Catholicism and Capitalism

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CATHOLICISM AND CAPITALISM
GIUSEPPE RUGGERI
Copy igh © 2025 Giuseppe Rugge i
Fi s Edi ion 2025
All Righ s Rese ed
ISBN
978-1-257-65319-5
P in ed by Lulu P ess
O he Books by he Same Au ho :
Wo k and Leisu e in Ame ica (2022)
The Fu u e o Ene gy (2023)
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In Memo y o
Pope F ancis
Table o Con en s
In oduc ion 5
Chap e 1 Biblical Roo s: Old Tes amen 19
Chap e 2 Biblical Roo s: New Tes amen 49
Chap e 3 Fa he s o he Chu ch 78
Chap e 4 Sain Augus ine 95
Chap e 5 Sain F ancis o Assisi 105
Chap e 6 Sain Thomas Aquinas 113
Chap e 7 Pope Leo XIII: Re um No a um 131
Chap e 8 Pope Pius XI: Quad agesimo Anno 149
Chap e 9 Pope John Paul II: Labo em Exe cens176
Chap e 10 Pope John Paul II: Cen esimus Annus
199
Chap e 11 Pope F ancis: Lauda o Si’ 224
Chap e 12 Policies 254
Conclusion 278
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In oduc ion
Ca holic social eaching has been a undamen al
pilla o Wes e n ci iliza ion and i s oo s ex end
a beyond he publica ion o Pope Leo XIII’s
encyclical Re um No a um. Ca holic social
eaching has i s ounda ion in he Gospels. Since
Jesus was Jewish and explici ly accep ed he wo d
o God e ealed o men in he Old Tes amen , we
can a i m ha he oo s o Ca holic social eaching
go a back in ime. Tha ’s wha I do in his book
ha aces he e olu ion o he social eaching o
he Ca holic Chu ch om he Mosaic Co enan o
Pope F ancis. I con ains wel e chap e s plus an
in oduc ion and a conclusion.
The i s chap e shows how he c ea ion accoun
and he Mosaic Co enan lay ou he ounda ions
o Ca holic social eaching by es ablishing a se o
p inciples ha e e be a e in a ious w i ings
h oughou he cen u ies. Fi s , man has he mo al
esponsibili y o ake ca e o he na u al wo ld.
Second, all na u al esou ces belong o God. Man’s
p ope y igh s a e limi ed o he use o hese
esou ces and do no ex end o hei disposal. Thi d,

he ui s o man’s p ope y a e no o be used
exclusi ely by he owne , bu mus be sha ed wi h
he poo (uni e sal des ina ion o goods). Fou h,
wo ke s mus be ea ed wi h digni y. Fi h, he
accumula ion o weal h is condemned. In ac , he
Mosaic Co enan con ains a numbe o p o isions
aimed a p e en ing weal h accumula ion ( he mos
signi ican being he o gi eness o deb s in he
jubilee yea ). Finally, man is commanded o lead a
i uous li e by obeying ai h ully God’s
commandmen s. His igh s a e a ui o he
ul illmen o his esponsibili ies, as God blesses
hose who ollow his commands.
The second chap e is dedica ed o he New
Tes amen . I shows how he Gospels ea i m he
undamen al p inciples o he Mosaic Co enan :
he c ucial ole o wo k in human li e, he digni ied
ea men o wo ke s, he p omp paymen o hei
labo , he dange s o co e ing weal h, and he
obliga ion o help no jus he poo bu anyone who
asks. The Gospels emphasize pa icula ly a T ini y
o lo e as he d i e o all human ac i i y: lo e o
God, lo e o iend and oe, and lo e o jus ice.
The Ac s o he Apos les and he le e s o Pe e ,
James, and Paul p esen a pic u e o he ea ly
Chu ch as a communi y o people who sha ed hei
possessions wi h all membe s o he communi y
and s ess he impo ance o showing ou ai h
h ough good deeds. In addi ion, Paul gi es p io i y
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o he communi y o e pe sonal in e es s and o he
common good o e indi idual desi es.
The hi d chap e shows how h ee Chu ch Fa he s
(Sain Clemen o Alexand ia, Sain Basil, and
Sain John Ch ysos om) add essed he issues o he
concen a ion o weal h, he display o conspicuous
consump ion, and he pligh o he u ban poo .
Sain Clemen add essed he ques ion o weal h
om he pe spec i e o sal a ion. He conside ed
ma e ial possessions as aluable esou ces o he
sa is ac ion o human needs o be sha ed among all
membe s o a communi y and in e p e ed Jesus’
command o sell one’s possessions in a igu a i e
manne . Fo him, gi ing up weal h was a way o
become a ee pe son eleased om any a achmen
o ma e ial hings. Sain Basil’s iews o weal h
and he ich a e g ounded on bo h he Old and he
New Tes amen . Sain Basil belie ed ha God had
p o ided o all human needs in he Ga den o Eden
and e en a e he all as e idenced by he Mosaic
Co enan . Seeking mo e is ing a i ude, an
exp ession o aw g eed. Sain Basil places weal h
accumula ion wi hin he mo al con ex o he New
Tes amen by ela ing i o Jesus’ command o lo e
one’s neighbo as onesel . The e o e, in addi ion o
being a socially undesi able beha io con ibu ing
o po e y, i is a g a e sin as i de ies Jesus’
command o lo e one’s neighbo as onesel . The
sin is no he desi e o weal h o ex a agan
spending, bu he lack o lo e ha eeds g eed and
ex a agance. Sain John Ch ysos om ocused on
wha he called luxu ious li ing and excessi e
consump ion. In his iew, he ich a e he s ewa d
o he poo and ha e he du y o ake ca e o hei
needs be o e engaging in unnecessa y
expendi u es. Consuming mo e han one’s needs is
equi alen o being a hie ha akes om he
mou h o he poo wha i is igh ully hei s.
In he ou h chap e , Sain Augus ine a gues ha
he ounda ion o any socie y is a li e submi ed o
he will o God. Man is whole when,
acknowledging God’s lo e, he lo es God in e u n
o he ex en o his ull capaci y. I we lo e God and
a e obedien o His will, we will be in a lo ing
ela ionship wi h ou sel es and ou neighbo and
social jus ice will p e ail. In he con ex o
Augus ine’s hough , social jus ice is he ine i able
esul o man’s lo e o God and o his neighbo ;
i is lo e in ac ion. This means ha he “social
gospel” is no jus a pa o he Gospel, i is i s
en i e y. S ipping he Gospels o hei social
con en would lea e la gely a ch onicle o h ee
yea s in he li e o a Galilean p eache and mi acle
wo ke who ended up being pu o dea h by
c uci ixion unde Roman ule.
In he i h chap e , Sain F ancis o Assisi akes us
back o he o igins o he uni e se, anscending
bo h his upb inging and he his o ical con ex o his
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li e. His p ima y message is ou kinship o na u e.
Man is nei he na u e’s Lo d no simply i s
ca e ake . He is a kin o na u e, because each o i s
elemen s is a b o he o sis e . Mo eo e , we a e
linked o na u e by a bond o lo e because all
c ea ion came o li e h ough he powe o God’s
lo e. The e o e, any ailu e o ca e o “mo he
ea h” and o he en i onmen is a b each o he
i s h ee commandmen s o a ailu e o ca e o
God’s c ea ion is a lack o lo e o God Himsel .
In he six h chap e , Sain Thomas Aquinas p esen s
a iew o human ac i i y ha is comp ehensi e and
in e nally consis en . C ea ed in God’s image,
humans beha e in acco dance o jus ice and cha i y
o he pu pose o p omo ing God’s plan on ea h.
In doing so, hey gi e p io i y o social well-being
o e pe sonal in e es s, gi e e e yone wha is
igh ly hei s, e use o pu sue iches because he
accumula ion o weal h is no conduci e o
happiness, ensu e ha e e y wo ke ea ns a li ing
wage, a e sa is ied wi h he ul illmen o hei
needs in acco dance o hei s a us, and willingly
sha e any su plus wi h hose who a e wan ing. A
socie y composed o i uous people who p ac ice
s ead as ly jus ice and cha i y will exhibi lowe
dispa i ies o income and weal h, s onge social
cohesion, g ea e o e all well-being, mo e
wholesome and esilien in e -pe sonal
ela ionships, lowe deg ees o c iminal ac i i y,
and g ea e o e all social ha mony.
na u e is no some hing sepa a e om us and ha
i s componen s a e no objec s o abuse, bu ou
b o he s and sis e s. Na u e is pa o us. When we
hu i , we impo e ish ou own li es. The
ounda ions o God’s plan is uni y. As he e is uni y
in he T ini y so he e is uni y in c ea ion, and he
na u al ecology and he human ecology a e one.
Wi hou minimizing he impo ance o ins i u ional
changes and policy ini ia i es, Pope F ancis
sugges s ha a long- e m solu ion o he c isis o
he na u al and human ecology equi es a adical
pe sonal con e sion o a new way o li e ha shuns
ma e ialism and sel ishness, emb aces simplici y
and humili y, and seeks jus ice and he common
good.
Chap e 12 p esen s a de ailed economic p og am
consis en wi h he undamen al p inciples o
ca holic social eaching: dis ibu i e jus ice, he
igh o p i a e p ope y and o ea n a li ing income
h ough employmen , he uni e sal des ina ion o
goods, and subsidia i y. The main conclusion o
his book is ha capi alism is incompa ible wi h
Ca holicism because i ocuses only on he ma e ial
side o human needs, deg ades man om subjec o
objec o human ac i i y (inpu in he p oduc ion
p ocess, concep ually no di e en han a machine,
and consume o he goods and se ices p oduced),
has an inhe en endency o gene a e ising
concen a ion o weal h and o economic and
poli ical powe . I s success es s on indi idualism,
g eed, and pe manen dissa is ac ion, and i s does

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no o e man and socie y a clea mo al ounda ion.
By con as , Ca holic social eaching places man a
he cen e o all ac i i y, de ends he inhe en
digni y o man as a child o God, p omo es his ull
de elopmen as a being wi h emo ional,
in ellec ual, and spi i ual needs, espec s his
inalienable igh s o li e, eedom, and a li ing
income om wo k, gi es p io i y o he common
good o e pe sonal pleasu e and he needs o he
poo o e he wan s o he ich, ad oca es peace
and social ha mony, and o e s a mo al compass
ha guides man h oughou li e in his jou ney back
o his e e nal abode.
This book con ains a numbe o special ea u es. I
is comp ehensi e in scope, ye concise in
p esen a ion. I places each sou ce in i s his o ical
con ex because he w i ings e lec o a la ge ex en
he w i e ’s pe sonal expe iences and he exis en
economic, poli ical, and social condi ions. I is
w i en in a non- echnical s yle which makes i
accessible o any eade . I places g ea emphasis
on he economic aspec s o each sou ce because
ca holic social eaching ul ima ely deals wi h issues
o economic jus ice. Finally, i highligh s he
p ac icali y o ca holic social eaching by
p esen ing a comple e policy p og am consis en
wi h i s undamen al p inciples. This book is
educa ional, inspi a ional, and p ac ical. I guides
he eade h ough he main w i en sou ces o
ca holic social eaching and, by s essing pe sonal
esponsibili y, shows ha change s a s wi h us and
only h ough he con e sion and p ac ice o a
i uous li e can we build a be e wo ld. The
example in he las chap e p o es how ca holic
social eaching o e s he ounda ions o
sus ainable p og ess and a jus socie y.
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Chap e 1 Biblical Roo s: Old Tes amen
On a sunny mo ning, Moses led his a he -in-law
Je h o’s he d o sheep and goa s ac oss he dese
all he way o moun Sinai. The e he saw wha
appea ed o be a lame om he cen e o a bush.
Ge ing close , he hea d a oice coming om he
middle o he bush, “I am he God o you
a he ….I ha e indeed seen he mise y o my
people in Egyp . I ha e hea d hem c ying…and I
am conce ned abou hei su e ing….So I ha e
come down o escue hem… So now, go. I am
sending you o Pha aoh o b ing my people he
Is aeli es ou o Egyp ….I will be wi h you….when
you ha e b ough he people ou o Egyp , you
(plu al) will wo ship God on his moun ain.”1
“On he i s day o he hi d mon h a e he
Is aeli es le Egyp …. hey came o he dese o
Sinai….and Is ael camped he e.”2 Moses wen up
o God, and he Lo d said o him, “This is wha …
you ha e o say o he people o Is ael….i you
obey me ully and keep my co enan , hen ou o
all na ions you will be my easu ed
possession….You will be o me a na ion o p ies s
and a holy na ion.”3 A e Moses epo ed back ha
he people o Is ael had accep ed His o e , God
asked Moses o consec a e he Is aeli es h ough
i ual cleansing o wo days o p epa e hem o
His isi he ollowing day.4 Moses wen up he
moun ain again wi h his b o he Aa on and
ecei ed om God he speci ic condi ions o he
co enan .5
The Mosaic Co enan
This was he hi d co enan o e ed by God. The
i s was a unila e al and uncondi ional p omise
om God o Noah a e he lood had subsided: “I
now es ablish my co enan wi h you and you
descendan s a e you, and wi h e e y li ing
c ea u e ha was wi h you….e e y li ing c ea u e
on ea h….ne e again will all li e be des oyed by
he wa e s o a lood, ne e again will he e be a
lood o des oy he ea h.”6 The i s co enan no
only se no condi ions bu in ol ed he whole
c ea ion.
The second co enan was also unila e al, bu i was
mo e a ge ed as i iden i ied bo h he bene i s
o e ed and he bene icia ies. The o me we e
speci ic ac s o land: “To you descendan s I gi e
his land, om he Wadi ( i e ) o Egyp o he g ea
i e , he Euph a es.”7 The la e was an iden i iable
g oup o people, Ab aham and his descendan s.
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“As o me, his is my co enan wi h you: I will
make you e y ui ul; will make na ions o you
and kings will come om you….I will es ablish an
e e las ing co enan …. o be you God and he God
o you descendan s.”8 (The condi ions eques ed
by God we e ha he Is aeli es would emain
ai h ul o his co enan and be iden i ied by.9
The h ee co enan s men ioned in Genesis and
Exodus show a p og ession om gene ali y o
speci ici y. The bene i s e ol e om es ain on he
pa o God no o des oy he ea h wi h loods o
he p omise o a land and his o e o be God o a
speci ic people. The unila e al o e in he i s wo
co enan s becomes a mu ual ag eemen in he
Mosaic co enan , and he uncondi ional na u e o
he i s co enan is eplaced by a de ailed lis o
condi ions in he hi d co enan .
The second and hi d co enan s e ec i ely
consec a e he ag icul u al way o li e. The people
o Is ael would inhabi a land o hei own, gi en o
hem by he Lo d. They would se le in his land,
hey would wo k i , hey would be ui ul, and
om a small g oup would o m a na ion.
The eplacemen o hun e -ga he e socie ies wi h
ag icul u al socie ies in ol es mo e han a change
in economic s uc u es, i ep esen s a pa adigm
shi in he ela ionship be ween humans and
na u e. Hun e -ga he e s li e in a wo ld con olled

by na u e. T ees g ow om seeds eely sca e ed
on he g ound and p oduce hei ui wi hou
human help. Simila ly, animals a e no
domes ica ed and oam he ea h a will as bo h
p eda o s and p ey. Humans do no in e ene in his
na u al cycle o li e. They simply “ha es ” wha
hey need o su i al in a sus ainable manne . In
his ype o socie y, he e is no sa ing, no g ow h,
and no weal h accumula ion. The e is sha ing o he
“ha es ” o secu e he su i al o he communi y.
In ag icul u al socie ies, pa s o he con ol a e
ans e ed om na u e o humans. Animals a e
domes ica ed o se e he needs o humans, ees
a e plan ed whe e humans wan hem, and he land
is clea ed o indigenous plan s o make oom o
cul i a ed a ie ies. In his p ocess, e en he
landscape is al e ed as o es s a e ans o med in o
a able land, and wa e s a e di e ed om i e s o
i iga e he newly c ea ed ields. Human con ol
also allows communi ies o g ow la ge and
e en ually become ci ies, a ans o ma ion ha
a ec s no only he landscape, bu also he
economic and social s uc u e and he e olu ion o
human ela ionships.
P ope y Righ s
In ancien Is ael, he de elopmen o an ag a ian
socie y occu ed wi hin he con ex o a special
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ela ionship wi h he Lo d, an e e las ing co enan
wi h a de ailed se o no ms. An impo an pa o
his co enan was he ea men o p ope y igh s,
which had a a ie y o special aspec s.
Fi s , all h ee co enan s es on he undamen al
p inciple ha he land upon which he Is aeli es a e
o se le and all ha is ound in i belongs o he
Lo d. In he co enan wi h Noah, he Lo d makes i
clea ha he has powe o e all c ea ion. In he
second co enan , God ea i ms his Lo dship o e
c ea ion by gi ing a piece o ea h o Ab aham and
his descendan s. He could ha e no o e ed wha
was no His. In he co enan wi h Moses, God
ea i ms his owne ship o e he land gi ed o he
Is aeli es: “The land mus no be sold pe manen ly,
because he land is mine and you eside in my land
as o eigne s and s ange s.”10 In he ag icul u al
socie y o he chosen people, p i a e owne ship o
esou ces was empo a y and always subo dina e o
he will o God, he ul ima e p op ie o .
Second, he land ha he Lo d had p omised
Ab aham was gi en exclusi ely o he Is aeli es.
The ins uc ions on how o alloca e he land gi en
o Moses a e eco ded in he book o Numbe s. As
a i s s ep, he Lo d asked Moses and his nephew
Eleaza o ake a census o “ he whole Is aeli e
communi y by amily – all hose wen y yea s old
o mo e who could be able o se e in he a my o
Is ael.”11 Then He explained how he p omised
land should be assigned as “inhe i ance” o he
Is aeli es. The inhe i ance is gi en o each Is aeli e
amily h ough he alloca ion o each ibe. Two
di e en ways o alloca ing he land a e epo ed.
In he i s one, “The land will be alloca ed o hem
based on he names .…o i s ances al ibe.”12 The
o he way is by lo : “Each inhe i ance is o be
dis ibu ed by lo among he la ge and smalle
g oups.”13 One way o sol ing his appa en
con adic ion is o assume a wo-s age alloca ion
p ocess. The ibes a e i s sepa a ed in o he la ge
and smalle ones and he land is alloca ed o each
o hese wo ca ego ies on he basis o he o al
popula ion in each. In he second s ep, he land
wi hin each ibe is dis ibu ed o each amily by
lo .
Rega dless o how he alloca ion was ca ied ou ,
he impo an p inciple is ha he Mosaic Co enan
did no es ablish indi idual gene al p ope y igh s.
The land belonged o God (“The land is mine.”14)
and was dis ibu ed as inhe i ance o each ibe.
Mo eo e , his inhe i ance emained wi hin he
ibe. Because he land belonged o God and he
chosen people had only use o i , “no inhe i ance in
Is ael is o pass om one ibe o ano he o e e y
Is aeli e shall keep he ibal inhe i ance o hei
ances o s.”15
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The alloca ion o he land was ini ia ed by Moses,
who dis ibu ed he land eas o he Jo dan, and was
comple ed by Joshua. All ibes ecei ed hei
allo men excep he Le i es “since he ood
o e ings p esen ed o he Lo d, he God o Is ael,
a e hei inhe i ance.”16 La e on, he ibe o Le i
ecei ed owns and he su ounding pas u e land
om he inhe i ance o he o he 11 ibes.17
Thi d, he land assigned o each amily wi hin a
ibe was gi en o hei exclusi e use o ensu e
hei su i al. These amilies did no ha e p ope y
igh s in he mode n sense whe e hese igh s may
be aliena ed: “The land mus no be sold
pe manen ly, because he land is mine.”18 They had
only he igh o use he land, and his igh was
passed on om gene a ion o gene a ion.
E ec i ely, hey could only lease he land. No
e en a ibe, as a collec i e uni , could sell he land
i had ecei ed as inhe i ance om he Lo d.19 Full
p ope y igh s o eal p ope y exis ed only o
houses loca ed wi hin walled-in owns (excep o
houses inhabi ed by Le i e amilies). Anyone who
pu chased such a house gained ull owne ship, and
he abili y o esell, i he selle did no edeem i
wi hin a yea .20 P ope y igh s exis ed also o
pe sonal p ope y, including sla es and li es ock.21
Fou h, he landowne had ull owne ship o he
p oduc ion om he land, and ha included
domes ica ed animals. Thus, i was possible o
deb law makes no di e en ia ion be ween pe sonal
and business loans o be ween poo and weal hy
Is aeli es. I di e en ia es only be ween Is aeli es
and o eigne s, and o he la e i does no sepa a e
hose li ing wi hin Is ael and hose li ing wi hou .
I hese wo e ses a e in e p e ed li e ally, he
deb - o gi eness law is aimed a cu bing weal h
accumula ion, no a educing po e y.
I sugges ha he sabba h laws ega ding in e es
and deb - emission should be in e p e ed in he
con ex o God’s p omise o blessings o all
Is aeli es. God ga e each amily enough land o
p oduce wha hey needed o sus enance.
The e o e, “ he e need be no poo people among
you, o in he land he Lo d you God ga e you o
possess as you inhe i ance, he will ichly bless
you.”29 I e en s beyond a pe son’s con ol lead
someone in o po e y, i is he obliga ion o hose
mo e o una e o o e help and be gene ous: “I
anyone is poo among you ellow Is aeli es in any
o he owns o he land he Lo d you God is gi ing
you, don’ be ha dhea ed o igh is ed owa ds
hem. Ra he , be openhanded and eely lend
wha e e hey need.”30 In he Mosaic co enan ,
God en isioned a socie y whe e he su i al and
p ospe i y o he communi y ook p ecedence o e
he in e es o he indi idual. Social cohesion was
mo e impo an han indi idual sel -in e es . To
achie e hose goals, i was impo an o minimize

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he sp ead o po e y and he expansion o weal h
inequali y. The means used in he Mosaic co enan
included limi a ions on p ope y igh s ( he land
canno be sold pe manen ly), limi a ions on he use
o someone else’s land (laws o land edemp ion
and he Jubilee yea o he Lo d), and commands
ega ding in e es - ee lending and emission o
deb e e y se en yea s, and gene osi y in helping
he needy.
Labo Ma ke s
In a subsis ence- a ming ag icul u al socie y,
human labo is he p ima y inpu . Fou ca ego ies
o labo may be iden i ied a he ime o he Mosaic
co enan : landowne ’s own wo k, sla es,
inden u ed labo , and hi ed wo ke s including
se an s. In he case o sla es, he Old Tes amen
makes a clea dis inc ion be ween Is aeli es and
o eigne s. Le i icus 25:42 excludes he possibili y
o sla e y o he Is aeli es: “Because he Is aeli es
a e my se an s, whom I b ough ou o Egyp , hey
mus no be sold as sla es.” Le i icus 25:44-45
asse s ha all o eigne s may be sla es, whe he
hey li e in Is ael o ou side (“males and
emales… om na ions a ound you;… empo a y
esiden s li ing among you and membe s o hei
clans bo n in you coun y”). Mo eo e , hese
sla es become he pe sonal p ope y o hei
mas e s and hey can be sold o bequea hed o hei
child en. Because o he limi ed choices a o ded o
sla es, I will ocus on labo among Is aeli es. Fi s ,
I wan o b ie ly discuss he concep o wo k.
The Concep o Wo k. Genesis ells us ha he
c ea ion o he uni e se equi ed God’s e o s.
God did no c ea e he wo ld simply by wishing i ,
he had o expend some e o . In Genesis 2:2-3, he
e m wo k is ound h ee imes and he e m es
wice: “By he se en h day God had inished he
wo k he had been doing….on he se en h day he
es ed om all his wo k…he es ed om all he
wo k o c ea ing.” We can iden i y ou ea u es o
God’s wo k. Fi s , i was done by choice. God
decided eely o c ea e he wo ld. Second, his
wo k was p oduc i e. Thi d, he p oduc o God’s
wo k was good (Genesis 1). In Genesis, God’s ee
ac o c ea ion es ablished a undamen al p inciple:
he pu pose o wo k is o p oduce some hing good.
This p inciple was ex ended o human ac i i y.
Acco ding o Genesis 2:15, “The Lo d God ook
he man and pu him in he ga den o Eden o wo k
i and ake ca e o i .” Man was c ea ed no o
idleness bu o wo k. Being p oduc i e is pa o
he human semblance o God. In Genesis, human
wo k was con ined o he sa is ac ion o one’s
needs, bu in ol ed he ca e o “ he o he .” Adam
was no a hun e -ga he e , who oamed h ough he
Ga den o Eden ha es ing wha he needed. He was
35
a ga dene , ending a lush and p oduc i e ga den.
This pu pose o wo k emained in ac e en a e he
all. When God expelled Adam om he ga den o
Eden, He cu sed he land, no he man o his
wo k.31 The in eg i y and pu pose o wo k was
main ained. Wo k now became “pain ul oil”
because he land had been cu sed and became
unp oduc i e.32 This cu se was la gely li ed, bu
o he Is aeli es only, in he Mosaic co enan as
God ga e his people “a good land…a land lowing
wi h milk and honey.”33 Acco ding o he To ah,
wo k is no a punishmen om God. On he
con a y, i is a di ine ac i i y ini ia ed by God in
he c ea ion o he uni e se: c ea i e, ui ul, and
p oducing some hing good.
Wo king Condi ions. The Mosaic co enan also
es ablished a six-day wo kweek: “Obse e he
sabba h…. o six days wo k is o be done, bu he
se en h day is a day o sabba h es , holy o he
Lo d.”34 Exodus 20:8-10 speci ied ha his weekly
day o es applies also o “sons and
daugh e s,…male and emale se an s,… animals,
(and) any o eigne s esiding in you owns.” The e
is no men ion o sla es o inden u ed labo . Fo he
la e , howe e , Le i icus 25:39-41 commands a
ea men equal o ha o “hi ed wo ke s.” This
means ha a six-day wo k week was gua an eed o
all Is aeli es and a leas o he ee o eigne s li ing
in Is ael.
The e is no men ion o he leng h o he wo king
day in he Old Tes amen . In an ag icul u al socie y,
one may expec ha he wo king day ex ended
om dawn o dusk. In Ma hew 20:1-9, he
landowne wen ou o he own squa e o hi e
wo ke s ea ly in he mo ning, a 9 a.m., 12, 3 p.m.,
and 5 p.m., oughly a in e als o 3 hou s. The
wo ke s hi ed i s complained ha hose hi ed las
wo ked only one hou . This means ha he i s
wo ke s we e hi ed a 6 a.m. and he las ones a 6
p.m., making a 12-hou wo king day. I seems ha
his s anda d las ed o cen u ies. Acco ding o
Robe Whaples35, in 1830 he a e age wo kweek
o Ame ican wo ke s in manu ac u ing was 69.1
hou s, equi alen o 11.5 hou s pe day o a six-
day week. The e is also no men ion o wage a es.
The e is only a command no o “hold back he
wages o a hi ed wo ke o e nigh .”36 In gene al,
howe e , he e was an obliga ion o ea wo ke s
wi h digni y. Le i icus 25:53 equi es ha
inden u ed wo ke s “be ea ed as wo ke s hi ed
om yea o yea ,” and “ hose o whom hey owe
se ices do no ule o e hem u hlessly”;
Deu e onomy 24:14-15 commands “no o ake
ad an age o a hi ed wo ke who is poo and
needy” and “ o pay hem hei wages each day
be o e sunse .”
37
Beha io and Ins i u ions
The e ses known as he Ten Commandmen s37
p esen a numbe o commands aimed a pa e ns
o beha io ha suppo ed he undamen al
ins i u ions o he Jewish people. I should be
s essed a he ou se ha he Ten Commandmen s
a e no a bill o igh s. They a e a lis o indi idual
and collec i e esponsibili ies. The i s h ee
commandmen s emphasize ha he ounda ion o
hei na ion is he ai h in one God and he
obse ance o his commands in daily li e. The e y
exis ence and p ospe i y o he Is aeli es es ed on
he obse ance o hese h ee commandmen s. The
ou h commandmen (“Remembe he sabba h day
and keep i holy”), is bo h an ex ension o he i s
h ee and a ounda ion o ci il ins i u ions. I mus
be kep because i is holy, bu keeping i e ec i ely
es ablished a six-day wo kweek. Commandmen s 5
(“Hono you a he and mo he ”) and 7 (“You shall
no commi adul e y) se e o suppo he s abili y
o he ex ended amily as a undamen al ci il
ins i u ion. The bonds be ween husband and wi e
a e o be kep s ong h ough a li e o ai h ulness
o each o he as an ex ension o hei ai h ulness o
God. Hono ing mo he and a he s e ches his
bond o include mo e han one gene a ion wi hin a
amily and acili a es he in e gene a ional ans e
o use igh s o he land ha God ga e as
inhe i ance o each Is aeli e amily. The emaining

ou commandmen s se e a dual pu pose: hey
p o ec he igh s o li e and p ope y and ligh en
he bu den on he judicial sys em. Commandmen
9 (“You shall no gi e alse es imony agains you
neighbo ”) is aimed a he in eg i y o he judicial
sys em. These commandmen s also suppo he
social ab ic o socie y by minimizing in e pe sonal
ensions ha would a ise om he sp eading o
malicious lies. The en h commandmen is a
wa ning agains g eed. While he eigh h
commandmen o bids he ac o s ealing, he en h
commandmen p ohibi s e en he desi e o ake
wha you do no own: a neighbo ’s house, wi e,
se an s, li es ock, and any o he pe sonal
p ope y.
Helping he Poo
We saw abo e ha he Mosaic co enan con ains a
numbe o p o isions o help poo wo ke s,
pa icula ly laws on lending, in e es on loans,
emission o deb , and edemp ion o he igh o
use o one’s land. E en wi h hese p o ec ions,
he e emained some s uc u al po e y. The Old
Tes amen iden i ies h ee majo ca ego ies o
s uc u al poo : o phans ( a he less), widows, and
some o eigne s. These h ee g oups ha e one hing
in common: he lack o esou ces o p oduce wha
hey need o hei su i al. Poo o eigne s had no
land and su i ed only by o e ing hei se ices as
39
hi ed wo ke s. Widows and o phans did no ha e
he capaci y o ake ca e o hemsel es e en i hey
owned land igh s. The Mosaic co enan
ecognized he pligh o hese poo and commanded
Is aeli es o be compassiona e and gene ous wi h
hem. In Deu e onomy 10:18, God “de ends he
cause o he a he less and he widow, and lo es he
o eigne esiding among you”; in Exodus 22:22,
He o de s he Is aeli es no o “ ake ad an age o
he widow o he a he less”; and in Deu e onomy
27:19 God cu ses “anyone who wi hholds jus ice
om he o eigne , he a he less, o he widow.”
Two o he commands a e di ec ed a posi i e ac ion
in a o o he poo . In Deu e onomy 24:19 and
Le i icus 19:9-10, a me s a e commanded o lea e
he gleanings in he ields o be ga he ed by “ he
o eigne , he a he less, and he widow.” In
Deu e onomy 14:28-29, he Is aeli es a e eques ed
e e y h ee yea s o b ing “all he i hes o ha
yea ’s p oduce and s o e i in ( hei ) owns” o he
use o he Le i es, he a he less, and he widows.
Only a e he i hes we e collec ed God would
“bless ( hem) and he wo k o ( hei ) hands.”
O he Social Teachings
S a emen s abou he economic and social s uc u e
o ancien Is ael a e ound in many Old Tes amen
w i ings o he han he To ah. In his sec ion I will
ocus on he p ophe s Amos and Isaiah because
hey a e he wo mos p ominen oices on social
jus ice issues.
Amos
Amos was a shephe d bo n in Tekoa, 12 miles sou h
o Je usalem, in he sou he n kingdom o Judah. He
li ed du ing he eigns o king Uzziah o Judah
(ci ca 783-742 BCE) and king Je oboam o he
no he n kingdom o Is ael (ci ca 786-746 BCE).
Du ing he oughly i e cen u ies om Moses o
Amos, Is ael unde wen majo ans o ma ions.
The ibes we e uni ed in o a Kingdom by Da id,
and wi h he mona chy a ose a new class o ci il
se an s. The mona chy also ga e ise o a class o
la ge landowne s as he kings ewa ded hei
suppo e s wi h newly conque ed land and e en
“inhe i ed” land. The popula ion g ew and so did
he deg ee o u baniza ion, s imula ing he
expansion o ade and c a s. I also c ea ed a new
class o landless u ban poo . Amos in e p e ed
hese de elopmen s as de ia ions om he Mosaic
co enan which led o an abandonmen o God. A
some poin in his li e, he mo ed om Judah o
Is ael and p ophesized o a sho pe iod o ime
un il he was expelled. His message exposed he
co up li e o he Is aeli es and p ophesized hei
down all. In pa icula , he showed he abuses
agains he poo .
41
Amos p eached agains he people o Judah
because “ hey ha e ejec ed he law o he Lo d and
ha e no kep His dec ees38; he accused he women
o Bashan o opp essing he poo and c ushing he
needy39; and exposed he wickedness o he
inhabi an s o Is ael o human a icking (“ hey
sell he innocen o sil e , and he needy o a pai
o sandals,”) opp ession o he poo , (“ hey ample
on he head o he poo as on he dus o he g ound
and deny jus ice o he opp essed”)40, and un ai
axa ion (“Is ael….you le y a s aw ax and impose
a ax on he g ain.”41 He p ophesized ha he
kingdoms o Is ael and Judah would be de ea ed by
o eign powe s because hey ha e ange ed God by
b eaking he co enan and u ning o pagan gods.
Isaiah
Isaiah p ophesized a couple o decades a e Amos.
F om his in ec i e agains he un ai h ul Is aeli es,
we lea n some impo an de ails abou li e in he 8 h
cen u y BCE. Fi s , he e was accumula ion o
weal h: “Woe o you who add house o house and
join ield o ield.”42 Second, his weal h
accumula ion was acqui ed unlaw ully and h ough
coe cion (“Woes o hose who make unjus laws, o
hose who issue opp essi e dec ees o dep i e he
poo o hei igh s and wi hholds jus ice om he
opp essed o my people, making widows hei p ey
and obbing he a he less,”43 and co up ion
51 P o e bs 19:17
52 Psalms 41:1

49
Chap e 2 Biblical Roo s: New Tes amen
The New Tes amen comp ises 27 books: he ou
Gospels, he Ac s o he Apos les, he le e s o
Paul, Pe e , James, John, and Jude, and he
Re ela ion o John. I will ocus on h ee
componen s: he Gospels, he Ac s o he Apos les,
one le e o James, and wo le e s o Paul.
The Gospels: Backg ound
The ou Gospels epo he main e en s in Jesus’
li e and his p eaching. He is he cen e o he
na a i e. Rega dless o wha one may hink abou
claims made abou his di ini y, wi hin he Gospels
and la e in he e olu ion o he Ch is ian ai h, one
aspec o Jesus’ li e eco ded in he Gospels is
uncon o e sial: he was a Galilean. Acco ding o
he Gospels, he was bo n in Be hlehem, abou 9 km
sou hwes o Je usalem, emained he e o a while
( om se en weeks o wo yea s), li ed in Egyp
pe haps an addi ional wo yea s, and spen he es
o his li e up o he age o 30 in Naza e h, a small
illage a ew miles om he Sama i an bo de .
E en his h ee yea s o minis y ook place mos ly
in Galilee. When “Jesus himsel was abou hi y
yea s old,”1 John he Bap is “wen in o all he
coun y a ound he Jo dan, p eaching a bap ism o
epen ance,”2 and “ he whole Judea and all he
people o Je usalem wen ou o him.”3 “A he
same ime Jesus came om Naza e h in Galilee and
was bap ized by John in he i e Jo dan.”4
Acco ding o John (1:35-49), on he occasion o his
bap ism Jesus called his i s ou disciples: Simon,
he ea e called Pe e , his b o he And ew, Philip
(all h ee ishe men om Be hsaida, 7 km om
Cape naum), and Na haniel also known as
Ba holomew om Cana.5 F om he e hey wen o
Cana, 6 km no h o Naza e h, o a end a wedding:
“Jesus’ mo he was he e, and Jesus and his
disciples had been in i ed.”6 A e he wedding
“he wen down o Cape naum wi h his mo he and
b o he and his disciples. The e hey s ayed o a
ew days.”7
As he ime o Passo e app oached, Jesus wen o
Je usalem whe e he s ayed a ew days and hen he
and his disciples spen some ime in he coun yside
bap izing in he same egion whe e John was also
bap izing.8 “When Jesus hea d ha John had been
pu in p ison he wi hd ew o Galilee.”9 He a elled
h ough Sama ia and s opped o wo days in
Sycha , 50 km no h o Je usalem and hal way
be ween Je usalem and Naza e h. He wen i s o
Naza e h, hen isi ed Cana,10 and con inued o
51
Cape naum whe e he had his esidence.11 While in
Cape naum he called wo mo e b o he s o his
minis y, he ishe men James and John, sons o
Zebedee. A his poin , Jesus’ inne g oup consis ed
o se en Galileans: himsel , i e ishe men om
he a ea a ound Cape naum, and a man om Cana.
Six mo e apos les we e added la e , bu o hem we
know only he names. Since he o e whelming
po ion o Jesus’ minis y ook place in Galilee, i
is no un easonable o assume ha mos o he
addi ional apos les we e also Galileans.
Acco ding o John, Jesus isi ed Je usalem i e
imes du ing his adul li e, usually a elling om
Galilee. His i s isi , a he Passo e , has al eady
been men ioned. “Some ime la e (a e his e u n
o Cape naum), Jesus wen up o Je usalem o one
o he Jewish es i als.12 I does no seem ha Jesus
s ayed long in Je usalem as he only epo ed
“wo k” o Jesus was he healing o a pa aly ic.13
The hi d isi was o he Feas o Tabe nacles.
“Jesus b o he s” wan ed him o go o Je usalem o
“show he wo ks you do,”14, bu Jesus ini ially
e used. La e he changed his mind and wen , bu
in sec e , and “no un il hal way h ough he
es i al did Jesus go up o he emple cou s and
begin o each.”15 His nex isi was du ing he
ensuing “Fes i al o Dedica ion (Hanukkah) in
Je usalem.” Walking in he Temple cou s, he was
engaged in deba es abou his na u e and whe he he
was he Messiah.16 His las isi , he inal
Passo e , he was in Je usalem o only one week
and culmina ed in his dea h on he c oss.
O e his en i e li e, Jesus spen a mos i e yea s
ou side Galilee, i we assume ha his amily
emained a couple o yea s a ound Je usalem a e
his bi h and conside ue he accoun o he escape
o Egyp . His minis y ook place la gely in Galilee:
“The Se mon on he Moun , his
T ans igu a ion….nine een o his hi y- wo
pa ables, and wen y- i e o his hi y- h ee
eco ded mi acles occu ed in Galilee.”17
Mo eo e , wi hin his egion, his minis y was
la gely con ined o he illages and coun yside
a ound he Sea o Galilee, a lake abou 21 km long
and 13 km wide, pa icula ly he no h-wes e n ip
a ound Cape naum. A his dea h, only a ew
ollowe s om Galilee we e nea he c oss: one
man and se e al women who had helped him
h oughou his minis y. A he esu ec ion, he
appea ed i s o some o he same Galilean women
and hen o he apos les, mos o whom we e
Galileans.
Galilee is a egion o Pales ine, ea lie pa o he
no he n kingdom o Is ael, wi h some speci ic
cha ac e is ics. A he ime o Jesus, i co e ed an
a ea abou 90 km long and 45 km wide, wi h an a ea
oughly hal o Rhode Island. I had a popula ion o
abou 400 housand inhabi an s, mos ly sca e ed
53
o e a la ge numbe o small illages. The illage
whe e he g ew up had no mo e han 500 people,
and he illage whe e he had he “headqua e ” o
his minis y had abou 1,500 people. The e we e
only wo ai ly la ge ci ies in Galilee: Tibe ias and
Seppho is. The e is no eco d ha Jesus isi ed
ei he o hese wo ci ies du ing his minis y.
Whe he he isi ed hem du ing he “blank” 18
yea s is unknown, bu highly imp obable. These
we e somewha cosmopoli an ci ies while Jesus
spoke only A amaic and Heb ew. The e would
ha e been no hing in hem o a ac Jesus’ in e es .
A ound 103 BCE, Galilee was claimed by he
Jewish Hasmonean dynas y. Du ing hei 40-yea
eign, Galileans could main ain and e ine hei
ai h adi ions and s eng hen hei cul u al and
linguis ic ounda ions in a land su ounded on h ee
sides by po en ial enemies. The daily li e o
o dina y Galileans, who li ed la gely in u al a eas,
was no a ec ed when he Romans ook o e 63
BCE and 16 yea s la e appoin ed He od he G ea
as go e no o Galilee and la e king o all Judea
which included Galilee and o he egions. The
Romans we e concen a ed in he wo main ci ies
and He od he G ea ocused his ac i i ies in
Je usalem. A he ime o his dea h in 4 BCE, He od
bequea hed Galilee and Pa ea o his son He od
An ipas, wi h he app o al o Caesa Augus us.
An ipas uled un il 39 CE when he was exiled o

Gaul by Caligula. An ipas’ ule ushe ed a pe iod o
peace and p ospe i y in Galilee. His main ocus was
on a s ong building p og am, pa icula ly he
econs uc ion o Seppho is and he ounda ion o
Tibe ias, which became he new capi al.
Unlike Judea, Galilee was blessed wi h e ile
ag icul u al land. Socie y in Galilee can be
sepa a ed in o wo g oups. The i s g oup includes
he majo i y o i s popula ion: i had local oo s,
li ed in small u al illages, enjoyed a com o able
subsis ence li e, lacked he p esence o la ge
landowne o a is oc a ic classes, spoke A amaic,
and ollowed adi ional Jewish ai h p ac ices. The
locals coexis ed peace ully wi h a mino i y ha
li ed in u ban a eas, and comp ised a a ie y o
e hnic, eligious, and linguis ic subg oups ha
in e ac ed wi h each o he and spoke p ima ily
Heb ew and G eek.
Jesus was a Galilean, who spen mos o his li e in
Galilee, who ga he ed a g oup o 12 disciples,
mos ly om he same egion, and exe cised his
minis y p ima ily in he coun yside o Galilee.
His mo he ongue was A amaic, and he la e
lea ned Heb ew. His ai h, acqui ed h ough ha o
his amily and o he communi y in which he g ew
up, was he simple bu unshakable se o belie s ha
command ideli y o he wo d o God no o
ex e nal signs and ules c ea ed by sel -se ing
humans seeking powe and weal h. O his pa en s’
55
abiding ai h we know om Luke: “When Joseph
and Ma y had done e e y hing equi ed by he Law
o he Lo d, hey e u ned o Galilee o hei own
own o Naza e h.”18 Acco ding o Luke (2:41),
“E e y yea Jesus’ pa en s wen o Je usalem o
he es i al o he Passo e .” This was no a sho
ip o he synagogue o he Sabba h se ice. I
was abou 110 km going s aigh h ough Sama ia
and i would ake 4 days walking.
Though aised in a small communi y o mos ly
uneduca ed olks, Jesus was a highly lea ned man,
no in scien i ic disciplines, ma hema ics, o
enginee ing, bu in he language, sc ip u es, ai h,
and adi ions o his ances o s. When he was wel e
yea s old, his pa en s ook him o Je usalem o he
Passo e . As he emained behind a e hey le ,
hey e u ned o Je usalem sea ching o him and
“ ound him in he Temple cou s, si ing among he
eache s, lis ening o hem and asking hem
ques ions. E e yone who hea d him was amazed a
his unde s anding and his answe s.”19 Acco ding o
he Gospels, his amazemen was exp essed also by
all hose who hea d him eaching h oughou his
minis y, and a good pa o his ime in Je usalem
was spen in heological deba es.
The con lic be ween he zealous ai h o he young
u al Jesus and he comme cialized eligion o
Je usalem’s u ban popula ion is highligh ed by
John who places his i s isi o he Holy ci y as an
adul on he Passo e ollowing his bap ism. Used
o small u al synagogues whe e pious men and
women wen o wo ship, Jesus was appalled a
wha he saw a he Temple in Je usalem: “He ound
people selling ca le, sheep, and do es, and o he s
si ing a ables exchanging money.”20 Unable o
con ain his ou age, “He made a whip ou o he
co ds and d o e all om he emple cou s, bo h
sheep and ca le; he sca e ed he coins o he
money change s and o e u ned hei ables. To
hose who sold do es he said, ‘Ge hese ou o
he e! S op u ning my Fa he ’s house in o a
ma ke .”21 (John 2:13-17).
The Gospels: Social Teaching
Jesus’ eaching was g ounded on he Sc ip u es.
While some o his p onouncemen s appea o be
adical, he was a undamen alis in he sense ha
he ounda ions o his ai h we e oo ed in he
Co enan s be ween God and His people. He did no
make a speci ic speech on social jus ice. We can
only in e om his ac ions, his pa ables, and his
eachings. These in e ences in ol e a ce ain
deg ee o subjec i i y.
The Lo d’s P aye . Le us s a wi h he Lo d’s
P aye ha Jesus augh his disciples upon eques ,
and ocus on h ee salien aspec s. Fi s , his p aye
is based on an old Jewish poem/p aye known as
Kaddish. Second, since he Kaddish was w i en in
57
A amaic, and he disciples also spoke A amaic, i
is highly p obable ha he Lo d’s p aye was
o iginally spoken in he same language. As an
aside, I belie e ha he apos les asked Jesus o a
new p aye no jus o hemsel es bu a uni e sal
p aye o all hose who con e ed, and he
po en ial con e s a ha ime we e u al Galileans
who spoke A amaic. Thi d, he Lo d’s p aye is a
ea i ma ion o he Mosaic Co enan . The i s
wo lines con i m he accep ance o one God and
pa allel he i s wo commandmen s. Lines h ee
and ou epea he ee accep ance o God’s will in
he Mosaic Co enan . Line 5 o he Lo d’s p aye
exp esses he belie ha he God o Is ael is he
gi e o li e (b ead is li e). The p aye in his line is
no o iches o powe , i is jus o he necessi ies
o li e. Li e depends on God, bu a happy li e does
no depend on weal h. The nex wo lines deal wi h
o gi eness in gene al, bu hey also encompass he
p ac ical o gi eness o deb s ha o med one o
he pilla s o he Mosaic Co enan . The inal lines
a e di ec ly ied o he Mosaic Co enan as he
pe i ione s beg God o ee hem om he
emp a ions o b eak he commandmen s and o
p o ec hem om he e il ha a ises om e ol ing
agains God’s will. The second pa o he Lo d’s
p aye also highligh s i s communal na u e. I is no
an indi idual pe i ion o pe sonal healing and
sal a ion. The plu al in all lines e lec s a p aye o
an indi idual on behal o a communi y.
Helping he Poo . Jesus did no p esen a s uc u ed
an i-po e y plan o be implemen ed by public
ins i u ions. His conce n o he poo was pe sonal,
and was exp essed in ac ion h oughou his en i e
minis y. The ou gospels eco d abou 20
ins ances o Jesus’ healings. Only wo o hose –
he se an o he cen u ion,34 and he daugh e o
a synagogue leade 35 – a e membe s o well- o-do
households. The es a e o dina y olks, mos ly
poo : blind, lepe s, c ipples, widows, bleeding,
possessed. In Jesus’ eachings, gi ing o he poo is
so impo an ha i is conside ed he passpo o
e e nal li e, as Jesus made i clea in Ma hew 25:
31-36, “When he Son o Man comes in his glo y,”
and sepa a es people as sheep on he igh om he
goa s on he le , “he will say o hose on he le
‘depa om me, you who a e cu sed. Fo I was
hung y and you ga e me no hing o ea , I was
hi s y and you ga e me no hing o d ink, I was a
s ange and you did no in i e me in, I needed
clo hes and you did no clo he me, I was sick and
in p ison and you did no look a e me.”
Jesus add esses he indi idual ins ead o
go e nmen al ins i u ions because his ocus is he
kingdom o God. In a socie y whe e e e y
indi idual is seeking he kingdom o God, he e
will be no la ge concen a ion o weal h and no
high deg ee o po e y, because he p ima y ocus
o li e is on one’s ela ionship wi h God. Weal h

65
accumula ion in e e es wi h ha ela ionship and
he exis ence o po e y is a s a e agains God’s will
because God, as we saw in he p e ious chap e ,
does no wan any o his people o be poo . F om
his pe spec i e, he deg ee o po e y and weal h
concen a ion in a coun y may be iewed as an
indica o o he sepa a ion o i s ci izens om he
kingdom o God.
The Gospels ea i m he undamen al p inciples o
he Mosaic Co enan : he c ucial ole o wo k in
human li e, he digni ied ea men o wo ke s, he
p omp paymen o hei labo , he dange s o
seeking weal h, and he obliga ion o help no jus
he poo bu anyone who asks. The Gospels
emphasize pa icula ly a T ini y o lo e as he
d i e o all human ac i i y: lo e o God, lo e o
iend and oe, and lo e o jus ice. In a socie y
made up o ha e ul people, jus ice can ne e p e ail
ega dless o i s economic s uc u e and poli ical
sys em.
Ac s o he Apos les and he Second Le e o James.
Ac s o he Apos les. The Ac s is he i h book o
he New Tes amen and he second book a ibu ed
o Luke. I desc ibes he ac i i ies o he Apos les
in he immedia e a e ma h o he c uci ixion and
esu ec ion and he o ma ion o he ea ly
Ch is ian communi ies. Fo he pu pose o his
book, I ocus on h ee elemen s o Ac s. The i s is
he way Pe e iden i ied Jesus in his con e sa ion
wi h he cen u ion Co nelius in Caesa ea, “You
know wha has happened h oughou he p o ince
o Judea, beginning in Galilee a e he bap ism ha
John p eached – how God anoin ed Jesus o
Naza e h wi h he Holy Spi i and powe , and he
wen a ound doing good and healing all who we e
unde he powe o he de il, because God was wi h
him.”36 Fo Pe e , Jesus was he obedien Son o
God who dedica ed his li e o doing good wo ks
and healing he sick. He was a wo ke , bu no a
physician o a social wo ke . He was no e en a
eligious leade . He was anoin ed by God and was
gi en powe in o de o do God’s wo k on ea h.
This wo k consis ed in healing body and spi i . He
did his wo k no by his own powe s bu because
“God was wi h him.” Second, he apos les a e o
ollow he example o Jesus: hey p eached,
con e ed, and healed. We a e old in Ac s ha
“Pe e con e ed many,”37 ha “The Apos les
pe o med many signs and wonde s,”38 and ha
Pe e and Paul healed many.39 Thi d, he ea ly
Ch is ians we e pa o sha ing communi ies: “The
belie e s we e oge he and had e e y hing in
common.”40; “All he belie e s we e o one hea
and mind. No one claimed ha any o hei
possessions was hei own, bu hey sha ed
e e y hing hey had.”41
67
Second Le e o James. This le e ocuses on wo
issues. The i s is he condemna ion o he
weal hy: “Now lis en, you ich people, weep and
wail because o he mise y ha is coming o
you….The wages you ailed o pay he wo ke s
who mowed you ields a e c ying ou agains
you.”42 No ice ha he cu se is no on weal h pe
se, bu on iches accumula ed by chea ing. Those
who acqui ed weal h by e ec i ely s ealing om
o he s a e cu sed e en i hey gi e all hei money
o cha i ies. Second, ai h is no an in ellec ual
exe cise. I is ac ion. I is “doing good and healing”,
as Jesus did. James’ mos amous quo e, “Fai h
wi hou deed is dead”43 is consis en wi h Jesus’
pa able o he wo sons44. We do no gain he
Kingdom o God by ou wo ks, bu we a e ce ainly
excluded om i wi hou wo ks. God g aciously
o e s us his kingdom. Ou wo ks signi y ou
accep ance o God’s o e . I we simply say “I
accep you o e , Lo d” and will no ollow wi h
ac ion, ha o e is inope a i e. We en e he
kingdom o God h ough ou wo ks by he g ace o
God.
Selec ed Le e s o Paul. These le e s o e
addi ional insigh s in o he Ch is ian iew o iches,
sha ing, wo k, and he common good. The issue o
iches is add essed in he i s le e o Timo hy,
w i en in Macedonia a ound 64-65 CE. In his
le e Paul o e s ins uc ions o Timo hy, one o his
con e s, wi h espec o pe sonal beha io and
du ies, and wa ns him agains alse eachings. His
wa nings abou ma e ialism a e ound in 1Timo hy
6:8-10: “I we ha e ood and clo hing, we will be
con en wi h ha . Those who wan o ge ich all
in o emp a ion and a ap and in o many oolish
and ha m ul desi es ha plunge people in o uin
and des uc ion. Fo he lo e o money is he oo
o all kinds o e il.” In his passage Paul
e o mula es Jesus’ eaching on his subjec . Riches
ha e no inhe en goodness o e il in hemsel es.
Thei e il es s in hei powe o des oy ou li e by
sepa a ing us om God.
Paul also s essed he esponsibili y o sha ing and
helping he needy. In 1Timo hy 5:3-8, he deals wi h
helping wi hin he ex ended amily, pa icula ly
widows. He iden i ies h ee ypes o widows. Those
no olde han 60 a e no e en eco ded because hey
a e s ill capable o wo king and a e encou aged o
ema y. Widows o e 60 who ha e child en and
g andchild en a e o be suppo ed by hem. Paul is
e y s ic wi h espec o he du ies o amily
membe s: “Anyone who does no p o ide o hei
ela i es, and especially o hei household, has
denied hei ai h.”45 In his e se, Paul gi es
subs ance o he i h commandmen . Hono ing
a he and mo he is no es ic ed o beha ing in a
espec ul manne owa ds one’s pa en s, bu
ca ies he obliga ion o ake ca e o hem in hei
69
ime o need. The widow who is poo and alone
may be en i led o suppo om he communi y
unde wo condi ions: she was ai h ul du ing he
ma iage, and she did good deeds in he
communi y. The i s condi ion also ea i ms ou
commi men o he commandmen s, in his case he
se en h. I makes i clea ha b eaking he
Co enan has ma e ial consequences. The second
condi ion highligh s he p inciple ha , in a
Ch is ian communi y, du ies ha e p io i y o e
igh s.
Paul w o e wo le e s o he Thessalonians a ound
51 and 52 CE. In he second le e he shows his
conce n o he beha io o some membe s who
“a e idle and dis up i e.”46 He eminds hem ha
du ing his p e ious isi s o he Thessalonian
communi y he did no ely on his posi ion o
au ho i y o emain idle, bu “wo ked nigh and day,
labo ing and oiling so ha we would no be a
bu den on any o you.”47 He hen concludes wi h
his summa y ule: “ he one who is unwilling o
wo k shall no ea .”48
Paul also w o e wo le e s o he Co in hians, he
i s om Ephesus in 53-54 CE and he second
om Macedonia a ound 55 CE. The i s le e was
w i en in esponse o news abou disag eemen s
among he membe s o he Chu ch a Co in h. In
his plea o uni y, he uses wo examples in he
manne o Jesus’ pa ables. The i s example

con ains his e e ence o he “common good” in
ela ion o he gi s o he Spi i . No ing ha hey
a e doing well economically, Paul explains ha
“The e a e di e en kinds o gi s, bu he same
Spi i dis ibu es hem.”49 Then he adds ha , “… o
each one he mani es a ion o he Spi i is gi en o
he common good.”50
The concep s o wo k in 2 Thessalonians and 1
Co in hians a e closely in e ela ed. In he la e ,
Paul ells he membe s o he Chu ch a Co in h ha
e e y belie e has ecei ed special gi s. The e is
no anking o hese gi s in e ms o hei
impo ance and no di e ence in hei pu pose.
They all come om he Spi i and hey mus all be
di ec ed o he bene i o he communi y. These
gi s canno bene i he communi y i hey a e no
exe cised h ough some o m o ac i i y. This la e
poin is s essed in he second le e o he
Thessalonians. A pe son shows commi men o he
communi y o belie e s by deeds, no by wo ds.
Membe ship o e s bene i s bu imposes
esponsibili ies. E e y membe is en i led o he
bene i s o he ex en ha he /his esponsibili ies
a e ul illed. Acco ding o Paul, willingness o
wo k is a necessa y condi ion o membe ship in
he communi y. Anyone who is no willing o wo k
is no a membe o he communi y and he e o e is
ineligible o he bene i s i p o ides. No ice ha
Paul says “one who is no willing” no “one who
71
does no ”. His ocus is on he a i ude o a pe son.
A sick membe canno wo k e en i she is willing,
he e o e emains a ull membe o he communi y.
A heal hy pe son who is no willing o wo k canno
be a membe .
The concep o he common good in Paul is no a
social wel a e unc ion de i ed om he
agg ega ion o he p e e ences o indi iduals who
seek pe sonal in e es un ela ed o he wellbeing o
o he s. Wi h Paul, he o de is e e sed. Fi s comes
he communi y, hen he esponsibili y ha each
membe has o he communi y, and las he
sa is ac ion o he needs o indi iduals.
Because he concep o he common good is cen al
o Ca holic social eachings, i may be use ul o
discuss his concep in mo e de ail. Paul’s common
good, Jesus’s Kingdom o God, and he Mosaic
Co enan a e all exp essions o he same p inciple:
sal a ion is no an indi idual ac . Le us iden i y
some o he majo elemen s o his p inciple.
Fi s , he communi y’s in e es s ha e p io i y o e
hose o i s membe s. A communi y is no an
agg ega ion o indi iduals who in e ac o he
pu pose o p omo ing hei sel -in e es . I is made
o a g oup o people wi h a common pu pose.
Second, his common pu pose is no de e mined by
he membe s h ough some o ing mechanism. I is
gi en exogenously. In he con ex o Ca holic
social eaching, i is gi en by God.
Thi d, hough gi en exogenously, his common
pu pose is no imposed bu is eely accep ed. God
did no impose he Mosaic Co enan . He asked he
people whe he hey would be willing o accep i .
As p ac icing Ca holics, we enew ha choice a
leas once a week when we eci e he Lo d’s P aye :
we p ay ha he kingdom o God may come and
ha we may ollow God’s will, no ou s. The
eedom o choose whe he o no you wan o be
an ac i e pa icipan in he kingdom o God, o use
Jesus’ wo ding, is no simila o he nume ous,
ecu en , and i ial economic choices o
indi iduals: how much o wo k, how o alloca e
income be ween oday’s and omo ow’s
consump ion, how o alloca e one’s spending
budge . I is a bina y choice: o be pa o he
kingdom o God o no . Tha choice de e mines all
o he decisions.
Fou h, while ou side he kingdom, people pu sue
hei sel -in e es wi hou ega d o hei e ec s on
o he s, inside i , in e pe sonal ela ionships and
aking ca e o ou neighbo s a e seconda y only o
ou lo e o God. As Jesus augh us in he pa able
o he good Sama i an,51 we mus assis anyone
who needs help. No only a e we o help ou
neighbo s, bu we mus lo e hem,52, and ou
neighbo s include also ou enemies.53
73
Fi h, al hough he e a e cos s and bene i s o
belonging o he kingdom o God, saying yes is no
a decision based on a calcula ion o loss and gain.
We know ou esponsibili ies in de ail because hey
we e spelled ou in he Ten Commandmen s and in
he eachings o Jesus, bu we do no know he
speci ic bene i s. We ha e only God’s p omises. As
s a ed in Ma hew 6: 33, “…seek i s he kingdom
o God and his igh eousness, and all hese hings
(ma e ial hings) will be gi en o you as well.” The
“ hings” ha we will ecei e may no be wha we
hoped o ecei e o p ayed o .
Six h, ou gi s a e no ou p i a e p ope y because
hey ha e been gi en ee by he Spi i . Thus, wha
we ecei e om he use o hose gi s is pa ly a
e u n o ou e o s and pa ly a bene i om he
ee gi s hemsel es. The e o e, ou income is no
exclusi e pe sonal p ope y, bu pa o i should be
sha ed.
Se en, main aining he kingdom o God equi es
ai h ul wo k. Jesus did no es much du ing his
minis y, and his es was o p aying and es o ing
his ene gy o con inue his mission. Paul “wo ked
nigh and day, labo ing and oiling” o he Chu ch
in Thessalonia.54
Eigh , he communi y ha has chosen he kingdom
o God is no a human en i y sepa a e om God; i
is he body o Ch is . Wo king o he common
sal a ion…. p o ided ha he is a belie e and one
who con empla es he g ea ness o God’s
philan h opy.”3 The ga es o hea en a e locked o
bo h he g eedy ich and he co e ous poo ; hey a e
open only o he poo in spi i , hose who a e no
a ached o ma e ial hings, bu seek only
a achmen o God.
Riches a e esou ces ha mus no be h own away,
bu mus be used judiciously. They a e an
ins umen o he good and his ins umen mus be
“subse ien o igh eousness.”4 Gi ing away
ma e ial weal h and keeping in ou soul passions o
g eed, ange , eg e , will no pa e he way o he
kingdom o hea en. Fo a ich man o gain
pe ec ion, i won’ su ice gi ing away his o une,
he has o gi e away his passions. Gi ing away his
passions will make him uly ich and so he will be
“capable o making a holy and ai h ul use o any
o une.”5 Sain Clemen had a deep unde s anding
o human na u e and ealized ha no hing would be
gained in he kingdom o hea en when a s ill
g eedy ich man ga e pa o his weal h o he
co e ous poo . Fo edis ibu ion o become an
ins umen o sal a ion, he souls o bo h gi e s and
ecipien s mus i s be cleansed o hei passions.
Then, wha he ich gi e as se an s o God and
cosponso s o His philan h opy will be ecei ed
wi h g a i ude by he poo in spi i .

81
Sain Clemen in e p e ed Jesus’ command o sell
one’s possessions in a igu a i e manne . Because
he iewed ma e ial possessions as aluable
esou ces o he sa is ac ion o human needs o be
sha ed among all membe s o a communi y, he
explained Jesus’ command as a way o become a
ee pe son by gi ing up one’s a achmen o
ma e ial hings. Wha b ings a pe son in o he
kingdom o hea en is spi i ual no ma e ial weal h.
The la e is a hind ance o sal a ion and mus be
disposed o .
Sain Basil he G ea
The expansion o he monas ic mo emen in he
Ch is ian adi ion in he hi d and ou h cen u ies
CE led o a mo e li e al in e p e a ion o Jesus’
command. Because he monks li ed a li e o
po e y, hey iewed he disposal o ma e ial
possessions as a necessa y condi ion o sal a ion.
S ill, in bo h Sain Clemen and he monas ic
adi ion, he ocus was on indi idual sal a ion.
The main bene i o gi ing up weal h was no o
he ecipien s, who ecei ed only ma e ial hings,
bu o he gi e , who gained spi i ual weal h. The
ole o he gi e and ecipien is e e sed in he
in e p e a ion o Jesus’ command by Sain Basil he
G ea who s esses ha he well-being o socie y,
aided by he gi ing up o possessions, akes
p ecedence o e indi idual sal a ion.
Sain Basil he G ea was bo n in Caesa ea, capi al
o Cappadocia (now Kayse i, Tu kiye) in 330 CE
and died in he same place 49 yea s la e . He came
om a dis inguished Ch is ian amily. His pa en s,
Sain Basil he Elde and Sain Emmelia, we e
de ou Ch is ians who su e ed unde he
pe secu ion o Maximus Gale ius. Th ee o hei
child en – Pe e , G ego y, and Basil – became
bishops. He was aised in a amily which was
uncomp omisingly Ch is ian, alued educa ion,
nu u ed emale spi i ual leade ship, and p ac iced
cha i y o he poo and he s ange . Thus, he seed
o ai h li ed ully was plan ed in Basil’s hea om
childhood.
Soon a e his bi h, Sain Basil’s amily mo ed o
he own o Neocaesa ea, bu e u ned o Caesa ea
a e his a he ’s dea h while he was a eenage . In
346 CE he was sen o con inue his s udies in
Cons an inople and i e yea s la e o A hens. A e
his g adua ion, he a elled o Egyp and Sy ia.
When he e u ned o Caesa ea in 356, he p ac iced
law and augh he o ic o a couple o yea s. Soon
he changed li e di ec ion unde he in luence o he
asce ic bishop Eus a hius o Sebas e and o his
olde sis e Mac ina who had ounded a eligious
communi y on he amily p ope y. Now bap ized
and o dained eade , he imme sed himsel in he
s udy o he Gospels. Ha ing decided o pu sue a
li e o simplici y and pe ec ion, in 358 he ounded
83
a monas ic communi y nea his amily es a e in he
own o Anissa. He a elled h ough Egyp ,
Pales ine, Sy ia, and Mesopo amia o isi a a ie y
o monas e ies and lea n abou he monas ic li e
and chose he cenobi e (communal) o m o
monas ic li e.
Dianius, bishop o Caesa ea, died in 362 CE and
was succeeded by Eusebius who, one yea la e ,
ga e Sain Basil, who had been o dained deacon in
362 CE and p esby e in 365 CE, a p ominen
adminis a i e posi ion in he diocese. A he dea h
o Eusebius in 370 CE, Sain Basil became bishop
o Caesa ea. By he ime o his appoin men , Sain
Basil had become a man o all people: weal hy
landed a is oc a by bi h, lea ned by educa ion,
and poo by choice. Thus, he could ela e o bo h
he ich and he dispossessed, o powe and o
despai . He li ed he simplici y ha he p eached
e en as a bishop, wea ing a unic and a cloak and
leading an aus e e li e. Fo him, leading a simple
li e was he condi ion o being a Ch is ian.
His iew o he wo ld and he unde s anding o his
ai h we e o med h ough heological insigh s and
li e expe iences. His iew o he Gospel message
can be summa ized by he ollowing quo e: “Then
I ead he Gospel, and saw he e ha a g ea means
o eaching pe ec ion was he selling o one’s
goods, he sha ing o hem wi h he poo , he gi ing
up o all ca e o his li e, and he e usal o allow
he soul o be u ned by any sympa hy owa ds he
hings o ea h.”6 Sain Basil was also imp essed
by he wo k o Sain Paul, especially he
es ablishmen o he ea ly Ch is ian communi ies.
These may ha e se ed as he ounda ions o his
cenobi ic monas e ies. As adminis a o o he
diocese o Caesa ea unde bishop Eusebius, Sain
Basil saw i s -hand he mise y o u ban po e y,
ende ed mo e unbea able by he d ough and
amine o 368-69.
The iew ha Sain Basil’s li e was di ec ed by wo
sepa a e spi i ual expe iences is sha ed by Fa he
Paul Sch oede .7 The i s con e sion occu ed
soon a e he comple ion o his uni e si y s udies
when he sold his inhe i ance, dis ibu ed i o he
poo , a elled h ough Pales ine, Sy ia, and Egyp
o explo e he monas ic communi ies, and ounded
simila communi ies based o communal
monas icism whe e e e y hing was held in
common and sha ed. Six yea s la e , he
expe ienced he second li e-changing con e sion
poin when, d i en by a sense o esponsibili y
owa ds he Chu ch and socie y, he le he
monas e y ha he himsel had ounded and sough
he p ies hood. As poin ed ou by Fa he Sch oede ,
hese wo con e sions we e ela ed. The monas ic
expe ience ins illed in him a lo e o simplici y,
sha ing, and he impo ance o communi y. As a
p ies , he expanded he concep o communal
85
monas icism o he wide wo ld and ook i om
he u al a ea o he u ban en i onmen o ackle he
pligh o he g owing u ban poo .
These in e nal and ex e nal expe iences shaped
Sain Basil’s social message con ained la gely in
ou se mons deli e ed jus be o e he became
bishop: To he ich, In imes o amine and d ough ,
I will ea down my ba ns, Agains hose who lend
a in e es .
To he Rich. In his se mon, Sain Basil analyzed
he pa able o he ich man in Ma hew 1: 16-22.
His iews o weal h and he ich a e g ounded on
bo h he Old and he New Tes amen . Sain Basil
belie ed ha God had p o ided o all human needs
in he Ga den o Eden and e en a e he all as
e idenced by he Mosaic Co enan . Seeking mo e
is ing a i ude: “won’ wo ya ds o unic su ice
you, and he co e ing o one cloak sa is y all you
need o clo hes?....One b ead-loa is enough o ill
you belly.”8 He hen a gues ha he accumula ion
o weal h is an exp ession o g eed, an unb idled
desi e o possess mo e wi hou limi a ions and o
no speci ic pu pose: “…Wha you lo e is simply o
possess weal h, e en i you de i e no help om
i .”9 He indi ec ly sugges s ha , in a s a ic
ag icul u al socie y wi h he absence o
echnological change, ickle-down economics was
no ope a ional e en as a concep . The gain o he
ich was en i ely a loss o he es . He goes on o

wa n ha g eed is e il: “By a ce ain wily a i ice
o he de il, coun less p e ex s o expendi u es a e
p oposed o he ich, so ha hey s i e o
supe luous, useless hings as hough hey we e
necessa y.”10 Sain Basil inally places weal h
accumula ion wi hin he mo al con ex o he New
Tes amen by ela ing i o Jesus’ command o lo e
one’s neighbo as onesel . He poin s ou ha wha
a pe son accumula es comes om gi ing p io i y o
pe sonal enjoymen o e helping he needy. A
pe son who uly lo ed his neighbo s would spend
he money in excess o his needs helping o he s and
would no be able o accumula e any weal h.
Acco ding o Sain Basil, he accumula ion o
weal h is no only an exp ession o g eed, bu is
also he mani es a ion o he lack o lo e o one’s
neighbo . As such, weal h accumula ion is a
socially undesi able beha io con ibu ing o
po e y, bu is a g a e sin as i de ies Jesus’
command o lo e one’s neighbo as onesel . The
sin is no he desi e o weal h o ex a agan
spending, bu he lack o lo e ha eeds g eed and
ex a agance.
In Time o Famine and D ough . This se mon
add esses he amine o 368/69 CE in Caesa ea and
can be di ided in o h ee pa s. In he i s pa Sain
Basil desc ibes he human condi ions du ing he
amine, ocusing on he su e ing o o dina y olks.
“The ea h is all d ied up, e ible o see, ba en and
87
unsui able o plan ing…many ha e no hing o
d ink and a e in dange o pe ishing om
hi s …. a me s si in hei ields and clasp hei
hands agains hei knees… They look a hei
child en and bu s in o ea s, hey see hei wi es
and wail wi h g ie as hey s and and ca ess he
d ied-up c ops.”11
In he second pa he a gues ha his calami y was
b ough abou by human sin ulness: “because we
ha e u ned away om he Lo d and dis ega ded
his will.”12 He hen sugges s ha hese wounds
ha e been in lic ed by God o co ec ou ways and
b ing us back o he igh way o li e. Since God
will ne e abandon us, Sain Basil concludes ha
he eal eason o he amine is human g eed. “The
eason why ou needs a e no p o ided as usual is
plain and ob ious: we do no sha e wha we ecei e
wi h o he s. This is why God does no open his
hands: because we ha e closed up ou hea s
owa ds ou b o he s and sis e s. This is why he
ield is a id: because lo e has d ied up.”13 Then he
becomes mo e speci ic in his accusa ion: “I is on
you accoun ha his ca as ophe was dec eed,
because you ha e bu do no gi e, because you
neglec he hung y, because you pay no heed o he
pligh o he mise able, because you show no me cy
o hose who p os a e hemsel es be o e you.”14 In
his pa o he homily, Sain Basil expands on he
main heme o he p e ious se mon: weal h
accumula ion is he esul o g eed, and g eed is a
g a e sin. This sin has he powe o unleash he
des uc i e o ces o na u e.
In he hi d pa o he se mon, Sain Basil exho s
all people o emain ai h ul o God e en in ime o
calami y and o keep pe se e ing. He also asks
e e yone o sha e wha e e li le hey ha e. He
a gues ha , because he calami y was caused by
human sin ul beha io , i can also be e e sed by
Godly beha io . “Undo he p imal sin by sha ing
you ood. Jus as Adam ansmi ed sin by ea ing
w ong ully, so we wipe away he eache ous ood
when we emedy he need and hunge o ou
b o he s and sis e s.”15 Thus, Sain Basil indica es
ha he des iny o humankind es s in human
hands. E en when calami ies a e imposed on us by
he exp ession o God’s ange , i is ou sin ul
beha io ha p o okes God’s w a h. As sin
des oys all, lo e will heal all. In his pa o his
homily, Sain Basil also exp esses his iew o he
ideal Ch is ian li e, a li e o sha ing, lo e, and
peace. “Le us zealously imi a e he ea ly Ch is ian
communi ies whe e e e y hing was sha ed in
common – li e, soul, conco d, a common able,
indi isible kinship – while un linching lo e
cons i u ed many bodies as one joined many
souls.”16 In his quo e, i is clea ha he ounda ion
o a Ch is ian communi y was no he sha ing o
ma e ial possessions, bu he joining o souls. I
89
was sha ing ha c ea ed kinship, i was lo e ha
led o sha ing, lo e o God and lo e o one
ano he .
Sain John Ch ysos om
Sain John Ch ysos om was bo n in An ioch ci ca
347 CE. His a he , Secundus, was an o ice in he
Sy ian a my. When Secundus died sho ly a e
John’s bi h, his wi e An husa, 21 yea s old a he
ime, ook ca e o he boy and his elde sis e . He
was en olled in he bes schools in An ioch. A he
age o 20 (ci ca 367 CE), John me bishop Mele ius
and his encoun e changed his li e. He in e up ed
his classical s udies and dedica ed himsel o an
asce ic and eligious li e. Th ee yea s la e he was
bap ized and o dained lec o . Sho ly a e he
en e ed an asce ic socie y nea An ioch whe e he
occupied himsel p aying, s udying he holy
sc ip u es, and pe o ming manual labo . Fou
yea s la e , he mo ed o one o he ca es ou side
An ioch o li e in seclusion. Two yea s la e , due o
de e io a ing heal h condi ions, John e u ned o
An ioch and esumed his posi ion as lec o . Ci ca
381 CE he became deacon jus be o e bishop
Meli us depa ed o Cons an inople. Fi e yea s
la e , he was o dained p ies by he new bishop
Fla ian. Du ing he ollowing wel e yea s, John’s
p io i y was p eaching, a ask no mally ese ed o
bishops. He became so amous as a p eache ha
Sain Je ome included his name in he lis o i i
p o esso o he o ic. In Milan, he me and was
ascina ed by bishop Amb ose who bap ized him
on he Eas e Vigil be ween he 24 h and 25 h o
Ap il 387 CE. He s ayed in Milan only wo yea s
a e which he esigned his posi ion and e u ned o
Tagas e whe e he li ed a li e o leisu e, aking ca e
o his amily p ope y and aising his son
Adeoda us. His e u n o Tagas e in ensi ied his
eligious e o . A he age o 36, when his
adolescen son died, he sold his p ope y and was
co-op ed in o he posi ion o junio cle gyman a
Hippo. In 395 o 396 he was ele a ed o bishop o
Hippo and spen he emaining yea s o his li e in
ha posi ion. He died a Hippo in 430 CE.
When he was bo n Augus ine en e ed a wo ld o
decadence o he Roman Empi e bese by he
ad ances o no he n ibes called Go hs (Visigo hs
om he wes and Os ogo hs om he eas ). When
Augus ine was 41, one yea be o e he became
Bishop, empe o Theodosius he G ea died on he
17 h o Janua y 395 CE and he Roman Empi e was
di ided pe manen ly in o wo pa s. The Wes e n
Roman Empi e, wi h Rome as capi al, was gi en o
his son Hono ius, and he Eas e n Roman Empi e,
wi h Cons an inople as capi al, was assigned o his
son A cadius. In 408 CE Ala ic I descended o I aly.
Due o he weakness o Hono ius, Ala ic was able
o each he ou ski s o Rome. Unable o each an
ag eemen wi h Hono ius, he en e ed Rome on he
nigh o Ap il 4 h, 410, and sacked he Holy ci y o

97
h ee days. Then he u ned owa ds Sou he n I aly,
bu eaching Calab ia he became ill and died nea
Cosenza in he ea ly mon hs o 411CE. Ala ic was
succeeded by his b o he -in-law A aul who se led
in Aqui aine, a Roman p o ince gi en o him by
Hono ius.
The ma ch sou h o he no he n ibes con inued
unaba ed. One o hese ibes called Vandals, who
inhabi ed wha is now sou he n Poland, in 409 CE
c ossed he Py enees and en e ed he Ibe ian
peninsula. Twen y yea s la e , unde king Gense ic,
hey c ossed in o No h A ica and by 439 CE hei
kingdom included he Roman P o ince in A ica,
Mal a, Sicily, Sa dinia, Co sica, and he Balea ic
Islands. Jus a yea be o e his dea h, Sain
Augus ine saw he Vandals almos a his doo s eps.
The decline o he Wes e n Roman Empi e and
pa icula ly he sack o Rome shaped Sain
Augus ine’s iew o man and socie y, exp essed in
his main wo k: The Ci y o God. Composed o 22
chap e s (books), his ea ise was w i en be ween
413 and 427 CE. In book I, Sain Augus ine e u es
he widesp ead iew among Romans ha he sack
o he ci y was a punishmen by he adi ional gods
o being abandoned in a o o he new s a e
eligion, Ch is iani y. In book II, he desc ibes he
calami ies ha be ell he Romans p io o he
in oduc ion o Ch is iani y and he asc ibes hese
calami ies o he absence o a mo al compass. In his
iew, no only did he gods ail o o e any
“heal hy mo al p ecep s”, bu hey con ibu ed o
he mo al decay by p omo ing “licen ious
en e ainmen ” and imposing no es ic ions on
co up human beha io . Fo Sain Augus ine, i
was he “dep a ed and licen ious” li e o he
wo shipe s o he gods ha led o he decline o
Rome. Unde he auspices o he pagan gods, all
ha ma e ed o he Romans was he main enance
o p ospe i y and sa e y om o eign in asions.
The e was no conce n o mo ali y o jus ice.
Anyone was allowed o exploi he weak o he
pu pose o acqui ing mo e weal h in o de o sa is y
unbounded ma e ial desi es. The ich could eely
abuse he poo o eed hei p ide. People applauded
no hose who se ed hei in e es s, bu hose who
o e ed hem pleasu e. La ge houses we e buil no
o shel e bu o en e ainmen and he
o ganiza ion o “sump uous banque s whe e
e e yone who pleases may, by day and by nigh ,
play, d ink, omi , dissipa e.”1 Anyone who
objec ed o his dissolu e li es yle would be
silenced, banished, and e en pu o dea h. He also
admonished Ch is ians abou a achmen o
ma e ial hings and s essed ha he pain ha
people eel om he loss o ma e ial hings is sel -
in lic ed as i is gene a ed by human a achmen o
hings ha ha e no alue in he eyes o God. He
explained ha , while he sack o Rome was a
disas e o he ci y, he “sain s” los no hing o
alue because hei possessions a e “ ai h and
godliness”, and hese could no be aken away.
99
In book III, Sain Augus ine desc ibes many
calami ies ha be ell Rome long be o e he
eme gence o he Ch is ian ai h as e idence ha
he la e was no esponsible o he sack o Rome.
In book IV, he a gues ha he Roman Empi e was
buil by he ue God and in book V he compa es
he i ues ha buil he Roman Empi e and
suppo ed i s long exis ence wi h he ices ha led
o i s decline. Fo he i ues he i s quo es
Salllus 2, who s a ed ha Romans we e d i en o
gain g ea glo y and o gene a e weal h o he
empi e, bu we e pe sonally sa is ied wi h a
“mode a e o une.” Then he e e s o Vi gil3 who
exal s he genius o Rome as o e ing peace o he
anquished, showing me cy o he humble and
sco n o he p oud. Fo a compa ison o i ues and
ices, he e e s o Ca o who p aises he ancien
i ues o “indus y…, jus go e nmen …, and a
mind ee in delibe a ion, addic ed nei he o c ime
no lus .”4 He con as s hese wi h he cu en
si ua ion cha ac e ized by “luxu y and a a ice,
po e y o he s a e, opulence among he ci izens,”5
seeking iches, ollowing laziness, and being
conce ned only abou pe sonal gain and pleasu e.
Fo Ca o, hese a e he ices ha le he Republic
unp o ec ed agains o eign a acks.
In he i s pa o he book Augus ine exp esses he
iew ha he Roman Empi e expanded and
p ospe ed because i s leade s we e men o i ue
and hono who dedica ed hei li es o he glo y o
he Empi e and c ea ed p ospe i y ha bene i ed
e e yone. He also belie ed ha he decline o
Rome was due o ejec ion o he ancien i ues
and he wo shiping o pagan gods who suppo ed a
dissolu e li e.
In he second pa o he book, Augus ine expands
on he idea ha he ounda ions o las ing socie ies
es s on he mo al ibe o i s membe s. In his iew,
i is no possible o es ablish communi ies and e en
s a es which o e peace and social ha mony based
on man’s own will. “Because o man’s na u al bias
o e il,”6 hese condi ions will be empo a y.
Unless jus ice p e ails in a pe manen way, none o
hese socie ies o s a es can su i e o e he long-
e m. And jus ice is no an independen human
cons uc . I is he p oduc o he p ope
ela ionship be ween man and God. Mo e
speci ically, indi idual and collec i e happiness
( elici y) now and h ough e e ni y es s on he
p ope ly o de ed ela ionship be ween man and he
ue God. This o de ed ela ionship is achie ed
when man lo es God “wholly” and submi s his will
o ha o God. Wi hin men, his o de es o es he
p ope balance be ween soul and body and be ween
eason and emo ion.
Lo ing God does no p eclude lo ing onesel . On
he con a y, only when we lo e God can we uly
lo e ou sel es. Lo ing onesel means desi ing
happiness in ou li e, now and o e e . Bu he
ul ima e sou ce o happiness is ou union wi h God.
The e o e, we lo e ou sel es o he ex en ha we
101
lo e God. I ollows ha we can lo e ou neighbo
only when we lo e God, who gi es o de and
balance o ou li e. Lo ing ou neighbo s, in u n,
means desi ing o hem he same happiness ha
we desi e o ou sel es. This means ha we wan
hem o enjoy he condi ions ha allow a ul illing
li e o pe sonal ha mony and peace wi h God and
wi h o he s. Acco ding o Cla k,7 his is he
meaning o he e m “social jus ice.” In
Augus ine’s hough , howe e , social jus ice did
no consis only o a se o p og ams o income
edis ibu ion and ma e ial well-being. He ocused
p ima ily on he in e io condi ion wi hin men. As
poin ed ou by Cla k8, social jus ice is gene a ed by
one’s lo e o neighbo which “en ails o each one
he esponsibili y o p o iding he ma e ial, social,
cul u al, wo k condi ions which a e needed o b ing
men abou hem o ull de elopmen .” Because he
lo e o neighbo a ises ou o ou lo e o God,
social jus ice is oo ed in he lo e o God and uni es
men in o a “people”, a communion o humans a
peace wi h hemsel es, wi h each o he , and wi h
God. By linking social jus ice o he lo e o God
and neighbo , Augus ine anscends he de ails o
speci ic p og ams, lea ing hem o each socie y o
God-lo ing people, and gene alizes he concep .
Wha ma e s o Augus ine is no any speci ic
p og am o social jus ice, bu he in e nal balance
o indi iduals oo ed in lo e. In a socie y composed
o such indi iduals, social jus ice will low
au oma ically.

By ocusing on human beha io and he
ela ionship be ween man and God, Augus ine
connec s social jus ice o he Mosaic Co enan and
speci ically o he Ten Commandmen s. As poin ed
ou by Cla k,9 “all sins agains he Ten
Commandmen s a e ac s o injus ice.” Sins agains
he i s h ee commandmen s iola e he o de ed
ela ionship be ween man and God which is he
e y ounda ion o social jus ice. Viola ions agains
he ou h commandmen a e an a ack on lo e,
speci ically lo e o one’s pa en s. Fo he
emaining six commandmen s, any iola ions a e
ejec ions o he o de o lo e one’s neighbo .
Because pu suing jus ice, as lo e in ac ion, is he
necessa y condi ion o en e ing he kingdom o
God and an obliga ion o all Ch is ians, acco ding
o Augus ine ailing in his ask is a “c ime”
because i is “an assaul agains God.”10
Acco ding o Augus ine, he ounda ion o any
socie y is a li e submi ed o he will o God. Man
is whole when, acknowledging God’s lo e, he
lo es God in e u n o he ex en o his ull capaci y.
Because lo ing God is he ul ima e good and
las ing happiness is achie ed when we each he
ul ima e good, we uly lo e ou sel es (we seek he
ul ima e good o ou sel es) when we lo e God.
Thus, lo e o sel is a e lec ion o ou lo e o God.
The o de o lo e ou neighbo as ou sel es
equi es ha we desi e o o he s he ul ima e good
ha we seek ou sel es. I we lo e God and a e
obedien o his will, we will be in a lo ing
103
ela ionship wi h ou sel es and ou neighbo and
social jus ice will p e ail. In he con ex o
Augus ine’s hough , social jus ice is he ine i able
esul o man’s lo e o God and o his neighbo ;
i is lo e in ac ion. This means ha he “social
gospel” is no jus a pa o he Gospel, i is i s
en i e y. S ipping he Gospels o hei social
con en would lea e la gely a ch onicle o h ee
yea s in he li e o a Galilean p eache and mi acle
wo ke who ended up being pu o dea h by
c uci ixion unde Roman ule.
No es o chap e 4
1 P ojec Gu enbe g, The Wo ks o Au elius
Augus ine, Edinbu gh: T & T Cla k,
edi o , book II, sec ion 20, p. 73
2 book V, sec ion 12, p. 199
3 book V, sec ion 12, p.201
4 book V, sec ion 12, p.202
5 book V, sec ion 12, p. 202
6 book II, sec ion 7, p. 55
7 Ma y T. Cla k, “Augus ine on Jus ice,”
h ps://pa is ique.o g/si es/pa is ique.o g/MG/pd
/63_ix_1_2_05_.pd
8 Ma y T. Cla k, op. ci ., p. 88
9 Ma y T. Cla k, op. ci ., p. 89
10 Ma y T. Cla k, op. ci ., p. 89
105
Chap e 5 Sain F ancis o Assisi
F ancis, bo n Gio anni Be na done in Assisi
(Umb ia) in 1181 o 1182, was he son o Pie o, a
weal hy clo h me chan , who la e changed his
name o F ancesco.1 In his you h, F ancis had no
p edisposi ion o ei he s udies o comme ce.
Spoiled, he spen mos o his ime indulging in he
pleasu es a o ded by his pa en s’ weal h. A he
age o abou 20 he joined he local mili ia in i s
igh agains he o ces o Pe ugia. Taken p isone ,
he spen one yea in cap i i y. He had op ed o a
mili a y ca ee and in 1205 ollowed Wal e o
B ienne, a knigh o Assisi, in he wa be ween he
Neapoli an S a es and he empe o . He was s opped
in Spole o by an illness and, ollowing a d eam’s
command, e u ned o Assisi. Back in Assisi,
F ancis began o change his a i e, his beha io , and
his way o li e. On a pilg image o Rome, he was
exposed o he pligh o po e y in he la ge numbe
o begga s a ound he basilica. As his new beha io
led o a b eak wi h his a he , F ancis le home,
o egoing his inhe i ance, and dedica ed himsel o
he es o a ion o he chapel o S . Da mian on he
ou ski s o he own. He hen wen on es o ing
wo o he chapels and aking ca e o lepe s. In he
And humble and p ecious, and pu e.
Be p aised, my Lo d, o b o he i e,
Th ough whom you gi e us ligh in he da kness:
He is b igh and li ely and s ong.
Be p aised, my Lo d,
Fo sis e ea h, ou mo he
Who nou ishes us and sus ains us,
B inging o h
F ui s and ege ables o many kinds
And lowe s o many colou s.
Be p aised, my Lo d,
Fo hose who o gi e o lo e o you;
And o hose
Who bea sickness and weakness
In peace and pa ience
You will g an hem a c own.
Be p aise, my Lo d, o sis e dea h
Whom we mus all ace.
I p aise and bless you, Lo d,
And I gi e hanks o you
And I will se e you in all humili y.
No es o chap e 5
1 The summa y o he li e o Sain F ancis is based
on www.newad en .o g/ca hen/06221a.h m)
2 ca holic.o g/p aye s/p aye .php?p=3188

113
Chap e 6 Sain Thomas Aquinas
Sain Thomas was bo n ci ca 1225, a yea be o e
he dea h o Sain F ancis o Assisi, in Roccasecca
nea Aquino (F osinone) close o he bounda y
be ween he papal s a es and he lands o Empe o
F ede ick II. He died a Fossano a (La ina) on he
7 h o Ma ch 1274. His a he was a Lo d o
Lomba d o igin and his mo he o No man
he i age. As a young boy he was placed in he
monas e y o Mon e Cassino. When in 1239, a he
age o 14, he monks we e expelled by o de o he
empe o o being loyal o he Pope, Thomas
e u ned home. His pa en s sen him o he newly-
ins i u ed Uni e si y o Naples. While in Naples,
Thomas decided o join he Dominican F ia s, a
new o de which placed g ea e emphasis on
in ellec ual endea o s ocusing on p eaching and
eaching a he han he o a e labo a o adi ional
monas ic li e. In 1245 he ans e ed o he
uni e si y cen e in he con en o Sain -Jacques in
Pa is whe e he s udied unde he enowned schola
Sain Albe us Magnus. In he Summe o 1248,
Albe us Magnus le Pa is o head he new acul y
a he Dominican con en in Cologne. Thomas
accompanied him and emained he e un il 1252.
He hen e u ned o Pa is whe e he ecei ed his
bachelo ’s deg ee, his “license o each,” and he
i le o mas e . In 1256 he began his eaching ca ee
in he Dominican ins i u ions associa ed wi h he
Uni e si y o Pa is. He spen he emaining 18
yea s o li e eaching in a ious ins i u ions -
including he Papal Cu ia in Rome and in Vi e bo,
he Con en o San a Sabina in Rome, he
Uni e si y o Pa is, and he Uni e si y o Naples –
and w i ing. In Janua y 1274, on his way o Lyons
o pa icipa e in he Second Council o ganized by
Pope G ego y X, Thomas ell ill and s opped a he
Cis e cian Abbey in Fossano a. He died he e on
he 7 h o Ma ch.
Thomas li ed in he la e pa o he High Middle
Ages, a pe iod in which he e was economic
expansion and cul u al awakening. Ag icul u e was
s ill he dominan economic sec o , bu p oduc i i y
gains c ea ed a su plus o bo h wo ke s and
p oduc s.1 Pa o he su plus labo was used o
expand ag icul u al p oduc ion in ma ginal lands
and pa mig a ed o u ban a eas. This mig a ion
ga e ise o a new phase o u baniza ion. In 1330,
wel e Eu opean ci ies had a popula ion in excess
o 50,000 inhabi an s and se en had mo e han
100,000 people. Hal o hese wel e ci ies we e
loca ed in I aly: Venice, Genoa, Milan, Flo ence,
Siena, and Pale mo. U baniza ion c ea ed new
c a s and he demand o new se ices. These, in
u n, helped abso b he mig a ing u al popula ion
and he su plus ag icul u al p oduc ion. U ban
cen e s also led a cul u al and in ellec ual e i al.
115
By he yea 1290, en uni e si ies had been
es ablished in Wes e n Eu ope: Bologna (1088),
Salamanca (1134), Pa is (1160), Pado a (1222),
Napoli (1224), Toulouse (1229), Siena (1240),
Valladolid (1241), Mu cia (1272), and Mace a a
(1290). Hal o hese uni e si ies we e in I aly. In
his p ocess, he adi ional ag a ian socie y based
la gely on sel -su iciency a ming wi h low
echnology and p oduc i i y was being
ans o med in o a new economic s uc u e which
included no el echnology, highe p oduc i i y, and
he expansion o u ban cen e s wi h a ma ke
economy, he expanded use o money as a medium
o exchange, he o ganiza ion o labo acco ding o
ades, and a g ea e sense o communi y a ising in
pa om he close physical connec ions be ween
people.
The wo main subjec s augh a hese uni e si ies
we e law and heology, and he ansla ion o G eek
ex s, pa icula ly hose o A is o le, led o new
app oaches o heology whe e eason could coexis
wi h ai h. Aquinas showed his p edilec ion o
in ellec ual pu sui s as a young s uden a he
uni e si y o Naples when he chose he Dominican
o de o he F anciscan. In Pa is he deepened his
s udies o A is o le unde he guidance o Albe us
Magnus and la e de eloped new heological
ounda ions o he Ca holic ai h. A he co e o
Sain Thomas’ heology was he belie ha “ eason
is able o ope a e wi hin ai h and ye acco ding o
i s own laws….The heologian accep s au ho i y
and ai h as his s a ing poin and hen p oceeds o
conclusions using eason.”2 In his sec ion I will
ocus only on he aspec s o Sain Thomas’ w i ings
ha add ess issues o social jus ice, as hey a e
elabo a ed p ima ily in his Summa Teologica.
The issue o jus ice a ises om he man ope a ing
in a social con ex . I deals wi h in e pe sonal
ela ionships. To unde s and he ela ionship
among people we mus i s discuss he ela ionship
be ween man and God because i is no possible o
jus ice o p e ail among people who do no ha e
he p ope ela ionship wi h God.
Acco ding o Sain Thomas, man di e s om all
o he c ea u es because he has bo h in ellec
( eason) and will. When he uses eason and will, he
exp esses his eedom o choice. Thus, all human
ac ions a e mani es a ions o his ee choices. A
ee choice in ol es wo elemen s: a pu pose, and
he selec ion among al e na i e means. Sain
Thomas iden i ies he ul ima e end o human ac ion
h ough a p ocess o exclusion. He a gues ha
“man’s happiness” canno be achie ed h ough
weal h, hono , o glo y. Fo Sain Thomas, he
ul ima e goal o human ac ion is o be uni ed wi h
God h ough he ision o he Di ine essence by he
in ellec .3 This union is achie able only h ough a
way o li e di ec ed owa ds his goal, a i uous
li e, a li e guided by good habi s di ec ed a
pe o ming good deeds. A i uous li e, which
mani es s he p ope o de in he exis ence o a man
117
and his ela ionship wi h God, is he ounda ion o
he p ope ela ionship among people. In
in e pe sonal ela ionships, i is exp essed as
jus ice. Sain Thomas iden i ies h ee ypes o
ela ionships wi h hei espec i e esponsibili ies:
wha indi iduals owe he poli ical communi y
(socie y), wha is due by he poli ical communi y o
indi iduals, and wha indi iduals owe each o he .
The concep o jus ice ela ed o he ela ionship o
indi iduals o socie y is called by Sain Thomas
legal jus ice (ius i ia legalis). This ype o jus ice is
no di ec ed a speci ic objec s bu is o e a ching in
scope, encompassing all o he i ues (p udence,
empe ance, o i ude) and di ec ing hem o he
common good, i.e. he es ablishmen o he
kingdom o God on ea h which ma e ializes o he
ex en ha he p aye o he ai h ul (you kingdom
come, you will be done on ea h as i is in hea en)
is ans o med in o he will ul ac ions o a i uous
li e. Because o i s wide scope, i is also called
gene al jus ice.
Fo Sain Thomas,4 jus ice can be de ined as “ he
pe pe ual and cons an will o ende each his igh .
He adds ha , “In gene al, I do he jus when I
ende o o he s wha is hei igh o due, i.e., wha
is commensu a e wi h hem in hei dealings o
ela ionship o me.”5 Thus, jus ice is no a
philosophical concep , i is no a way o hinking
bu a way o li e, cons an and unshaken by
con ingencies. This i uous li e which is de ined

by he will ul p ac ice o jus ice, is di ec ed a he
achie emen o he common good, and he ul ima e
common good is God who “c ea ed all ha is
isible and in isible” (C edo) and saw ha i was
good. Thus, e e y hing on ea h and in hea en
pa akes o he goodness o God, which is
mani es ed in an o de ed uni e se ha a he human
le el is e lec ed in he p ope ela ionship o man
o God and o man o man. Because man is a social
c ea u e and canno p o ide o all his needs by
himsel alone, he abo e p ope ela ionships a e
necessa y o he es ablishmen o an o de ed
socie y. When e e yone leads a i uous li e and
man is in he p ope ela ionship wi h God and
neighbo , jus ice will eign and o de will p e ail a
he indi idual, social, and cosmic le el.
Legal jus ice imposes upon all belie e s he du y o
do good and a oid doing e il in e e y si ua ion and
ci cums ance.6 Wi hin he amewo k o economic
heo y, we can place legal jus ice in he con ex o
ex e nali ies, i.e. he e ec s o he ac ions by a
u ili y-maximizing indi idual on he wellbeing o
o he economic agen s. Acco ding o Sain
Thomas’ philosophy and heology, all pa s o
c ea ion a e so in e connec ed ha c ea ion can be
iewed as a uni ed o ganism go e ned by God who
wills ha each componen di ec i s ac ions and
pu poses owa ds he achie emen o His plan. To
God’s plan a e also di ec ed all laws, human and
di ine.7 This means ha God has a u ili y unc ion
and aims o achie e o de , uni y, and ha mony in
119
he uni e se. This u ili y unc ion is known and
accep ed eely by all belie e s (“Ou
Fa he ….you kingdom come, you will be done”).
This means ha each belie e knows how his/he
ac ions will a ec he wellbeing o o he belie e s
and hei capaci y o pu sue God’s will owa ds he
common good, he p ope ela ionship wi h God
and he es ablishmen o his kingdom on ea h.
Thus, hey can o de hei ac ions o a oid c ea ing
nega i e ex e nali ies (do no e il) and maximizing
posi i e ex e nali ies (do good). These adjus men s
in hough and beha io in ol e he in e naliza ion
o nega i e ex e nali ies. Howe e , hey do no
impose a ne cos because hey b ing he indi idual
close o God a he same ime as hey educe he
need o co ec i e ac ion by he ci ic au ho i ies.
The alloca ion o wha he communi y owes each
indi idual membe is guided by a speci ic o m o
jus ice ha Sain Thomas calls dis ibu i e jus ice.
Because i deals wi h he ela ionship be ween a
public body and indi iduals, dis ibu i e jus ice
does no e e o p i a e beha io , bu ope a es
wi hin he public domain. I add esses he
ollowing ques ion: how can common esou ces be
alloca ed jus ly among all membe s o socie y? In
answe ing his ques ion, we may iden i y ou
elemen s. The na u e o he common esou ces, he
ins i u ions ha con ol hem, hose who ha e he
au ho i y o alloca e hem, and he ecipien s o he
alloca ion. The common goods o which Aquinas
e e s a e no jus ma e ial o inancial esou ces,
bu include se ices and he g an ing o hono and
any hing ha aises a pe son’s economic o social
s a us. Al hough Sain Thomas e e s p ima ily o
he la ge communi y, he acknowledges ha he
exe cise o dis ibu i e jus ice a ises in any
o ganiza ion ha has con ol o e common
esou ces, including he amily. The people who
make he decisions on he alloca ion o common
esou ces a e hose who ha e been gi en he
au ho i y - na u ally in he case o he amily,
h ough elec ion in he case o democ a ic
o ganiza ions, o h ough appoin men om highe
au ho i ies o om adi ion. Sain Thomas li ed in
a his o ical ime when Eu ope was expe iencing
high popula ion g ow h, he expansion o
u baniza ion, and he o ma ion o na ion s a es. He
conside ed he mona chy he bes poli ical
a angemen . The e o e, his e e ence o
dis ibu i e jus ice was he enligh ened mona ch.
Re e encing “sins” agains dis ibu i e jus ice,
such as a o i ism, Sain Thomas cla i ies ha only
i uous leade s a e capable o ac ing jus ly. He
would no suppo he mode n a i udes ha accep
he sepa a ion be ween he mo al ibe o leade s
and hei policies. E en when he leade s ac jus ly
in he alloca ion o common esou ces, dis ibu i e
jus ice ma e ializes only when he ecipien s a e
sa is ied wi h he esul s. Thus, dis ibu i e jus ice
combines h ee equi emen s: he mo al s anding o
he leade s, he jus ice o hei decisions, and he
accep ance o he ecipien s who pe cei e jus ice in
he alloca ion.
121
I should be poin ed ou ha , in he case o public
ins i u ions, dis ibu i e jus ice does no in ol e
edis ibu ion o he economic and social s anding
o di e en indi iduals. Sain Thomas makes i
clea ha unde dis ibu i e jus ice he common
esou ces a e o be alloca ed in p opo ion o a
pe son’s s anding in he communi y. This means
ha dis ibu i e jus ice lea es he ela i e s andings
unchanged. In o he wo ds, i main ains he s a us
quo. The pu pose o Sain Thomas’ dis ibu i e
jus ice is no o edis ibu e economic and social
powe , bu o main ain s abili y and ha mony in he
communi y.
The p i a e ansac ions be ween indi iduals a e
go e ned by commu a i e jus ice. Sain Thomas
di e en ia es be ween olun a y and in olun a y
ans e s. The la e a e a o m o he o obbe y
and hey include imma e ial componen s such as
good name, digni y, adul e y, and de ama ion.
When olun a y ans e s ha e a one-way di ec ion
(gi s), hey a e pa o libe ali y, no jus ice. In he
case o olun a y ans e s, commu a i e jus ice
applies only o ee exchanges. The wo ope a i e
elemen s o commu a i e jus ice a e e ibu ion and
equali y in exchange. The o me equi es ull
compensa ion o wha has been aken away om a
pe son and wha a pe son has been p e en ed om
gaining. The o me implies ha jus ice in
exchange will p e ail only when a pe son who
gi es up an i em wi h a alue o 1 ecei es in e u n
i s o he spi i ual bene i s acc ues o he dono
and in ol es he blessings ecei ed o ac ions
pleasing o God. The second spi i ual bene i goes
o bo h ecipien and dono . The o me exp esses
his g a i ude by p aying o he dono and a he
same ime h ough his p aye s may be ge ing
close o God. Sain Thomas a gues ha almsgi ing
is no a pe sonal choice bu an obliga ion. As
Ch is ians we a e commanded o lo e ou
neighbo s and o exp ess ha lo e h ough bo h
wo ds and deeds. Because almsgi ing is pa o ou
deeds (doing good) i becomes an obliga ion (“a
ma e o p ecep ”).
In Sain Thomas’ hinking, weal h and almsgi ing
a e in e connec ed. Weal h accumula ion (“ he
ino dina e lo e o possessions”) d i en by g eed is
a sin. Simila ly, he ailu e o help ou neighbo in
need by sha ing ou su plus (an ac ion ha would
inc ease ou weal h) is a ejec ion o God’s
command o lo e ou neighbo . Thus, bo h g eed
and a a ice a e human ai s ha sepa a e us om
God and des oy ou happiness.
Sain Thomas’ iew o human ac i i y is
comp ehensi e and in e nally consis en . C ea ed
in God’s image, humans beha e in acco dance o
jus ice and cha i y o he pu pose o p omo ing
God’s plan on ea h. In doing so, hey gi e p io i y
o social well-being o e pe sonal in e es s, gi e
e e yone wha is igh ly hei s, e use o pu sue
iches because he accumula ion o weal h is no

129
conduci e o happiness, ensu e ha e e y wo ke
ea ns a li ing wage, a e sa is ied wi h he
ul illmen o hei needs in acco dance o hei
s a us, and willingly sha e any su plus wi h hose
who a e wan ing. A socie y composed o i uous
people who p ac ice s ead as ly jus ice and cha i y
will exhibi lowe dispa i ies o income and weal h,
s onge social cohesion, g ea e o e all well-
being, mo e wholesome and esilien in e -pe sonal
ela ionships, lowe deg ees o c iminal ac i i y,
and g ea e o e all social ha mony.
No es o chap e 6
1 Wim Blockmans (2012) “U baniza ion in he
Eu opean Middle Ages. Phases o Openness and
Occlusion h ps:// moa.unina.i /192/RM-
Blockmans-U baniza ion.pd ; Dan Yamins, 2013,
“The Rise o Eu ope in he High Middle Ages:
Reac ion o U ban Economic Mode nism, 1050-
1300, S and o d Uni e si y, His o y Club.
2www.b i annica.com/biog aphy/sain - homas-
aquinas
3 ayanab and .o g/ ag/ homas-aquinas/
4 Summa, II-II, 58, 1
5 Summa, II-II, 57, 1
6 Thomas B oden (Oc obe 1954) “Re iew:
Aquinas Legal Jus ice,” The Re iew o Poli ics,
Vol. 16, No. 16, p. 509
7 B oden, abo e, p. 508
8 Ma hew 20:1-13
9 Summa, I-II, 2
10 Summa, II-II, 118,1
11 Summa, II-II, 32, 1-3
131
Chap e 7 Pope Leo XIII: Re um No a um
LEO XIII was bo n Gioacchino Vincenzo Ra aele
Luigi Pecci on he second o Ma ch 1810 in
Ca pine o Romano, nea Rome, I aly. He was he
six h o se en child en o a noble couple, Anna
F ancesca P ospe i Buzzi (1773-1824) and Coun
Ludo ico Pecci (1767-1833). He and his b o he
Giuseppe a ended he Jesui college in Vi e bo bu
e u ned home when hei mo he died in 1824 and
con inued hei s udies a he Jesui college in
Rome. Giuseppe joined he Jesui o de bu
Vincenzo op ed o secula p ies hood. O dained in
1837, he joined he diploma ic se ice o he papal
s a es. Sho ly a e his o dina ion he was appoin ed
papal lega o o Bene en o and h ee yea s la e was
ans e ed o Spole o. In 1843, a he age o 33,
Vincenzo was appoin ed apos olic nuncio o
Belgium and he same yea was ele a ed o
a chbishop, holding ha posi ion in Pe ugia om
1846 o 1877. He was made ca dinal in 1853 a he
age o 40 and he 20 h o Feb ua y 1878 was elec ed
Pope. He died on he 20 h o July 1903 a he age o
93.
Pope Leo XIII li ed in a e y dynamic cen u y
cha ac e ized by e olu ions, g owing na ionalism,
and unp eceden ed achie emen s in science, music,
and he a s. The economic s uc u e was also being
ans o med by he o ces o indus ializa ion
which led o g owing u baniza ion, labou
specializa ion, and he concen a ion o indus ial
p oduc ion. In 1800, only 10 pe cen o he
Eu opean popula ion li ed in cen e s wi h a leas
5,000 esiden s. The highes a e o u baniza ion
was ound in he Ne he lands wi h 29 pe cen ,
ollowed by England (20%), Belgium (19%), and
I aly (15%). O e he nex nine y yea s, he a e age
u baniza ion a e in Eu ope ose by a ac o o
nea ly 3 (29%) and he in e -coun y a ia ion
widened. By 1890 he mos u banized coun y in
Eu ope was England wi h a a e o 62 pe cen
(mo e han iple ha in 1800), ollowed by
Belgium (35%), he Ne he lands (33%), Ge many
(28%) and Spain (27%).1 Indus ial p oduc ion was
no longe con ined o a widesp ead a isan sec o ,
bu equi ed he concen a ion o la ge ope a ions
nea he sou ce o ene gy. In u n, he ene gy used
by he new machines equi ed inc easing amoun s
o coal, esul ing in he expansion o he mining
sec o bo h o ma e ials and o ene gy. Wo ke s
who wan ed o ea n a li ing had o ollow he
p oduc ion loca ions, lea ing he u al a eas o he
cen e s o indus ial p oduc ions. In he p ocess,
he e was a d as ic ans o ma ion in he ole o
133
wo ke s. Fa me s and a isans we e sel -employed
wo ke s which mean ha hey had ull con ol o e
hei ac i i ies. Mo eo e , o he ex en ha hei
economic ac i i y equi ed capi al, hey we e a he
same ime wo ke and capi alis and ecei ed he
ull e u ns acc ued o labo and capi al.
Indus ializa ion, specializa ion, and he
concen a ion o indus ial ac i i y ook away mos
o a wo ke ’s con ol o e his ac i i ies and c ea ed
a sepa a ion be ween he wo king class, which
o e ed labo se ices in exchange o wages, and
he en ep eneu ial class which con olled
p oduc ion and ecei ed he e u n o capi al. Thus,
he economic sys em was sepa a ed in o wo
opposing classes, wo ke s (labo ) and capi alis s,
and class wa a e was b ed. The ela ionship
be ween labo and capi al is he subjec o he bes -
known encyclical by Pope Leo XIII, eleased on he
15 h o May 1891.
The encyclical Re um No a um con ains 64
pa ag aphs. Fo analy ical pu poses I ha e di ided
i in o se e al sec ions, acco ding o selec ed opics.
Issues. In he i s pa ag aph o he encyclical, he
Pope iden i ies a ious impo an de elopmen s:
he expansion o indus ial p oduc ion, scien i ic
disco e ies, he changing ela ionships be ween
“mas e s and wo ke s,” he concen a ion o weal h
and he widening o po e y, he expansion o
o ganiza ions suppo ing he igh s o wo ke s, and

he “p e ailing mo al degene acy.” His ocus is on
he condi ions o wo ke s. He hen iden i ies a
a ie y o ac o s ha a e causing “ he mise y and
w e chedness p essing so unjus ly on he majo i y
o he wo king class”: he abolishmen o he old
guilds ha p o ec ed he igh s o wo ke s, he
ailu e o es ablish simila o ganiza ions, he
dis ega d o eligious alues by public ins i u ions
and he legal sys em, he “ha dhea edness” o
employe s, “ he g eed o unchecked ma ke s,”
apacious usu y, he concen a ion in he hands o a
ew o he powe o “hi ing o labo and he conduc
o comme ce.” The esul is ha “wo king men
ha e been su ende ed, isola ed, and helpless”
while a ew ich pe sons ha e been able o impose
on he masses o he wo king poo “a yoke li le
be e han ha o sla e y i sel .”2
The wo ke s’ condi ions desc ibed by Pope Leo
XIII had gi en ise o new poli ical and social
mo emen s ha sough as a emedy he
socializa ion o p i a e p ope y. Socialism, as
hese mo emen s we e called, gained s eng h in
he second hal o he 19 h cen u y suppo ed by an
imp essi e in ellec ual ounda ion. I will su ice o
men ion he names o Cha les Fou nie (1772-
1837), Robe Owen (1771-1858), Pie e-Joseph
P oudhon (1809-1865), Michael Bakunin (1814-
1876), Ka l Ma x (1818-1883), and F ede ich
Hegel (1820-1895). No able among new wo ke s’
135
o ganiza ions we e he In e na ional Wo kmen’s
Associa ion (o en called he “Fi s In e na ional”)
es ablished in London in 1864 and he Second
In e na ional ounded in 1889. In some coun ies
he labo mo emen ga e bi h o an o icial
poli ical pa y as in he case o he Social
Democ a ic Pa y (SPD) in Ge many. Fo Pope Leo
XIII, he conce n o he pligh o he wo king class
was joined by he p eoccupa ion wi h he
expanding powe o socialis ideologies and
ins i u ions. He ecognized he u gen need o
p esen al e na i e solu ions ounded on he
p inciples and adi ions o Ca holicism.
C i ique o Socialism. No ing ha socialism would
eplace p i a e p ope y wi h common p ope y
con olled by he s a e, Pope Leo XIII wa ns ha
he socialis plans a e ine ec i e and unjus , dis o
he unc ions o he s a e, and dis up li e in he
communi y.3 He hen p esen s speci ic a gumen s
agains socialism. He s a s by a guing ha any
p ope y acqui ed h ough sa ing a po ion o labo
income is e ec i ely “wages unde ano he o m.”
The e o e, a wo ke should be able o dispose o his
p ope y as eely as he does wi h his wages.
Acco ding o he Pope, i is p ecisely he powe o
disposal o one’s p ope y ha de ines he essence
o owne ship. The plan o socialism o ans e
p i a e p ope y o he s a e is a di ec s ike agains
he igh s o all wo ke s, and dep i es hem o he
igh o imp o e hei economic s a us h ough
h i . I e ec i ely condemns wo ke s o emain in
hei dependen s a us all hei li es and o ces
hem o spend hei wages only on consume
goods.4 Mo e impo an ly, in he Pope’s iew,
dep i ing indi iduals o he igh o own p ope y
is “mani es ly agains jus ice.” Acco ding o Leo
XIII, man holds he unique posi ion in na u e as he
only c ea u e “endowed wi h eason”, a concep
eminiscen o Desca es (1596-1650) s a emen
cogi o e go sum. Because man is by na u e a
a ional being, he has he igh o own p ope y,
bo h ha which is des oyed in consump ion and
ha which is no (wha we now call in es men ).
Acco ding o he Pope, he e o e, p i a e p ope y
is a na u al igh p o ec ed by na u al jus ice and
any a emp o dep i e man o he igh o own
p ope y is an a ack on na u al jus ice.6 Pope Leo
XIII explains ha man has bo h cu en and u u e
needs, which means ha , as a a ional being, he
mus plan o he p esen and he u u e. The e o e,
he equi es he means o sa is y he needs o he
p esen and o he u u e. In he Pope’s own wo ds,
man needs no jus “ he ui s o he ea h, bu also
he e y soil.” Mo eo e , he amily exis ed and
p o ided o his needs be o e he s a e was c ea ed
and is en i led o na u al igh s ha he s a e should
no ampe wi h.6 Focusing on ag icul u e and land
owne ship, he Pope s esses ha p oduc s o he
land esul om he wo k and skills o man.
137
Th ough he imp o emen s o human ac i i y, land
and wo ke each a o m o na u al union which
would be unjus o se e . The Pope also de ends
p i a e p ope y as necessa y o he su i al o he
amily, a na u al ins i u ion p eceding he s a e and
ha ing i s own s uc u e and igh s ha a e
ancho ed “mo e immedia ely in na u e.”7 Finally,
in he Pope’s iew, socialism is ine icien because
no one would apply his skills wi h op imum e o
o p oduce goods and se ices ha would be sha ed
wi h all membe s o he communi y, including he
idle and hose no in need. The Pope concludes ha
socialism ( he communi y o goods) canno
imp o e he condi ions o wo ke s because i would
inju e he e y people i in ends o help, would
ample on he na u al igh s o indi iduals and
amilies, and would in oduce diso de in he
communi y. Acco ding o Pope Leo XIII, only he
“in iolabili y o p i a e p ope y” would be able o
imp o e he condi ions o he wo king class.8
A his poin one may ask: how can p i a e
p ope y, which is associa ed wi h he exis ing
economic inequi ies and di e condi ions o
wo ke s, become he emedy o he wo ke s’
pligh ? The Pope add essed his ques ion by
o e ing a plan ha es s on he es ablishmen o
ha monious ela ionships be ween capi al and labo
based on he communali y o in e es s and he
suppo o Chu ch and S a e. Be o e discussing he
Acco ding o Pope Leo XIII, he pligh o wo ke s
is bes add essed h ough he help o a a ie y o
p i a e o ganiza ions such as bene olen socie ies,
associa ions o mu ual help, ounda ions ha
p o ide assis ance o wo ke s, widows, and
o phans in need, and ins i u ions dedica ed o he
wellbeing o he young and he elde ly. The mos
e ec i e o hese o ganiza ions, acco ding o he
Pope, a e wo kmen’s unions. Thei p edecesso s,
he guilds, no only o e ed mu ual suppo o
wo ke s and imp o ed hei wellbeing, bu
enhanced social wel a e h ough hei p omo ion o
he a s. All hese o ganiza ions ope a e wi hin he
con ex o ci il socie y and ep esen a “na u al
igh o man.” The e o e, he S a e canno o bid
hei exis ence and ope a ion excep in cases whe e
hei aim is ha m ul o socie y.23The Pope also
s esses he impo ance o eligious o ganiza ions
ha do wo ks o cha i y o s eng hen he ies o
ellowship among people, such a con a e ni ies,
cha i able socie ies, and eligious o de s. The S a e
has no igh o in e e e wi h he ope a ion o hese
eligious o ganiza ions ha se e he needs o body
and soul.24 The Pope hen makes sugges ions on he
o ganiza ion o labo unions, pa icula ly he need
o commi ees o employe and employees o se le
dispu es, and poin s ou wo main goals: he
p omo ion o high employmen , and he ca e o
wo ke s h oughou hei li e ime by es ablishing a
und o help wo ke s in cases o acciden s,

145
sickness, old age, and “dis ess.”25 Acco ding o he
Pope, only associa ions based on Ch is ian
p inciples will be success ul in add essing he
condi ion o wo ke s because hey would ollow
he mo al p ecep s o he Chu ch and hei ac ions
would be d i en by he uni ing o ce o cha i y.26
A he ime o issuing he encyclical Re um
No a um, he Chu ch was conce ned wi h wo
in e wined issues: he pligh o wo ke s, and he
ising in luence o socialism. Pope Leo XIII
coun e ac ed he secula solu ion o he socialis s
based on he common owne ship o p ope y wi h
a p oposal ancho ed on wo undamen al pilla s:
p i a e p ope y and mo al guidance o he Chu ch.
Humans a e he only c ea u es wi h a soul ha
e lec s God’s semblance. They no only ha e a
igh o li e bu a na u al igh o a s anda d o li ing
ha p omo es bo h physical and spi i ual
wellbeing. Acco ding o he Pope, his goal is bes
achie ed h ough he p o ec ion o p i a e p ope y,
which allows wo ke s, h ough h i and i uous
beha io , o gain economic independence. Fo
wo ke s wi hou p ope y, he p o ision o a li ing
wage and humane wo king condi ions is bes
achie ed h ough p i a e ins i u ions and
o ganiza ions, chie among which a e labo unions.
In he Pope’s plan, he ac ions o indi iduals and
associa ions will be guided by he Chu ch which is
he only body wi h he au ho i y o add ess spi i ual
needs. In he Pope’s plan he e is no much oom
o he S a e. I s ole is la gely con ined o he
p omo ion o p i a e p ope y, he p o ec ion o
pe sons and p ope y, and he es ablishmen o a
legal sys em ha main ains peace and social o de .
Re um No a um does no assign any
edis ibu ional unc ions o he S a e, o such a
unc ion would mo e he S a e owa ds socialism.
The ask o imp o ing he lo o wo ke s would be
pe o med by p i a e p ope y and a ious p i a e
o ganiza ions, p ima ily labo unions, and he
pligh o he poo would be alle ia ed by he
gene osi y o ellow men guided by he Chu ch,
ac ing acco ding o he Gospels, and d i en by
Ch is ian cha i y. Because spi i ual heal h is
supe io o ma e ial wellbeing o c ea u es in en
on gaining e e nal li e, he undamen al ins i u ion
in socie y is he Chu ch, no he S a e.
No es o chap e 7
1 Zinkina, Julia, Ilia V. Ilyin, and And ei Ko o aye ,
The Nine een-Cen u y U baniza ion T ansi ion in
he Fi s Wo ld, Social S udies.
H ps://socios udies.o g/almanac/a icle/ he_nine e
en h-cen u y/
2 Re um No a um, pa . 3
3 Re um No a um, pa . 4
147
4 Re um No a um, pa . 5
5 Re um No a um, pa . 6
6 Re um No a um, pa . 7
7 Re um No a um, pa . 8-13
8 Re um No a um, pa . 15
9 Re um No a um, pa . 14
10 Re um No a um, pa . 16
11 Re um No a um, pa . 21
12 Re um No a um, pa .26
13 Re um No a um, pa .29-30
14 Re um No a um, pa . 31-33
15 Re um No a um, pa . 34
16 Re um No a um, pa .34
17 Re um No a um, pa . 35
18 Re um No a um, pa . 36
19 Re um No a um, pa . 37
20 Re um No a um, pa . 38-39
21 Re um No a um, pa . 40-42
22 Re um No a um, pa . 43-45
23 Re um No a um, pa . 48-52
24 Re um No a um, pa . 53-56
25 Re um No a um, pa . 58
26 Re um No a um, pa . 59-62
149
Chap e 8 Pope Pius XI: Quad agesimo Anno
Pope Pius XI was bo n Amb osio Damiano Achille
Ra i on he 31s o May 1857 a Desio in
Lomba dy. His mo he was Te esa Ra i and his
a he F ancesco, a ich owne o a silk ac o y. He
had ou b o he s and a sis e . A he age o en
(1867) Amb osio en e ed he semina y and was
o dained wel e yea s la e (1879). He ea ned h ee
deg ees a he G ego ian uni e si y in Rome:
philosophy, canon law, and heology. F om 1882 o
1888 he was a p o esso a he Semina y in Padua,
om 188 o 1906 held he posi ion o expe
paleog aphe a he Amb osian Lib a y in Milan,
and o e he ollowing h ee yea s he was i s
di ec o . F om 1911 o 1917 he was employed by
he Va ican lib a y, i s as depu y p e ec (1911-14)
and la e as i s p e ec (1914-17). In 1918 Pope
Benedic XV named him papal ep esen a i e o
Poland and a yea la e ele a ed him o apos olic
nuncio. In 1921, Amb osio was a chbishop o
Milan and was made ca dinal. A yea la e , he 6 h
o Feb ua y 1922, he was elec ed Pope. His papacy

las ed 17 yea s and he died in Rome on he 10 h o
Feb ua y 1939.
Pope Pius XI li ed in a e y challenging pe iod o
he Chu ch. In I aly, he g ew up in a poli ical
en i onmen hos ile o he Chu ch because, a e
he I alian uni ica ion when he was 4 yea s old, he
new ule s had an icle ical endencies. The ou
yea s o Wo ld Wa I h us Eu ope in o a s a e o
unce ain y. As papal ep esen a i e and la e
nuncio o Poland, he could almos obse e
pe sonally he de elopmen s in Russia, whe e he
Bolshe iks ook powe in 1917. The pos -wa
pe iod was ma ked by iolence, especially in I aly
whe e he igh s be ween Le (socialis s) and Righ
( ascis s) in ensi ied. The la e ac ion won and i s
leade , Beni o Mussolini, a e an a med ma ch o
Rome in 1922, was appoin ed p ime minis e by
king Vic o Emanuel III. A skil ul nego ia o , in
1929 he Pope was able o each an ag eemen wi h
he new go e nmen ega ding he si ua ion o he
Va ican and eligious eedom (Pa i La e anensi o
Conco da o). In Oc obe o he same yea , he s ock
ma ke in he Uni ed S a es c ashed and c ea ed an
in e na ional economic c isis ha las ed a decade
and was known as he G ea Dep ession. In
Ge many, he G ea Dep ession compounded he
dep essing economic e ec s o he wa epa a ions
and p epa ed e ile g ound o a new na ionalis
pa y. Wi h he help o he conse a i es, i s leade
151
(Adol Hi le ) was elec ed Chancello in 1933. I
was in his en i onmen , dange ous o he Chu ch
and o he en i e wo ld, ha he encyclical
Quad agesimo Anno was eleased on he 15 h o
Ma ch 1931.
The i s 39 pa ag aphs o his encyclical highligh
he main elemen s o Re um No a um and discuss
i s main e ec s on schola ship and policymaking.
Pope Pius XI hen poin s ou ha , despi e he
esea ch and discussions engende ed by Re um
No a um, he e s ill emain doub s abou he
co ec in e p e a ion o some o he s a emen s and
conclusions he ein. I is he pu pose o
Quad agesimo Anno o o e some cla i ica ion.
Be o e u ning o speci ics, he Pope cla i ies ha ,
al hough economics is conce ned wi h ma e ial
hings while mo al science add esses e hical issues,
he wo a e in e wined because bo h deal wi h
human beha io . Howe e , acco ding o he Pope,
issues o ma e ial na u e a e subo dina e o mo al
laws which deal wi h he ul ima e goal o human
li e which is ou e e nal union wi h God. Wi h he
abo e p o iso, Pope Pius XI begins his
cla i ica ion o he issues a ising om Re um
No a um, s a ing wi h p i a e p ope y.
Pope Pius XI ea i ms he na u al igh o p i a e
p ope y, emphasizing ha i se es a dual pu pose:
he in e es o indi iduals and amilies, and he
common good. He hen wa ns ha his igh mus
be de ended om he “ win ocks o shipw eck”:
he indi idualism o libe alism and he collec i ism
o socialism. This is an ex ension o he c i icism o
Pope Leo XIII who ocused en i ely on he la e .
The Pope also poin s ou ha owne ship o p i a e
p ope y is sepa a e om i s use and canno be
o ei ed due o lack o use o o abuse. Because
p i a e p ope y has bo h indi idual and social
cha ac e , he Pope sugges s ha i s use o
pe sonal bene i is ci cumsc ibed by he
equi emen s o he common good. In o he wo ds,
only hose uses o p i a e p ope y ha bene i o
do no ha m o he common good a e legi ima e. The
ules o de e mining he legi ima e uses o p i a e
p ope y, o be based on na u al law, a e he
esponsibili y o he S a e. This s a emen by Pius
XI goes beyond Re um No a um and assigns o he
S a e an expanded ole no en isioned by Pope Leo
XIII. Acco ding o Pope Pius XI, he S a e has he
esponsibili y o p omulga e and en o ce laws
aimed a wha economis s call nega i e
ex e nali ies, i.e. he inju ious e ec s o ac ions by
u ili y-maximizing indi iduals on he wellbeing o
o he s. In a mo e mode n con ex , he S a e has he
legal du y o p e en o penalize any ac i i y ha
endange s he na u al en i onmen , including he
a mosphe e, because en i onmen al deg ada ion is
de imen al o he common good.
153
The social cha ac e o p i a e p ope y also
p e en s he owne s o p i a e p ope y om using
he en i e y o i s ui s o pe sonal bene i .
Acco ding o Pope Pius XI, p ope y owne s a e
en i led o he e u ns necessa y “ o sus ain li e
i ingly and wi h digni y,” bu a e equi ed by
“Sac ed Sc ip u es” and by “a e y g a e p ecep ,”
o gi e away he excess. The Pope also sugges s
ha he bes use o “muni icence” is o inc ease
employmen , an ac ion ha h ough he expansion
o economic ac i i y would bene i bo h indi idual
wo ke s and socie y as a whole.1
Pope Pius XI suppo s Pope Leo XIII’s iew ha
p oduc ion equi es he use o bo h labo and
capi al. The e o e, he p oposes ha bo h a e
en i led o a sha e o he p oceeds om economic
ac i i y. The ques ion is: how a e hese sha es o be
de e mined? The Pope poin s ou ha his o ically
capi al has been able o app op ia e he lion’s sha e,
lea ing o wo ke s less han wha hey need “ o
es o e and enew …s eng h.”2 While enewing
he Chu ch’s opposi ion o he collec i ism o
socialism, he Pope also ejec s “Manches e ian
libe alism” and he doc ine ha he accumula ion
o capi al is a na u al igh o he ich. In his
espec , Pope Pius XI di e ges om Pope Leo XIII.
The la e in Re um No a um c i icized only
socialism. Wi h he expe ience o he G ea
Dep ession, he o me obse ed he ailu es o he
ela ionship be ween man and na u e equi es a
pa adigm shi om an egocen ic o an ecocen ic
iew o he wo ld.
Finally, he e is he ela ionship among men and
be ween man and socie y ( he S a e). In his espec
we should no e ha human ac i i y gene a es mo al
and legal issues ha equi e ed ess. The ed ess o
legal issues is ese ed o he ci ic au ho i ies and
is based on he need o p o ec li e and on he
magni ude o he inju ies, inancial and o he , ha
indi idual ac i i ies impose on o he pe sons o on
socie y as a whole. The judgmen abou mo al
issues is God’s exclusi e domain: “Vengeance is
mine, and ecompense”1; God will b ing e e y
deed in judgmen ”2. Jesus o de ed us: “Judge no ,
and you will no be judged”3; and in he Nicene
C eed we exp ess he belie ha Jesus “will come
again in glo y o judge he li ing and he dead.”
Thus, any eligious o go e nmen body o any
o he o ganiza ion ha imposes ed essing
measu es based on mo al judgemen s o in cases
whe e he e a e no demons able inju ies o pe sons
o socie y is usu ping God’s powe . The
ela ionship among indi iduals is an ex ension o
he connec ion be ween man and God. This means
ha e en when we ac in ou in e es we mus ake
in o accoun he e ec s o ou ac ions on o he s. In
economic e ms, we in e nalize nega i e
ex e nali ies in o de o a oid inju ing ou neighbo

257
and educing he wel a e o socie y. In he
ela ionship be ween pe sons and socie y, he
dominan p inciple is ha o Sain Thomas
Aquinas’s dis ibu i e jus ice which equi es ha
e e y o ganiza ion, om amily o he S a e, mus
ake ca e o all i s membe s in a ai manne .
P inciples
In his sec ion I summa ize he main p inciples o
Ca holic social eaching de i ed om he sou ces
e iewed in he p eceding chap e s.
1.Man is he cen e o all human ac i i y, no as he
Lo d o c ea ion bu as kin o na u e.
2.Because he is a child o God, man has inhe en
digni y and inalienable igh s, including li e,
eedom, owne ship o p i a e p ope y,
membe ship in associa ions o mu ual suppo , and
a quali y o li e ha allows him o be a willing and
able pa icipan in God’s plan o humani y.
4.Man inds ul illmen h ough wo k which
gene a es bene i s o bo h indi iduals and socie y.
Wo k p o ides he means o sus enance o he
indi idual and his amily, o e s he oppo uni y o
exp essing one’s c ea i i y, s eng hens social
connec ions, and inc eases social wel a e by
expanding he weal h o he communi y.
5.Man has he igh o a li ing income o himsel
and his amily h ough wo k, o heal hy wo king
condi ions, and su icien inancial suppo a e
e i emen .
6.The pu pose o he economic sys em is no o
gene a e weal h ha is app op ia ed by he ew, bu
o c ea e job oppo uni ies o he capable and
willing. I is he esponsibili y o go e nmen , in
coo dina ion wi h business and labo o ganiza ions,
o suppo a mac oeconomic s uc u e ha o e s
high and s able le els o employmen .
7.Go e men policies should ollow he p inciple
o subsidia i y which implies ha he cen al
go e nmen should no ake o e ac i i ies ha can
be mo e e ec i ely pe o med by lowe le els o
go e nmen o p i a e o ganiza ions.
Policies
I can now ske ch a policy p og am based on he
abo e p inciples.
Li e. Ca holic social eaching is uni e sally p o-
li e, an o ien a ion no con ined o he nine mon hs
o a woman’s p egnancy bu ex ends o he en i e
li espan om concep ion o he las b ea h.
Mo eo e , i goes beyond su i al and includes
sa e y om any ype o iolence, pa icula ly
agains women, child en, and he elde ly, he
a ailabili y o sa e d inking wa e and b ea hable
ai , p o ec ion o one’s means o su i al, sa e
wo king condi ions, and he capaci y o lead a li e
259
sui able o a being o igina ing om God and
des ined o e u n o his celes ial abode. The main
esponsibili y o he p o ec ion o li e in all i s
elemen s es s wi h he S a e, and his esponsibili y
anscends na ional bo de s. The mos powe ul
and iches na ions ha e a du y o help hose li ing
in poo coun ies o enjoy in sa e y a li e i o
human beings.
F eedom. To ul ill his mission as a wo ke in he
ineya d o he Lo d, man mus ope a e in an
en i onmen ha gua an ees eedom om
compulso y indoc ina ion and eedom o speech,
condi ioned by he p ohibi ion o do inju y o o he s
wi h ou speech. Ha e is a g a e sin agains he
Lo d. Ch is ians a e commanded o lo e bo h
iend and oe and o di ec hei language a
encou aging and upli ing o he s, and a b inging
com o and hope o hose who su e . Abo e all,
man needs eedom o associa ion and eedom o
wo ship because he is a spi i ual being. While he
Chu ch bea s a majo esponsibili y o mo al
de elopmen , he S a e has he du y and he ools o
ensu e ha people de elop hei capabili ies in an
en i onmen ha p o ec s eedom as well as li e
and p ope y.
Kinship wi h Na u e. Fo mos o human his o y
man li ed in ha mony wi h na u e. Many abo iginal
people e e ed “mo he ea h” and de eloped
sus ainable economic sys ems ha espec ed
in e gene a ional jus ice. Wi h he onse o he
indus ial e olu ion, he bonds o his kinship
began o weaken and now we ha e eached he
poin whe e man has u ned om kin o oe o
na u e. The na u al wo ld is mo e esilien han
humani y and i will s ill h i e a e he las human
walks on ea h. Mo eo e , na u e is s iking back
agains man’s a acks. As g eenhouse gases hea up
he a mosphe e, he clima e is changing wo ldwide,
in ensi ying d ough s, hu icanes and loods,
mel ing glacie s, dissol ing he pe macul u e and
eleasing me hane gas, aising ocean wa e le els,
h ea ening many coas al ci ies, and making
expanding a eas unsui able o human habi a ion.
The cos s o ed essing he e ec s o na u e’s
engeance a e s agge ing and inc easing wi h each
passing yea . While hese expendi u es add o he
G oss Na ional P oduc , hey do no imp o e social
wel a e because hey simply e e se he damage
gene a ed by he human dis ega d o
en i onmen al heal h and di e esou ces om he
p oduc ion o goods and se ices use ul o man.
The e ec s o en i onmen al deg ada ion a e no
sp ead e enly a ound he globe, bu a y depending
on geog aphy and geopoli ical condi ions. As hey
dis up ood p oduc ion, o en in he poo e
egions, hey a e o cing a new wa e o mig a ion
ha is adding o in e na ional mili a y con lic s
which a e u he di e ing esou ces away om
wha people need. Soon, ou con lic wi h na u e
261
will each exis en ial le els. Res o ing peace wi h
na u e has become a uni e sal obliga ion which
equi es he dedica ed e o s o indi iduals,
businesses, he Chu ch, and he S a e, and equi es
close in e na ional coope a ion.
So a , in mos coun ies he in e en ion o he
S a e has been eeble and la gely based on ma ke
mechanisms. This app oach is ine icien because
ma ke mechanisms ely on p ice changes, bu he
human esponse o change in he p ices o
en i onmen ally-des uc i e goods is qui e weak.
We need s onge laws and mo e puni i e measu es
agains any human ac i i y ha causes ha m o he
en i onmen . Ano he ailu e o public policy is he
inconsis en messaging abou he en i onmen . In
some de eloped coun ies a la ge po ion o he
popula ion, led by many poli icians and public
o icials, igno es all he scien i ic e idence abou
clima e change and manu ac u es conspi acy
heo ies o explain a mosphe ic wea he e en s. I
sugges ha go e nmen s begin deli e ing a mo e
consis en message on en i onmen al issues and
expand i s educa ion each. One e ec i e op ion is
he in oduc ion o compulso y ecology classes
om elemen a y school all he way o high school.
The Chu ch also needs o in ensi y i s educa ion
e o s. One op ion would be o es ablish an
ecology mon h du ing which homilies as
commen a ies o daily sac ed eadings would be

eplaced by explana ions o he na u al and human
ecology using he bluep in con ained in Pope
F ancis’ encyclical Bea o Si’.
Heal h Ca e. The impo ance o a heal hy body and
mind o a p oduc i e wo k o ce has long been
ecognized by economis s and policymake s.
Because many diseases a e ansmissible and
wo ke s do no li e and ac in isola ion, i has also
been acknowledged ha a heal hy labo o ce can
ope a e e ec i ely only wi hin a heal hy socie y.
Fo hese easons, all indus ialized coun ies ha e
de eloped some o m o go e nmen - unded heal h
ca e sys em ha in mos ad anced coun ies co e s
all ci izens. While he economic a ionale o
uni e sal publicly- unded heal h ca e is consis en
wi h he p inciples o Ca holic social eaching, i s
undamen al a ionale di e s d as ically. Fo he
Chu ch, i es s on he inhe en digni y o human
beings as child en o God. Acco ding o Ca holic
social eaching, he p o ision o uni e sal publicly-
unded heal h ca e is an inalienable human igh .
Educa ion. A simila a gumen can be made o
educa ion. In ac , economis s call heal h ca e and
educa ion me i goods on accoun o he la ge
posi i e ex e nali ies hey gene a e which, o he
e icien alloca ion o esou ces, equi e public
subsidiza ion. Go e nmen suppo o educa ion
has e ol ed o e ime and has been p edica ed
la gely on economic conside a ions. As he
263
economic s uc u e e ol ed om indus ies ha
equi ed limi ed educa ional skills - na u al
esou ces indus ies, p ima ily ag icul u e – o
manu ac u ing and la e knowledge-based
indus ies, he educa ional equi emen s o he
wo k o ce inc eased. Recognizing ha economic
g ow h depended o an inc easing ex en on he
acquisi ion and employmen o human capi al,
go e nmen s in indus ialized coun ies esponded
by inancing public educa ion o inc easing deg ees
and making pa s o i compulso y. S a ing om
elemen a y educa ion, he compulso y s a e was
expanded o middle school and hen o high school
in many de eloped coun ies. We ha e now
eached he s age whe e g ea e ex e nali ies a e
gene a ed by pos -seconda y educa ion and he e is
a push o ex end ee public educa ion o
communi y colleges.
While equi ing inc easing le els o educa ion o
he labo o ce, echnological ad ances also o e
cos -e ec i e solu ions o he deli e y o ee
pos -seconda y educa ion se ices up o he
bachelo ’s le el. Acco ding o he US Na ional
Cen e o Educa ion S a is ics4, in 2023 o e hal
(53.2%) o pos -seconda y s uden s in he Uni ed
S a es we e en olled in dis ance educa ion. Cen al
go e nmen s could ake ad an age o hese apidly-
e ol ing echnological and beha io al changes o
es ablish na ional on-line uni e si ies ha o e up
o ou yea s o ee college and uni e si y cou ses.
Fo cou ses equi ing labo a o y wo k, special
a angemen s would be made wi h local p o ide s.
Also, o p e en he po en ial o indoc ina ion, a
cen al uni e si y would o e o each p og am a
a ie y o s eams wi h online cou ses eco ded by
p o esso s wi h di e en ideological pe spec i es,
lea ing he choice o he s uden s.
Employmen . The economic side o Ca holic social
eaching es s on wo undamen al pilla s: he igh
o own p i a e p ope y and he igh o ea n a
li ing income h ough wo k. Acco ding o he
Chu ch, wo k se es a a ie y o unc ions. A he
basic le el, wo k p o ides he means o physical
su i al o he wo ke and his amily. To he h i y
wo ke i also o e s he oppo uni y o
imp o emen s in he s anda d o li ing h ough he
acquisi ion o p i a e p ope y wi h he income he
sa es. Wo k also imp o es social wel a e as i helps
ans o m na u al esou ces in o use ul goods o
he communi y and p o ides a sou ce o income o
he S a e. Wo k also s eng hens he social ab ic
o socie y because i is no pe o med in isola ion
bu in g oups, hus expanding he scope o
in e pe sonal ela ionships, s eng hening social
cohesion, and enhancing he ole o social capi al.
Finally, wo k helps he indi idual explo e his
capabili ies and each highe le els o sel -
ul illmen , and acili a es a pe son’s abili y o
265
pa icipa e in God’s plan o humani y. Fo hese
easons, Ca holic social eaching assigns op
p io i y o ull employmen as a policy objec i e.
Fo he Chu ch, he pu pose o any economic
sys em is no he maximiza ion o p o i s o
businesses o he maximiza ion o u ili y o
consume s. I is he p o ision o employmen
oppo uni ies o all able-bodied indi iduals. The
ocus o Ca holic social eaching on ull
employmen also assigns esponsibili ies o he
indi idual and o he S a e. Because wo k has
pe sonal, social, and spi i ual dimensions, able-
bodied indi iduals ha e he obliga ion o be
p oduc i e membe s o socie y. Fo i s pa , he
S a e has he esponsibili y o c ea e he condi ions
ha allow e e y pe son who wan s o wo k o ind
gain ul employmen . Acco ding o Ca holic social
eaching, he pu pose o he economic sys em is no
o gene a e he highes a e o g ow h bu o
main ain high le els o employmen . Mo eo e ,
economic e iciency is no a goal in i sel o a
means o a ening business p o i s, bu an
ins umen o imp o ing he quali y o li e o
e e yone wi hou sac i icing he employmen o
many. Thus, e o ms o labo laws, egula ions,
business p ac ices, mac oeconomic policies a e
legi ima e only o he ex en ha hey suppo he
goal o ull employmen .
Bible is no e y kind o people who a e
unp oduc i e by choice. In a pa able epo ed in
Luke 13: 6-9, he owne o a ineya d had a ig ee
ha had no p oduced any igs o h ee yea s. He
o de ed o ha e i cu down. In Co in hians 12:12-
27, Sain Paul compa es he membe s o he Chu ch
o he a ious pa s o he human body, wi h each
pa playing a i al ole in i s heal hy unc ioning.
The e o e, each membe o he communi y o he
ai h ul mus be p oduc i e o ensu e he heal h o
“ he body o Ch is .” In 2 Thessalonians 3:10, Sain
Paul goes u he s a ing ha anyone who is no
willing o wo k is no en i led o any suppo om
he communi y. The no ion ha able-bodied human
beings who a e unwilling o be p oduc i e
membe s o socie y a e en i led o a li ing income
is alien o he body o Ca holic social eaching, and
p og ams ha p o ide gua an eed income suppo
o e e yone as a igh o bi h o ci izenship a e
inconsis en wi h he social eachings o he
Chu ch.
The social S a e and he social Gospel di e no in
e ms o he deg ee o income o weal h
edis ibu ion, bu on he app oach and he
p inciples unde lying edis ibu ion. The mode n
social S a e p ac ices wha I call co ec i e
edis ibu ion, an app oach ha lea es he ma ke
ee o gene a e any deg ee o income and weal h
inequali y and hen ies o co ec i s excessi e

273
nega i e e ec s. This app oach assumes implici ly
ha he po en ial e iciencies om an un e e ed
ma ke exceed he ine iciencies gene a ed by he
axes equi ed o inance edis ibu ion. In he
social S a e, indi iduals and businesses bea no
beha io al esponsibili ies, hough hey inance
edis ibu ion, and he go e nmen ca ies he
bu den o collec ing axes and making paymen s.
Ca holic social eaching a o s p e en i e
edis ibu ion, an app oach ocused on go e nmen
in e en ion in he ma ke in o de o p e en he
c ea ion o income and weal h inequali ies. A
co ne s one o his ype o edis ibu ion is he
p o ision o a li ing income h ough a p og am
adminis e ed by he p i a e sec o and en o ced by
he S a e. Because p e en i e edis ibu ion is
deli e ed h ough legisla ion, egula ion, and
p i a e sec o adminis a ion o he li ing income,
i educes he size o go e nmen associa ed wi h
any deg ee o edis ibu ion. P e en i e
edis ibu ion is based on jus ice, no economic
e iciency, al hough i may be mo e e icien han
co ec i e edis ibu ion. Ca holic social eaching
places he esponsibili y o aking ca e o he poo
on hose who ha e mo e han hey need. Acco ding
o he Chu ch, wha c ea es a jus socie y is no a
complex sys em o go e nmen ans e s, bu he
uni e sal and cons an p ac ice o Ch is ian cha i y.
This app oach is consis en wi h he command o
lo e ou neighbo , he p inciple o he uni e sal
des ina ion o goods, and he p inciple o
subsidia i y.
Taxa ion. Because go e nmen collec s e enue o
he pu pose o inancing public spending p og ams,
i may be use ul o e iew he componen s o public
spending. Fo he pu pose o his sec ion, I ha e
sepa a ed go e nmen spending in o wo
ca ego ies: p og ams ha deli e bene i s o
iden i iable indi iduals o g oups and p og ams
ha deli e bene i s o socie y a la ge. In he i s
pa o he i s ca ego y (indi iduals), he e enue
collec ed by he go e nmen h ough ees and
cha ges is equi alen o a p ice o he bene i s
ecei ed. Examples a e mo o ehicle licenses and
egis a ion, highway olls, and licenses o
ope a ing a business. Ve y simila a e uel axes
ea ma ked o he cons uc ion and main enance o
oads. In he case whe e bene i s acc ue o a
speci ic g oup, he paymen is akin o an insu ance
p emium which o e s collec i e p o ec ion o he
membe s o he g oup. While in his case he e is
no comple e co espondence be ween he paymen
and he ac ual bene i ecei ed, he e is equali y in
he p o ec ion ha each membe is a o ded. The
wo mos impo an p og ams in his ca ego y a e
unemploymen insu ance and he implemen a ion
o a li ing income. I he la e is adminis e ed by a
p i a e sec o body, he e enue collec ed does no
low in o he gene al e enue und o he
275
go e nmen . Any such ype o p og am
adminis e ed by a p i a e sec o agency, e en i i s
ope a ions a e con olled by he go e nmen ,
educes he size o he go e nmen sec o .
Acco ding o Ca holic social eaching, he
inancing o go e nmen p og ams di ec ed a
socie y as a whole, such as publicly- unded heal h
ca e and educa ion, whe e he bene i s canno be
pa i ioned, should be based on he p inciple o
abili y o pay. This implies axes on income,
weal h, and inhe i ance. Mo eo e , he s uc u e o
he income ax should include a ull exemp ion o
income up o he li ing income and should ha e a
p og essi e a e s uc u e. The sou ces o Ca holic
social eaching e iewed in his book s ess he
obliga ion o he ich o sha e wi h he o he s no a
small po ion o hei weal h bu all he su plus
abo e wha hey need o a li ing s anda d
commensu a e wi h hei s a ion in li e, which does
no include spending di ec ed a conspicuous
consump ion. P og essi e income axa ion would
simply ans o m his mo al obliga ion in o a legal
equi emen . The e is no men ion o consump ion
axes in he body o he Chu ch’s social eaching.
Should hese axes be imposed, he es ima ed
amoun paid by hose wi h income up o he li ing
income should be e unded.
The Role o he Public Sec o . In o de o
unde s and how Ca holic social eaching iews he
ole o go e nmen in socie y, i is use ul o
dis inguish be ween he scope o go e nmen and
i s size. By scope I mean he b ea h o go e nmen
ac i i y deli e ed h ough inancial and no-
inancial ins umen s, such as legisla ion and
egula ions. The size o go e nmen e e s o he
sha e o economic ac i i y assigned o he public
sec o and is o en measu ed by he a io o
go e nmen spending o G oss Na ional P oduc
(GDP). Ca holic social eaching suppo s a b oad
scope o he S a e: he p o ec ion o li e om
concep ion o he las b ea h, he de ense o
pe sonal eedom, he en o cemen o p i a e
p ope y igh s, he p o ision o uni e sal heal h
ca e, inancial suppo o educa ion, ca e o he
en i onmen , mac oeconomic policies suppo ing
high le els o employmen , he main enance o a
unc ioning labo ma ke , he p o ec ion o
wo ke s’ igh s, and he gua an ee o inancial
suppo o he poo and he ma ginalized. Th ough
he p inciples o dis ibu i e jus ice, he uni e sal
des ina ion o goods, and subsidia i y, and wi h he
ocus on pe sonal esponsibili y, his b oad scope
o go e nmen ac i i y is associa ed wi h a smalle
size o go e nmen han unde he social S a e. The
bu den o edis ibu ion on he S a e is minimized
h ough a combina ion o dis ibu i e jus ice ( he
deli e y by he p i a e sec o o he li ing income)
subsidia i y ( he suppo o he poo by local
p i a e-sec o agencies), and he s ess on cha i y
277
as a mo al obliga ion o all Ch is ians. The cos o
en i onmen al p o ec ion and heal h is educed by
he emphasis on indi idual esponsibili y. The
s ess by he Chu ch on a balanced li es yle guided
by ai h, a ela ionship o lo e wi h God and
neighbo , and he sea ch o peace ul solu ions o
any con lic , educes spending on he mili a y and
on he judicial sys em, and leads o a mo e
ha monious socie y wi hou any cos s o
indi iduals o he S a e.
No es o chap e 12
1Deu e onomy, 35
2Ecclesia es, 12:14
3Ma hew, 7; Luke 6:37
4h ps://nces.ed.go /ipeds/T endsGene a o /app/bu
ild- able/2/42? id=6&cid=85
5Ma hew, 12:16
6Joseph Bu ke (2010), “Dis ibu i e Jus ice and
Subsidia i y: he Fi m and he S a e in he Social
O de ,” Jou nal o Ma ke s and Mo ali y, Volume
14, Numbe 2, pp. 297-317
7Ma k, 10:23; Ma k, 6:24; Ma hew, 13:22; Luke,
12:15

8Luke, 6:30; Ma hew, 10:8; Ma hew 19:21-24;
Ma hew, 25:34-46
Conclusion
This book aces he e olu ion o Ca holic social
eaching h ough he cen u ies and shows ha i s
oo s go back o he Old Tes amen , pa icula ly he
Mosaic Co enan . The undamen al p inciples ha
la e we e applied in he papal social encyclicals –
he du y o ake ca e o na u e, he uni e sal
des ina ion o goods, he ejec ion o g eed and
weal h accumula ion, he inhe en digni y o man,
his igh o ea n a li ing income h ough wo k and
o ull human de elopmen , he condemna ion o
consume ism, he obliga ion o sha e ou
possessions wi h he needy, he p io i y o he
common good o e pe sonal gain – had all been
de eloped p io o he publica ion o Pope Leo
XIII’s Re um No a um. This body o eachings has
279
se ed o cen u ies as he ounda ion o he
Wes e n ci iliza ion. O e he pas hal a cen u y,
he in luence o Ca holic social eaching has waned
as “cul u al wa s”, heigh ened indi idualism, and a
iew o he gospels as ecipes o inancial success
ha e eplaced he p inciples o mode a ion,
de achmen om he ma e ial side o li e, and
solida i y. The esul s o his shi a e he neglec o
he en i onmen , he e osion o wo ke s’ igh s, he
excessi e concen a ion o income and weal h, he
ising incidence o he wo king poo , and he
demise o ci ic ins i u ions.
I a gue ha i is ime o Ca holics – lay people, he
cle gy, and he eligious o de s – o e isi he
ounda ions o ou ai h and e alue he message o
he social adi ions o he Chu ch. As a i s s ep,
i is c ucial o ecognize ha , acco ding o he
social eachings o he Chu ch, capi alism is
undamen ally incompa ible wi h Ca holicism on
a ious le els.1 Ca holic social eaching places a
he op a li ing, lo ing God who o e s mankind a
guide o building socie ies whe e peace, ha mony
be ween man and na u e and among people, and
jus ice p e ail. In God’s plan, man is he subjec o
all human ac i i ies as his pu pose is o be His
agen in building God’s kingdom on ea h. In his
posi ion, man has inhe en digni y and unalienable
igh s o li e, eedom, ea ning a li ing income
h ough wo k, and de eloping his po en ial as a ull
human being possessing emo ional, in ellec ual,
and spi i ual needs, in addi ion o he equi emen s
o physical su i al. As he apex o God’s
c ea ion, man has also inescapable esponsibili ies:
o be iend na u e, o be p oduc i e, o mode a ion
in all hings, o sha e wi h he needy wi hou
making mo al judgmen s, o lead a i uous li e,
and o seek jus ice. I is h ough he discha ge o
hese du ies ha man ul ills his des iny as God’s
agen on ea h.
Wi h capi alism, he li ing God is eplaced by an
anonymous and amo al ma ke and he p imacy o
man by he wo ship o e iciency. In his economic
sys em, man is no longe he subjec o all human
ac i i y, bu is educed o a common ac o o
p oduc ion and a consuming machine. While
capi alism does no p e en human ac i i ies aimed
a he ul illmen o emo ional, in ellec ual, and
spi i ual needs, i conside s hem useless and
some imes coun e p oduc i e. Human beings a e
alued only in coins, he p o i s ha he many wi h
hei wo k can gene a e o he ew h ough he
p oduc ion o goods and hei consump ion. The
exclusi e ocus on he ma e ial side o li e s ips
man o his humani y. The ich a e dehumanized by
hei boundless g eed, he poo by he lack o basic
necessi ies, and hose in he middle by he hidden
desi e o be ich. In his en i onmen , g eed
be iends en y and bo h des oy he soul. The
281
success o capi alism equi es no only
dehumanized humans, bu pe manen
dissa is ac ion. Only by losing in e es in he la es
gadge pu chased in he expec a ion o he new and
imp o ed e sion can consump ion keep up wi h
he g ow h in p oduc ion. In his s a e o pe manen
dissa is ac ion, people keep chasing e e
expanding expec a ions, ying o ill hei chasm
o emp iness unawa e ha he mo e hey cling o
hei yea ning o ma e ial hings he deepe he
chasm becomes. In his en i onmen i is di icul
o ind a pu pose in li e, and he aimless ea hly
jou ney p oduces anxie y, dep ession, and e en
psychosis. The dynamics o capi alism a e c uel
and inescapable: ising concen a ion o weal h and
economic powe , expanding masses o people who
li e hand o mou h, he usion o economic and
poli ical powe , and he demise o he democ a ic
ins i u ions c ea ed o p o ec he weak, he
helpless, and he dispossessed. Al hough he
ma ke is amo al, capi alism has i s own se o
alues, p ima y among hem he insa iable lus o
powe and weal h and ino dina e consume ism. Fo
Ca holic social eaching, hese a e sins.
The amo ali y o he ma ke is ex ended o business
leade s and poli icians. The ma ke needs leade s
who a e capable o squeezing p o i s ou o na u al
esou ces, echnology, and human labo wi hou
ega d o he e ec s o hei ac ions on na u e and