma e ials h ough wind-
d i en ain and possibly anspo ed insoluble sal s leading o
su ace e osion. Beyond hese physical h ea s, clima e change
and especially changes in wa e /mois u e may os e biological
e ec s ha impac monumen s such as inc eased mould g ow h
( o de ailed desc ip ion o clima e change isks and impac s on
cul u al he i age please see Colle e, 2007).
To wo k owa ds he iden i ica ion o po en ial damages ela ed
o Kalapodi, ele an clima e da a o he assessmen o clima ic
in o ma ion associa ed wi h Kalapodi du ing he ecen pas pe iod.
In pa icula , obse a ional, E-OBS (g idded obse a ional), and
model da a we e examined (Zanis e alii, 2023). The clima ic
in o ma ion is based on h ee di e en ypes o da a:
• Local wea he s a ions wi h long me eo ological eco ds
a he p oximi y o Kalapodi.
• Land-only g idded obse a ional da a o se e al
me eo ological a iables o e Eu ope.
• Ensemble o high- esolu ion Regional Clima e Models (RCMs).
The E-OBS 26.0e g idded obse a ional da a we e ob ained
om he ECA&D a a ho izon al esolu ion o 0.1o × 0.1o. I comes
as an ensemble da ase cons uc ed h ough condi ional simula ion
p ocesses and obse a ional da a om wea he s a ions all o e
Eu ope as desc ibed in Haylock e alii (2008) and Co nes e
alii (2018). Obse a ional da a om wea he s a ions exhibi
su icien da a a ailabili y du ing he 1970-2020 pe iod o
Kalapodi and he E-OBS esul s o su ace empe a u e a e
shown in Fig. 6. On he same igu e he one-yea cen e ed mo ing
a e age is p esen ed, as well as he Theil-Sen end calcula ed
om he one-yea a e age se ies, and he Mann-Kendall
s a is ical signi icance a he 95% con idence le el cha ac e ized
as “SS” o s a is ically signi ican . In e es ingly, Kalapodi
exhibi s s a is ically signi ican posi i e su ace- empe a u e
ends anging om 0.17 o 0.62 °C decade-1, in ag eemen wi h
obse ed global wa ming du ing he ecen pas pe iod.
Fu he mo e, he clima ic in o ma ion om he ensemble
o EURO-CORDEX RCM simula ions du ing he ecen
Fig. 6 - Su ace- empe a u e daily ime se ies (black ci cles) a Ka-
lapodi o e he pe iod om 1970 o 2020. The blue line shows
he one-yea cen e ed mo ing a e age. The g eed dashed line
and g een ex inside he b acke s depic he Theil-Sen end
and he Mann-Kendall s a is ical signi icance a he 95% con-
idence le el (Zanis e alii, 2023)
Fig. 7 - Whiske plo s o su ace empe a u e (oC) (le ) and p ecipi a ion mon hly sum (mm mon h-1) ( igh ) o he ensemble o EURO-CORDEX
RCMs (ENS) and obse a ions (OBS), o annual (g ey), DJF (blue), MAM (o ange), JJA (pink), and SON (g een), o Kalapodi o e he
pe iod 1971-2000 (Zanis e alii, 2023)
100 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
A. OIKONOMOU & T. BILIS
pas pe iod and hei e alua ion based on obse a ions a e
depic ed in he ollowing whiske plo s1 (Fig. 7, 8) including
a ailable clima e pa ame e o he RCMs ensemble (ENS) and
obse a ions (OBS) in bo h annual and seasonal (Decembe
Janua y Feb ua y - DJF, Ma ch Ap il May - MAM, June July
Augus - JJA, Sep embe Oc obe No embe - SON) basis. To
selec a common pe iod wi h bo h obse a ions and ensemble
da a a ailable be o e he RCP scena ios pe iods (s a ing in
2005), he pe iod om 1971 o 2000 is selec ed.
O e all, he e is a good ag eemen be ween he ENS and
OBS da ase s o su ace empe a u e. Rega ding p ecipi a ion,
he RCM ensemble exhibi s highe alues han obse a ions.
Gene ally, he RCMs ensemble cap u es sa is ac o ily he obse ed
clima e pa ame e s du ing he ecen pas pe iod 1971-2000. Any
disc epancies seen be ween he obse ed and modeled alues is
subjec o model unce ain ies ( esolu ion, pa ame iza ions, e c.)
and di e en cha ac e is ics (ele a ion, land ype) be ween he
exac loca ion o Kalapodi and he selec ed model nea es g id
poin which is in Thiseio, A hens 103 km away.
Fu he mo e, he obse ed su ace empe a u e and daily
p ecipi a ion a e p esen ed in Fig. 10 o Kalapodi be ween wo
pas long pe iods om 1971-1990 and 2001-2020 on bo h annual
and seasonal basis in o de o assess possible changes.
Following he app oach o T inga and Tolika (2023), he
He i age Ou doo Mic oclima e Risk (HMRou ) and he P edic ed
Risk o Damage (PRD) indices we e applied o e alua e he
sui abili y o mic oclima es and quan i y he damage isk. Using
he obse a ional da a om he ecen pas , he yea s cha ac e ized
by Minimum-Low, Mode a e-Medium, and High-Maximum isk
o he empe a u e pa ame e we e calcula ed o he pe iods 1971-
2000 and 2001-2020 (Fig. 9). In gene al, he indings indica e an
inc eased isk o mic oclima e impac on cul u al he i age du ing
he pe iod 2001-2020. This is deduced om he educ ion in yea s
cha ac e ized by Minimum-Low isk and he inc ease in yea s
wi h Mode a e-Medium and High-Maximum isk. I ’s c ucial o
emphasize ha he inc ease in empe a u e is closely linked o his
ele a ion in isk. Mo e speci ically, Kalapodi exhibi s an inc ease
in yea s wi h High-Maximum isk (38%) and a 37% inc ease in
yea s wi h Mode a e-Medium isk. Fu he mo e, he PRD index
indica es ha he likelihood o damage o cul u al he i age due o
inc easing hea s ess on he ino ganic ma e ial inc eased on a e age
by 31% a Kalapodi. These indings emphasize he ulne abili y o
cul u al he i age o he impac s o clima e change, unde sco ing he
c i ical need o addi ional esea ch on u u e clima ic condi ions.
This is wo k in p og ess, by assessing he mul i-model ensembles
o RCM simula ions o h ee di e en scena ios (RCP2.6, RCP4.5
and RCP8.5) o e alua e he u u e HMRou and PRD indices
o wo clima ic a iables, Tempe a u e and Rela i e Humidi y.
Acco ding o he li e a u e, a po en ial change in hese wo
clima ic pa ame e s could ha e signi ican impac s on monumen s
(Fa o ić & Seekamp, 2017; Camu o, 2019). Analyzing hese wo
c i ical clima e pa ame e s will p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e
unde s anding o how a ia ions in empe a u e and ela i e
humidi y may a ec he esilience o ma e ials and he o e all
p ese a ion o cul u al he i age si es cons uc ed om s one.
Fig. 8 - Whiske plo s o obse ed su ace empe a u e (oC) (le ) and obse ed daily p ecipi a ion (mm day-1) ( igh ) du ing he pe iods P1 (1971-
1990) and P2 (2001-2020), o annual (g ey), DJF (blue), MAM (o ange), JJA (pink), and SON (g een) o Kalapodi (Zanis e alii, 2023)
Fig. 9 - Fo each isk ca ego y he di e ences be ween he ea ly
(1971-2000) and la e (2001-2020) pas pe iod o Kalapo-
di (The pe cen ages ep esen gain o loss among he o al
yea s) (Zanis e alii, 2023)
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KALAPODI, GREECE: THE PROBLEM OF FROST AT THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRIQUETRA PROGRAMME
Snow co e in Kalapodi and he p oblem o os can be
in luenced by a combina ion o bo h me eo ological and
en i onmen al ac o s. The ex en and du a ion o snow
accumula ion a a si e depends on empe a u e luc ua ions,
wind pa e ns, and subsequen wea he condi ions. Acco ding
o The Ge man Ae ospace Cen e (DLR), pa ne o he
T ique a p ojec , and he ga he ing o pas clima ic da a, he
mean alue o snow co e in a wide a ea (app ox. 260 km2)
including Kalapodi a chaeological si e and a ious moun ains
such as Pa nassus s a s in mid o Sep embe (appa en ly in he
highe al i udes) un il end o Ap il wi h he highes snow co e
happening in Janua y/Feb ua y (Fig. 10).
In addi ion, in he amewo k o T ique a implemen a ion,
DLR pe o med snow co e analysis a Kalapodi si e using modeled
snow all and Ea h Obse a ion (EO) pa ame e s which e ealed
c i ical insigh s in o he u u e o snow co e unde a ying clima ic
scena ios. The analysis indica ed ha he ex en and du a ion o
he snow all a e mos ly in luenced by a ia ions in empe a u e
and wind. Subsequen wea he condi ions, such as ain all and
mel ing pe iods due o empe a u e ise, can u he educe snow
co e , highligh ing he complex ela ionship o clima ic elemen s
a ec ing snow and he subsequen os (Mi e wallne e
alii, 2024; “Change in snow deple ion pa e n in a i e basin o
A unachal P adesh unde p ojec ed clima ic scena ios”, 2017).
The analysis included he in es iga ion o mon hly snow
co e and snow all da a o a pe iod o 22 yea s unde a ious
Rep esen a i e Concen a ion Pa hways (RCPs) which acili a ed
a compa a i e assessmen o u u e clima ic scena ios. The
p ojec ions unde RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 indica e a subs an ial
dec ease in snow all by he yea s 2050 and 2100, which is
mos ly e iden a RCP8.5 ep esen ing high emissions scena io.
This dec ease in snow all can be a ibu ed o he gene al ise in
empe a u e which in ensi ies mel ing i.e. he ansi ion om solid
o liquid p ecipi a ion, which in ha way may educe he amoun o
snow co e bo h in e ms o du a ion and dep h (Mi e wallne
e alii, 2024; S ege e alii, 2012; K as ing e alii, 2013).
Applica ion o he T iqueT A P og amme
The wide egion o F hio is, including Kalapodi, he las
decades is inc easingly a ec ed by clima e change, which has
inc eased a ious en i onmen al challenges. Tempe a u e ex emes,
ollowing he same pa e n almos in e e y place in G eece, a e
becoming mo e ob ious, wi h unp edic able longe os e en s
in he win e and mo e equen hea wa es du ing he summe
pe iod. In addi ion, he ain all has been inc eased and ex eme
p ecipi a ion e en s can lead indi ec ly o signi ican e osion and
de e io a ion o he monumen s. Simul aneously, ex ended d y
pe iods as a esul o ho e and longe summe s, in ensi y d yness
and comp omise he in eg i y o he use o p o ec i e coa ings o
conse a ion ea men s applied o he a chaeological emains.
The Kalapodi si e su e s om os phenomena which,
oge he wi h he humidi y/ ain all, pose a cons an dange o
he si e’s ma e ials. The po osi y o he ma e ials aps mois u e
and wa e and due o os can cause in e nal damages which, in
combina ion wi h he ulne able s uc u al ma e ials, causes decay
p oblems. Cu en ly his p oblem is sol ed by seasonal co e ing
wi h geo ex ile and insula ion panels (Fig. 11). Due o clima e
change, in he u u e all hese p oblems will become in ensi ied.
As a i s s ep o unde s and how os is a ec ing he building
ma e ials o he si e, we pe o med an ex ensi e chemical and
mechanical analysis o he ma e ials o he monumen . The
p ima y cons uc ion ma e ials used in he Kalapodi si e we e
locally a ailable s one, e aco a, wood, and me als. Fo ins ance,
a he a chaic emple (sou h monumen al complex), limes one
was employed o emple pedimen s, while wood was commonly
used o columns and en abla u es, e lec ing a blend o s one and
o ganic ma e ials in he cons uc ion. Te aco a was widely used
o oo iles and deco a i e elemen s, such as simas and ac o e ia.
The si e also e eals ins ances o eused ma e ials, whe e
Fig. 10 - Mean snow co e a ea in km² (a) and % (b) de i ed om daily
snow co e ex en o he CH si e Kalapodi based on mon hly
means (1=Jan o 12=Dec) o he pe iod 2000-2022 (DLR)
Fig. 11 - The uins o he si e a e p o ec ed du ing win e by seasonal
co e ing wi h geo ex ile and insula ion panels. Pho o: Ch.
Vapo akis, DAI A hen
102 I alian Jou nal o Enginee ing Geology and En i onmen , Special Issue 1 (2025) www.ijege.uni oma1.i
A. OIKONOMOU & T. BILIS
a chi ec u al elemen s om ea lie s uc u es we e inco po a ed
in o la e buildings, pa icula ly a e e en s like ea hquakes
o des uc ion. In addi ion, he e a e se e al mo a s and wall
pain ings om he si e (Table 1). The ocus o his pape is on
he s one ma e ial o he classical and a chaic emples, namely
samples wi h he code name KL1, KL2 and KL4. These s ones a e
he mos a ec ed by os phenomena and he wea he condi ions
since he es a e cu en ly co e ed by soil and he e o e p o ec ed.
The po ous limes one (code KL1), used in he cons uc ion
o he classical emple in he no he n complex, is pale yellow
and p ima ily consis s o calci e (91%), wi h g ains o magne i e,
qua z, and ossils. I has a bulk densi y o 2.21 g/cm³, a wa e
abso p ion by mass o 15.23%, a o al po osi y o 31.06%, and a
la ge a e age po e size o Ø4.83 μm. I s mechanical s eng hs
a e 13.52 MPa in comp ession and 4.07 MPa in bending. In he
cons uc ion o he a chaic emple a limes one in och e shade
has been used, wi h wo di e en quali ies, ound in di e en
posi ions o he s uc u e. The so (code KL2) is ound mainly
in he sub- ounda ions and he ha de (code KL4) in he uppe
s uc u e. Bo h s ones con ain mainly calci e, magne i e g anules
(<2%) and ossils (~8%), a e ce ainly local and come om he
same ock sequence. The ha d quali y o he s one has a lowe
o al po osi y han he so g ade, 22-24% e sus 26.8%, wi h
a simila a e age po e size Ø0.98-0.1 μm. The so quali y o
limes one has a lowe bulk densi y han ha d quali y (1.92 g/
cm3 s. 2.46 g/cm3) and wice he wa e abso p ion alue by
mass, 22.95% s. 11.69% espec i ely (Kouzeli, 2001). The
mechanical s eng h o he so g ade o limes one is lowe ,
mainly in bending, wi h alues o 6.25 MPa (comp ession) and
0.53 MPa (bending), compa ed o 8.17 MPa and 1.38 MPa o
Tab. 1 - Documen ed a ailable ma e ials in Kalapodi a chaeological si e o analysis (2017-2025). This pape ocuses on he s one ma e ials KL1-KL5
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KALAPODI, GREECE: THE PROBLEM OF FROST AT THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRIQUETRA PROGRAMME
specimens ea ed wi h he consolidan ma e ial, he p og ession
o e osion appea ed o slow down (Fig.13).
In he a i icial aging p ocess, all samples demons a ed low
esis ance wi hou excep ion, as de e io a ion became e iden om
he second cycle, wi h edge ounding and signi ican weigh loss,
while by he ele en h cycle, mos specimens had been des oyed
(Fig. 14). The applica ion o he consolidan ma e ial did no seem
o imp o e he esis ance o he s ones o soluble sal s, excep in
he case o he po ous s one used in he cons uc ion o he classical
emple (samples KL1m and KL1n), whe e he consolidan ma e ial
appea ed o sligh ly enhance he ma e ial’s pe o mance.
To u he unde s and how clima e change a ec s he
a chaeological si e an exac eplica o he s eps and he s yloba e
o he No he n Temple wi h he applica ion is in he p ocess o
being cons uc ed wi h CNC (Compu e ized Nume ical Con ol)
in 1:1 scale wi h simila ma e ial o he o iginal (Fig. 15). The
ma e ial used is a limes one ha ing simila p ope ies o he
o iginal and in he nea u u e as pa o he T ique a p ojec
will be used as a subs a e o he applica ion o coa ings o he
p o ec ion om os as a case s udy. The acqui ed da a will be
hen used o he ancien emple ensu ing i s p ese a ion.
Fo he implemen a ion o he eplica p elimina y ea hwo ks
ook place o la en he soil so as o cons uc a base/pla e o
ha d quali y. All h ee ypes o limes one a e ce ainly local and
o igina e om he same ock sequence (Galanou e alii, 2017).
The empe a u e in Kalapodi can d op below 0o C o a
leas a week du ing win e , esul ing in he o ma ion o os
on he monumen ’s building ma e ials. The po osi y o he
ma e ials is one o he main easons o hei disin eg a ion
since hey abso b wa e , and he s esses de eloped due o he
expansion o wa e wi hin he po e ne wo k canno be elie ed.
As a esul , he s ones g adually disin eg a e (Fig. 12).
Simila phenomena a e obse ed in he p esence o ce ain
sal s, such as chlo ides and sul a es, which also can expand
when hey a e ans o med om an anhyd ous o an hyd a ed
s a e. I would be expec ed ha he insoluble sal s would no
a ec he Kalapodi si e, since i s geog aphical posi ion is in a
dis ance om he sea (app ox.15 km in s aigh line acco ding o
GoogleEa h). Howe e , he e a e some indica ions o insoluble
sal s whe e sal e lo escence was de ec ed in combina ion wi h
wea he ing phenomena on he so limes one blocks.
Fo hese easons, he h ee ypes o s one we e es ed
unde os condi ions ( os cycles) and we e also subjec ed
o a i icial aging cycles wi h sal s. Sample KL1 was selec ed
om he po ous s one o he classical emple, while o he
a chaic emple, samples KL2 o he so limes one and KL4 o
he ha d limes one we e chosen. Fu he o his s udy calcium
hyd oxide p ecipi a ion ma e ial in he o m o nanopa icles
(50-300 nm), comme cially known as Nano es o e, was used
as a consolida ion ma e ial o he p o ec ion o s one. This
ma e ial was applied on he samples and he coa ed samples
we e u he es ed o os and aging cycles.
The esul s o he os esis ance es s indica ed ha he
limes one o he classical emple is a du able ma e ial and does
no appea o ace signi ican issues. Howe e , bo h ypes o
s one om he a chaic emple, he ha d and he so limes one,
exhibi ed os - ela ed de e io a ion. None heless, in he
Fig. 12 - Phenomenon o e osion o so limes one due o he e ec o
os (DAI-A hen a chi e)
Fig. 13 - F os esis ance es s o he samples unde s udy. The “n” e e s
o he coa ed s ones wi h Nano es o e (Galanou e alii, 2017)
Fig. 14 - The esul s o he a i icial aging p ocess applied on Kalapodi
building ma e ials. The “n” e e s o he coa ed s ones wi h Na-
no es o e (Galanou e alii, 2017)
