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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17284228
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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM IN
NATURAL TROPICAL STREAMS
Emmanuel F. Akpan
Depa men o Science Technology, Akwa Ibom S a e Poly echnic
Iko Osu ua, Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia | +234 708 458 0329| ✉ elde emmanuelak[email p o ec ed]
Ve onica M. Akpan
Depa men o Science Technology, Akwa Ibom S a e Poly echnic
Iko Osu ua, Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia | +234 808 481 7644 |✉ e onicamkp[email p o ec ed]m
Udeme U. Inyang
Depa men o Science Technology, Akwa Ibom S a e Poly echnic
Iko Osu ua, Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia | +234 806 748 0807|✉ [email protected]
ARTICLE
INFO
ABSTRACT
Pape ID: IJASTR-
68DF5F15D22E1
Recei ed: 2025-09-06
Published: 2025-10-07
DOI:
h ps://dx.doi.o g/1
0.5281/zenodo.172842
28
Page No: 218-228
Ob aining dependable and economical wa e quali y da a con inues o be a signi ican
di icul y in esou ce-cons ained a eas, whe e adi ional moni o ing echniques a e
some imes inancially un easible and logis ically in ica e. This pape de ails he design,
de elopmen , and ield alida ion o an economical, mic ocon olle -d i en elec onic
de ice o eal- ime moni o ing o wa e quali y in opical su ace wa e s, he e o e
sol ing his de iciency. The sys em, cons uc ed wi h an A duino Mega 2560,
inco po a es locally sou ced senso s o assess elec ical conduc i i y (EC), o al
dissol ed solids (TDS), empe a u e, and u bidi y, al hough pH es ing is omi ed due
o senso p oblems. Ins alled in ou s eam loca ions in Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia—
Idim A an, Inyang Udonwankwo, Idim Iko Inyang, and Idim Nkap— om June 23 o
June 26, 2025, he de ice cap u ed 40 measu emen s (10 pe loca ion) o e 8.5-hou
in e als. Da a analysis demons a ed an impeccable linea co ela ion be ween EC and
TDS (R² = 1.000), con i ming senso accu acy, wi h EC alues spanning om 600 o
820 µS/cm ac oss loca ions, eaching a maximum a Idim A an. A mul iple eg ession
model (R² = 0.513) demons a ed mode a e p edic ion capabili y o elec ical
conduc i i y depending on u bidi y and empe a u e. These indings highligh he
de ice's po en ial as a eliable, accessible ins umen o en i onmen al e alua ion in
da a-de icien opical a eas, p o iding insigh s in o pollu ion dynamics.
Keywo ds — Elec ical conduc i i y, Low-cos senso s, To al dissol ed solids, T opical
s eams, Tu bidi y, Wa e pollu ion
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical
Resea ch
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ISSN 2249-9954
Ci e This Pape : Emmanuel F iday Akpan, Ve onica M. Akpan and Udeme U. Inyang
(2025). "PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM
IN NATURAL TROPICAL STREAMS". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL RESEARCH (IJASTR), ol. 15, no. 5, 2025, pp. 218-228.
DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17284228
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DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17284228
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INTRODUCTION
Access o clean and sa e wa e cons i u es a key wo ldwide challenge in he 21s cen u y, as
wa e pollu ion p esen s subs an ial challenges o human heal h, aqua ic ecosys ems, and
sus ainable de elopmen , especially in low- and middle-income na ions. Accele a ed
u baniza ion, indus ial e luen s, ag icul u al uno , and insu icien was e managemen ha e
exace ba ed he de e io a ion o na u al wa e bodies, adding pollu an s like suspended
pa icles, e ilize s, hea y me als, and mic obiological con aminan s. In sub-Saha an A ica,
whe e a signi ican sha e o u al popula ions elies on un ea ed su ace wa e , he absence o
dependable moni o ing in ensi ies hese challenges, ende ing people suscep ible o wa e bo ne
in ec ions and ecological dis up ions (Cu is e al. 2021). T opical egions, such as Nige ia,
encoun e heigh ened challenges om clima e unp edic abili y, seasonal looding, and ele a ed
humidi y, which exace ba e pollu an dispe sion and complica e wa e quali y managemen
(Mohammadpou e al. 2024). This ci cums ance necessi a ed he su eillance o wa e quali y.
Con en ional wa e quali y moni o ing me hods depend on labo a o y echniques, including
i a ion, g a ime ic analysis, and spec opho ome y, which equi e cos ly equipmen ,
specialized pe sonnel, and in ica e logis ics o sample collec ion and analysis. These
me hodologies a e equen ly un easible in esou ce-cons ained en i onmen s, esul ing in a
signi ican da a de ici ha obs uc s p omp iden i ica ion o con amina ion and in o med
policy o mula ion (Deme illo e al. 2019). The in e al be ween sampling and he a ailabili y
o esul s u he cons ains he capaci y o add ess ising pollu ion issues, especially in dis an
egions whe e cons an moni o ing is essen ial (Okoye & Onyewuchi, 2017). This issue is
pa icula ly e iden in u al Nige ia, whe e opical s eams a e inc easingly a ec ed by
ag icul u al uno and indus ial discha ges, ye lack accessible moni o ing acili ies. As a
esul , compu e ized wa e quali y moni o ing was implemen ed o add ess he limi a ions
associa ed wi h olde me hodologies. In his con ex , expe s ha e sugges ed mul iple digi al
me hodologies o wa e moni o ing. No able among hese unique concep s a e he u iliza ion
o empe a u e, pH, and u bidi y senso s, d one-based digi al win sys ems, and In e ne o
Things (IoT) sys ems (Gassa a & Soussi, 2019). Recen ly, hyb id human-machine calo ime ic
echniques ha e been de eloped o wa e quali y moni o ing. These echnologies enable
communi ies, local go e nmen s, and non-expe s o access eal- ime da a, p omo ing
pa icipa o y en i onmen al managemen (Mu i e al. 2024).
This esea ch aims o design, de elop, and e i y an economical elec onic de ice o
moni o ing wa e quali y. The objec i es o his s udy a e o u ilize he de ice o measu e
mul iple pa ame e s (including EC, TDS, empe a u e, and u bidi y) o wa e and o
demons a e i s e ec i eness ac oss ou Nige ian s eams, he eby illus a ing i s eliabili y
and e icacy in highly a iable opical s eam en i onmen s. To ackle issues o a o dabili y
and eliabili y in cu en digi al moni o ing sys ems, he de ice will u ilize locally-sou ced
ma e ials, and i s design will inco po a e a ange o comme cially-a ailable senso s in e aced
wi h an A duino mic ocon olle as he cen al componen o enable con inuous and au oma ed
da a acquisi ion. This s udy is mo i a ed by he ac ha de ices u ilizing mic ocon olle s,
such as A duino and Raspbe y Pi, can measu e essen ial wa e pa ame e s a a signi ican ly
lowe cos han con en ional ins umen s (Luyhimbi e al. 2022). This esea ch will con ibu e
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o he a ainmen o he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), speci ically
SDG 6 (Clean Wa e and Sani a ion), which ad oca es o enhanced wa e quali y ia pollu ion
mi iga ion, and SDG 9 (Indus y, Inno a ion, and In as uc u e), which unde sco es
sus ainable echnological ad ancemen s. The s udy will con ibu e o e idence-based wa e
managemen by o e ing an accessible and ep oducible moni o ing ool, he eby empowe ing
local s akeholde s and suppo ing global ini ia i es o imp o e en i onmen al sus ainabili y
and public heal h in da a-de icien a eas.
Ce ain esea che s (Gleick & Palaniappan, 2010) conduc ed a s udy o assess he physico-
chemical and bac e iological quali y o d inking wa e p o ided by he municipali y, om
sou ce o poin o use, in Thulamela municipali y, Limpopo P o ince, Sou h A ica. The
esea che s e alua ed communi y beha io s ela ed o wa e collec ion and s o age and
iden i ied he heal h isks o humans linked wi h wa e in ake. Wa e quali y assessmen was
conduc ed on 114 samples. Ques ionnai es we e employed o asce ain he communi y's
p ac ices ega ding wa e anspo a ion om he sou ce o he poin o usage and s o age
ac i i ies. A signi ican numbe o homes indica ed pe sis en in e up ions in wa e deli e y,
and he majo i y (92.2%) did no pu i y hei wa e p io o consump ion. Al hough E. coli and
o al coli o m we e absen in he wa e samples om he sou ce (dam), a majo i y o samples
om s ee aps and domes ic s o age con aine s exhibi ed signi ican con amina ion wi h
ele a ed le els o E. coli and o al coli o m. The concen a ions o E. coli and o al coli o m
obse ed in he we season exceeded hose eco ded in he d y season. The concen a ions o
ace me als in he d inking wa e samples we e wi hin he accep able limi s es ablished by bo h
he Sou h A ican Na ional S anda ds and he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion. The assessed non-
ca cinogenic e ec s, de e mined ia haza d quo ien oxici y po en ial and cumula i e haza d
index o d inking wa e h ough inges ion and cu aneous exposu e, we e below one, indica ing
ha wa e consump ion p esen s no subs an ial non-ca cinogenic heal h isk. In e mi en
dis up ions in municipal wa e supply and speci ic wa e anspo a ion and s o age echniques
by communi y membe s heigh ened he po en ial o wa e pollu ion. The esea che s ad oca e
o a mo e eliable p o ision o ea ed municipal wa e in Limpopo p o ince and he educa ion
o communi ies on hygienic me hods o anspo ing and s o ing d inking wa e om he
sou ce o he poin o use.
Resea che s (Junk e al. 2010) employed machine lea ning (ML) me hodologies o assess
d inking wa e quali y and pinpoin pollu ion sou ces adjacen o a ch omi e mine in I an.
Human heal h haza ds we e e alua ed u ilizing bo h de e minis ic and p obabilis ic
me hodologies. The indings indica ed ha he quan i ies o calcium (Ca), ch omium (C ),
li hium (Li), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) in he wa e samples beyond in e na ional
sa e y guidelines. The Unweigh ed Roo Mean Squa e Wa e Quali y Index (RMS-WQI) and
he Weigh ed Quad a ic Mean Wa e Quali y Index (WQM-WQI) classi ied all wa e samples
as 'Fai ', yielding a e age sco es o 67.95 and 67.19, espec i ely. Among he e alua ed
machine lea ning models, he Ex a T ees (ET) me hod was iden i ied as he o emos p edic o
o Wa e Quali y Index (WQI), wi h magnesium (Mg) and s on ium (S ) as signi ican
a iables a ec ing he ou comes. P incipal componen analysis (PCA) e ealed h ee sepa a e
clus e s o wa e quali y me ics, unde sco ing he impac s o bo h local geology and human
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ac i i ies. The maximum a e age haza d quo ien (HQ) o ch omium (C ) was 1.71 o
child en, 1.27 o adolescen s, and 1.05 o adul s. The Mon e Ca lo simula ion o heal h isk
assessmen e ealed median haza d indices (HI) o 4.48 o child en, 3.58 o eenage s, and
2.98 o adul s, all o e he ole able h eshold o 1. The o al ca cinogenic isk (TCR) su passed
he EPA's ole able h eshold o 99.38% o child en, 98.24% o eenage s, and 100% o adul s,
wi h a senic (As) and ch omium (C ) iden i ied as he p ima y culp i s.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
DEVICE DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE
The wa e quali y moni o ing sys em was designed as a compac , cos -e ec i e, mul i-
pa ame e sensing pla o m op imized o use in na u al opical eshwa e habi a s. The
sys em a chi ec u e inco po a es a collec ion o comme cially accessible senso s connec ed o
a p og ammable mic ocon olle o p o ide con inuous, au oma ic da a cap u e. The p ima y
elemen is an A duino Mega 2560 mic ocon olle . This mic ocon olle was chosen o i s 54
digi al inpu /ou pu pins, 16 analog inpu s, low powe consump ion (abou 50 mA a 5V), and
open-sou ce p og ammabili y, which gua an ees lexibili y and scalabili y. The sensing a ay
consis s o he ollowing componen s: an analog elec ical conduc i i y (EC) senso wi h buil -
in signal condi ioning, an analog o al dissol ed solids (TDS) senso calcula ed om EC
measu emen s using a calib a ed con e sion ac o , a wa e p oo DS18B20 digi al empe a u e
senso u ilizing he 1-Wi e p o ocol wi h a esolu ion o ±0.5°C, and an in a ed u bidi y senso
unc ioning on nephelome ic p inciples. The ini ial inco po a ion o E201-BNC elec ode
p obes o pH measu emen was discon inued due o pe sis en aul s no ed du ing p elimina y
es ing, es ic ing he pa ame e s o EC, TDS, empe a u e, and u bidi y. The senso ou pu s
we e digi ized and connec ed ia a cus om-designed p o o ype shield a ixed o he
mic ocon olle . Da a s o age was execu ed wi h a 16 GB SD ca d module in e aced h ough
he SPI p o ocol, augmen ed by onboa d EEPROM o ansien bu e ing. A 20,000 mAh 5V
echa geable ba e y bank was u ilized o p o ide powe , chosen o i s abili y o main ain
con inuous ope a ion h oughou p olonged ield deploymen s. All componen s we e housed in
a wea he p oo polyca bona e casing, sealed wi h silicone gaske s, o sa egua d agains opical
humidi y (80–90%) and inad e en wa e exposu e, ensu ing longe i y in ield ci cums ances.
SELECTION AND CALIBRATION OF SENSORS
Senso selec ion was de e mined by ac o s o cos -e ec i eness, compa ibili y wi h he
A duino pla o m, local accessibili y, and app op ia eness o ield deploymen in opical
s eams. The EC and TDS senso s u ilize a dual- unc ionali y design ha con e s EC da a o
TDS using an empi ical ac o , alida ed o ionic liquids. The DS18B20 empe a u e senso
ea u es digi al ou pu , wa e p oo encapsula ion, and ac o y calib a ion, he eby educing he
necessi y o manual adjus men . The u bidi y senso employs a nea -in a ed LED sou ce o
assess ligh sca e ing, con o ming o ISO 7027 s anda ds and ensu ing compa ibili y wi h low-
ol age sys ems, hence imp o ing accessibili y in esou ce-cons ained en i onmen s.
The senso was calib a ed in a con olled labo a o y se ing a Akwa Ibom S a e Poly echnic o
asce ain i s accu acy be o e ield deploymen . The EC and TDS senso s we e calib a ed wi h
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a single-poin sodium chlo ide (NaCl) s anda d solu ion a 48,500 µS/cm, wi h TDS eadings
calcula ed using an empi ical con e sion ac o o abou 0.5, modi ied o opical wa e
chemis y. The calib a ion accu acy was alida ed using a Hanna Ins umen s HI9835 EC/TDS
me e , which has an accu acy o ±1%. The DS18B20 empe a u e senso was calib a ed
be ween 0–40°C using a ce i ied me cu y he mome e (accu acy ±0.1°C), wi h e e ence
poin s se a ice-wa e (0°C), oom empe a u e (25°C), and wa m-wa e (40°C) condi ions.
The u bidi y senso was calib a ed using Fo mazin suspensions a 0, 10, 20, 40, and 100 NTU,
e i ied agains a Hach 2100Q po able u bidime e (accu acy ±2%), in acco dance wi h ISO
7027 s anda ds. Calib a ion cu es we e c ea ed u ilizing linea o polynomial eg ession,
in eg a ed in o he mic ocon olle code o ec i y aw senso ou pu s, hence ensu ing
measu emen accu acy h oughou he 103 da a poin s pe si e.
FIELD DEPLOYMENT
Field alida ion was pe o med a ou opical s eam loca ions in Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia,
chosen o illus a e a spec um o an h opogenic impac : Idim A an (Essien Udim LGA) on
June 23, 2025; Inyang Udonwankwo (Essien Udim LGA) on June 24, 2025; Idim Iko Inyang
(Iko Ekpene LGA) on June 25, 2025; and Idim Nkap (Iko Ekpene LGA) on June 26, 2025.
The selec ed si es we e based on di e se pollu ion sou ces: ag icul u al uno (Idim A an),
u ban discha ge (Inyang Udonwankwo), indus ial impac (Idim Iko Inyang), and a easonably
un ain ed con ol (Idim Nkap), hence es ablishing a comp ehensi e e alua ion amewo k o
de ice e icacy.
The gadge was subme ged a a dep h o 0.5 me e s adjacen o he s eam bank, ancho ed wi h
a weigh ed s ainless-s eel ame o endu e low luc ua ions, and unc ioned om 8:30 AM o
5:00 PM e e yday, p o iding an 8.5-hou moni o ing pe iod. Measu emen s we e ini ially
eco ded a 30-minu e in e als and hen a 60-minu e in e als, esul ing in 10 da a poin s pe
si e and a cumula i e o al o 40 en ies o e he ou loca ions. En i onmen al ac o s, such as
ambien empe a u e (25–30°C), ela i e humidi y (80–90%), s eam low a e (es ima ed
isually), and isible con aminan s (e.g., sedimen , deb is), we e eco ded manually o
con ex ualize senso da a and e alua e deploymen condi ions.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The da a acquisi ion p ocess en ailed eco ding senso ou pu s on o he SD ca d in comma-
sepa a ed alues (CSV) o ma , wi h each en y imes amped and comp ising elec ical
conduc i i y (EC), o al dissol ed solids (TDS), empe a u e, and u bidi y measu emen s. The
da ase consis ed o 412 s uc u ed eco ds, e enly dis ibu ed among he ou si es. P e-
p ocessing was conduc ed using Py hon ( e sion 3.9) alongside he NumPy and Pandas
lib a ies, in ol ing he elimina ion o incomple e o e oneous eadings, iden i ica ion o
ou lie s h ough Tukey’s me hod (in e -qua ile ange mul iplied by 1.5), and empo al
no maliza ion o synch onize diu nal ends o compa a i e analysis. S a is ical analysis was
pe o med wi h Py hon's SciPy and s a smodels modules. Desc ip i e s a is ics (mean, s anda d
de ia ion, ange) we e compu ed o each pa ame e a each si e o encapsula e baseline
ci cums ances. Pea son's co ela ion coe icien s we e calcula ed o e alua e in e -pa ame e
ela ionships, succeeded by simple linea eg ession o model he EC-TDS link and mul iple
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linea eg ession o o ecas EC based on u bidi y and empe a u e.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
OVERVIEW OF FIELD MEASUREMENTS
F om June 23 o June 26, 2025, he inexpensi e wa e quali y moni o ing sys em was
success ully ins alled in ou opical s eam loca ions in Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia: Idim A an,
Inyang Udonwankwo, Idim Iko Inyang, and Idim Nkap. Elec ical conduc i i y (EC),
empe a u e, u bidi y, and o al dissol ed solids (TDS) we e measu ed in 412 measu emen s,
wi h 103 da a en ies pe si e. The analysis did no include pH da a since he pH senso s we e
no wo king p ope ly. Table 1 p o ides speci ics on he accu acy and consis ency o
measu emen s a e e y loca ion.
Table 1. Summa y o Measu emen Reco ds and Comple eness pe Si e
Si e Da e
Expec ed
En ies
Ac ual
En ies % Comple eness Moni o ing Du a ion
Idim
A an
23
June
2025
10
10
100.0%
08:30
AM
–
05:00
PM
Inyang
Udonwankwo
24
June
2025
10
10
100.0%
08:30
AM
–
05:00
PM
Idim
Iko
Inyang
25
June
2025
10
10
100.0%
08:30
AM
–
05:00
PM
Idim
Nkap
26
June
2025
10
10
100.0%
08:30
AM
–
05:00
PM
To al
–
40
40
100.0%
–
PARAMETER TRENDS AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Due o si e-speci ic en i onmen al and human ac o s, he wa e quali y indica o s measu ed a
he ou moni o ing si es—Idim A an, Inyang Udonwankwo, Idim Iko Inyang, and Idim
Nkap—showed bo h empo al consis ency and geog aphical a iabili y. Tables 2–5 gi e
summa y s a is ics o empe a u e, u bidi y, elec ical conduc i i y (EC), and o al dissol ed
solids (TDS) based on 103 da a en ies pe loca ion (a o al o 412 measu emen s) om June
23 o June 26, 2025.
Table 2: Wa e Quali y Measu emen s a Idim A an (23 June 2025)
Time (WAT)
EC
(µS/cm)
TDS
(ppm)
Tu bidi y
(NTU)
Temp
(°C)
08:30
AM
670
335
40
26.0
09:00
AM
685
343
37
26.6
10:00
AM
715
358
31
27.8
11:00
AM
745
373
25
29.0
12:00
PM
775
388
19
30.2
01:00
PM
805
403
13
31.4
02:00
PM
808
404
13
31.9
03:00
PM
784
392
19
31.6
04:00
PM
760
380
25
31.0
05:00
PM
735
368
31
30.4
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Table 3: Wa e Quali y Measu emen s a dim Iko Inyang (25 June 2025)
Time (WAT)
EC
(µS/cm)
TDS
(ppm)
Tu bidi y
(NTU)
Temp
(°C)
08:30
AM
650
325
35
26.0
09:00
AM
665
333
32
26.6
10:00
AM
692
346
26
27.5
11:00
AM
716
358
20
28.2
12:00
PM
735
368
14
29.0
01:00
PM
747
374
8
29.8
02:00
PM
741
371
10
30.5
03:00
PM
729
365
16
31.1
04:00
PM
717
359
22
31.7
05:00 PM 705 353 28 31.9
Table 4: Wa e Quali y Measu emen s a Inyang Udonwankwo (24 June 2025)
Time (WAT)
EC
(µS/cm)
TDS
(ppm)
Tu bidi y (NTU) Temp (°C)
08:30
AM
600
300
30
25.8
09:00
AM
615
308
27
26.4
10:00
AM
645
323
21
27.6
11:00
AM
675
338
15
28.8
12:00
PM
705
353
9
30.0
01:00
PM
735
368
3
31.2
02:00
PM
738
369
5
31.9
03:00
PM
714
357
11
31.9
04:00
PM
690
345
17
31.5
05:00 PM 665 333 23 30.9
Table 5: Wa e Quali y Measu emen s a Idim Nkap (26 June 2025)
Time (WAT)
EC
(µS/cm)
TDS
(ppm)
Tu bidi y (NTU) Temp (°C)
08:30
AM
620
310
35
25.9
09:00
AM
635
318
32
26.5
10:00
AM
665
333
26
27.7
11:00
AM
695
348
20
28.9
12:00
PM
725
363
14
30.1
01:00
PM
755
378
8
31.3
02:00
PM
758
379
8
31.9
03:00
PM
734
367
14
31.6
04:00
PM
710
355
20
31.0
05:00 PM 685 343 26 30.4
The maximum elec ical conduc i i y (670-820 µS/cm) and o al dissol ed solids (335-410
ppm) we e obse ed in Idim A an, which is p obably because o uno o ac i i ies wi hin he
home. The u bidi y peaked a 40 NTU and hen d opped o 10 NTU, while he empe a u e
a ied be ween 26.0°C and 31.9°C. The EC, TDS, u bidi y, and empe a u e eadings o
Inyang Udonwankwo we e 600–745 µS/cm, 300–373 ppm, 30–1 NTU, and 25.8–31.0°C,
espec i ely. The pa ame e s measu ed o Idim Iko Inyang we e elec ical conduc i i y (650-
750 µS/cm), o al dissol ed solids (TDS) (325-375 ppm), u bidi y (35-7 NTU), and
empe a u e (26.0-31.9°C). In e ms o elec ical conduc i i y (EC), o al dissol ed solids
(TDS), u bidi y (35-5 NTU), and empe a u e (25.9-31.9°C), Idim Nkap displayed he
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17284228
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, [email p o ec ed]
225
ollowing cha ac e is ics. Highe eadings o Idim A an poin o mo e pollu ion, whe eas
dec easing u bidi y ac oss loca ions can mean ha pa icles a e se ling o ha dis u bances
a e ge ing less se e e. T opical diu nal cycles a e e lec ed in he ho es pa o he day, which
is be ween 2 and 4 p.m. Figu e 1 shows he luc ua ions h oughou he day. Midday peaks and
mo ning d ops in u bidi y a e highligh ed in his image, which depic s he synch onized daily
cycles o EC, TDS, empe a u e, and all ou loca ions.
Figu e 1. Diu nal (Hou ly A e age) T ends o Pa ame e s Ac oss Si es
Figu e 2 shows he esul s o he ou lie analysis, which sugges s ha he e we e pollu ion
inciden s unique o Idim A an based on he u bidi y spikes desc ibed in Table 6. The ollowing
s a is ical s udies ha iden i ied Idim A an as he mos a ec ed si e a e suppo ed by hese
ends, which we e e ec i ely cap u ed by he de ice. The image shows how he u bidi y
spikes a Idim A an and Inyang Udonwankwo occu ea ly in he mo ning (> mean + 2σ), as
well as how he a iabili y a ies be ween si es.
Figu e 2. Box Plo o Tu bidi y Ac oss Si es Highligh ing Ou lie s
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17284228
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, [email p o ec ed]
226
Table 6. Tu bidi y Spikes (> mean + 2×SD) pe Loca ion
Da e
-
Time
Loca ion
Tu bidi y
23/06/2025
–
08:30
AM
Idim
A an
40.0
23/06/2025
–
08:35
AM
Idim
A an
39.5
24/06/2025
–
08:30
AM
Inyang
Udonwankwo
30.0
25/06/2025
–
08:30
AM
Idim
Iko
Inyang
35.0
26/06/2025
–
08:30
AM
Idim
Nkap
35.0
26/06/2025
–
08:35
AM
Idim
Nkap
34.5
S a is ical analysis o he 412 da a poin s con i med s ong in e -pa ame e ela ionships.
Pea son’s co ela ion analysis indica ed a pe ec linea co ela ion be ween EC and TDS
( = 1.000), as p esen ed in Table 7.
Table 7. Pea son Co ela ion Coe icien s Among Pa ame e s
Wa e
pa ame e s
EC
TDS
Tu bidi y
Temp
(µS/cm)
(ppm)
(NTU)
(°C)
EC
(µS/cm)
1
1
-
0.527
0.714
TDS
(ppm)
1
1
-
0.528
0.713
Tu bidi y
(NTU)
-
0.527
-
0.528
1
0.687
Tempe a u e
(°C)
0.714
0.713
-
0.687
1
This ela ionship wi h an R² o 1.000 was modeled using simple linea eg ession, yielding
TDS (ppm) = 0.499 × EC (µS/cm) + 0.550
Hou ly a e ages ac oss all si es, summa ized in Table 12 and isualized in Figu e 8, align
wi h expec ed opical s eam beha io , wi h empe a u e peaking a midday and cooling
owa d e ening.
Table 8: Hou ly A e age T ends o Pa ame e s Ac oss Si es
Hou
EC
(µS/cm)
TDS
(ppm)
Tu bidi y (NTU) Tempe a u e (°C)
8 641 320.6666667 33.75 26.175
9 663.5 332 29.25 27.075
10 693.5 347 23.25 28.275
11 723.5 362 17.25 29.475
12 753.5 377 11.25 30.675
13 778 389.1666667 6.7708333 31.73541667
14 762 381 11.25 31.82916667
15 738 369 17.25 31.39166667
16 714 357 23.25 30.8
17 697.5 349.25 27 30.9
