441
C i ical e iew o he li e a u e on key in asi e alien eshwa e
plan s in Eu ope wi h special ocus on hei impac on he
in aded ecosys ems
Da io Di Le nia1, Lo enzo Pinzani1,2 , Simona Ceschin1,2
1 Depa men o Science – Uni e si y o Roma T e, Viale G. Ma coni, 446, 00146 - Rome, I aly
2 NBFC, Na ional Biodi e si y Fu u e Cen e , 90133 - Pale mo, I aly
Co esponding au ho s: Da io Di Le nia (da io.dile nia@uni oma3.i ); Simona Ceschin ([email p o ec ed])
Copy igh : © Da io Di Le nia e al.
This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde
e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License (A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional – CC BY 4.0).
Re iew A icle
Abs ac
Biological in asions o alien aqua ic plan s a e a majo h ea o conse a ion o eshwa e habi-
a s, as well as a socio-economic p oblem. In oduced p ima ily by human ac i i ies, hese alien
plan s compe e wi h na i e species, educe local biodi e si y and al e s uc u e and unc ion o
he aqua ic ecosys ems. This e iew examines he mos ele an scien i ic li e a u e on he majo
in asi e alien aqua ic plan s (IAAPs) ound in Eu ope (Al e nan he a philoxe oides, Azolla iliculoi-
des, Cabomba ca oliniana, Ege ia densa, Elodea canadensis, E. nu allii, Gymnoco onis spilan hoides,
Hyd illa e icilla a, Hyd oco yle anunculoides, Laga osiphon majo , Lemna minu a, Ludwigia g an-
di lo a, L. hexape ala, L. peploides subsp. mon e idensis, My iophyllum aqua icum, M. he e ophyllum,
Pis ia s a io es, Pon ede ia c assipes, Sal inia moles a), wi h a special ocus on impac s exe ed by
hese species on in aded eshwa e ecosys ems. I includes bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e anal-
yses and e alua es he empo al ends o he scien i ic con ibu ions conside ing he impac and
managemen o hese species in Eu ope and wo ldwide. Despi e a ecen inc ease in con ibu ions
on hese IAAPs, he knowledge on hei impac s in Eu ope emains mainly concen a ed on a ew
species and a he agmen ed and de icien on o he s. In ac , e iden inequali ies eme ge among
hese IAAPs in bo h he numbe o dedica ed con ibu ions and in he ea men o each species, as
some o hem a e cu en ly excluded om he lis o IAS o Union Conce n. Mo eo e , he Eu ope-
an le el esea ch on hese IAAPs u ned ou o be sca cely in luenced by he “lis ing” e ec (i.e. in-
clusion o IAAPs in he Union lis ), showing li le o no inc ease in he numbe o s udies on impac
o managemen . The s udies ound on impac s documen ha he selec ed IAAPs la gely exe en i-
onmen al impac s on in aded ecosys ems by al e ing bo h he abio ic (wa e chemical and physical
ac o s) and bio ic (plan and animal communi ies) componen s. The impac mechanisms o hese
species a y (chemical, physical, s uc u al, compe i i e, oxici y) and we e classi ied acco ding o
he EICAT (En i onmen al Impac Classi ica ion o Alien Taxa) p o ocol. O e all, he e iew
e eals signi ican gaps in knowledge abou he en i onmen al impac s o mos o hese IAAPs in
Eu ope, despi e some being included in he lis o IAS o Union conce n. To add ess hese gaps and
p o ec Eu opean eshwa e ecosys ems om biological in asions, mo e ield s udies suppo ed by
labo a o y in es iga ions a e needed, ollowed by e ec i e managemen in e en ions. In addi ion,
i is conside ed necessa y ha impac ul alien species wi h a wide dis ibu ion in Eu ope, bu which
a e cu en ly excluded om he EU lis , be included as soon as possible. This would allow o coo -
dina ed managemen p ac ices a he Eu opean le el, which a e essen ial o hei con ainmen .
Key wo ds: Bibliog aphic o e iew, biological in asions, ecosys em impac , Eu ope, exo ic plan s,
eshwa e ecosys ems, in asi e mac ophy es, non-na i e plan s, ascula plan s
Academic edi o : Ped o Anas ácio
Recei ed:
8 Janua y 2025
Accep ed:
23 May 2025
Published:
7 Oc obe 2025
Ci a ion: Di Le nia D, Pinzani L,
Ceschin S (2025) C i ical e iew o
he li e a u e on key in asi e alien
eshwa e plan s in Eu ope wi h
special ocus on hei impac on he
in aded ecosys ems. In: Anas ácio P,
Ribei o F, Chainho P (Eds) In asions
in Aqua ic Sys ems. NeoBio a 102:
441–472. h ps://doi.o g/10.3897/
neobio a.102.146280
NeoBio a 102: 441–472 (2025)
DOI: 10.3897/neobio a.102.146280
Ad ancing esea ch on alien species and biological in asions
A pee - e iewed open-access jou nal
NeoBio a
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NeoBio a 102: 441–472 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/neobio a.102.146280
Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
In oduc ion
F eshwa e ecosys ems co e 0.8% o he Ea h’s su ace and con ain jus 0.01% o
i s wa e (Dudgeon e al. 2006). Ne e heless, hese a e signi ican o hei high
biodi e si y and nume ous ecosys em se ices ha hey p o ide, p ima ily bene i -
ing humans (S aye and Dudgeon 2010; Hoppen eijs e al. 2024). Dynamic and
ulne able, eshwa e ecosys ems ace equen dis u bances om an h opogenic
p essu es, such as hyd ological and mo phological al e a ions, wa e o e -exploi a-
ion and pollu ion, leading o signi ican en i onmen al ins abili y. Such ins abili y
makes hem highly suscep ible o biological in asions, ha is he sp ead o in asi e
alien species (IAS) ou side hei home ange (Dudgeon e al. 2006; Anu iie a and
Shad in 2018; Lazza o e al. 2020). In asi e alien plan s ypically h i e in al e ed
en i onmen s due o hei compe i i eness, wide ecology and high ep oduc i e
po en ial (Pe ings e al. 2000; Mazza e al. 2014). They ou compe e na i e species,
educing local biodi e si y (Pyšek e al. 2012; Viciani e al. 2020), and al e ing he
s uc u e and unc ionali y o in aded ecosys ems, and ul ima ely comp omising
hei conse a ion s a us (Maes 2013; Seebens e al. 2017).
In Eu ope, eshwa e ecosys ems a e among he mos hea ily in aded by alien
plan s (Lazza o e al. 2020), esul ing in se e e ecological and socio-economic
consequences (Vilà e al. 2010; Hussne 2012). These plan in asions a e o en as-
socia ed wi h he p oduc ion o high biomass, which ansla es in o a ious en i-
onmen al impac s, such as changes in wa e chemis y and physical p ope ies o
he in aded ecosys em, al e a ions in he composi ion and biodi e si y o na i e
plan and animal communi ies, modi ica ions in he s uc u e o he ood webs
(Hussne e al. 2017). Fu he mo e, hese in asions can cause socio-economic
impac s, such as hinde ing na iga ion, aquacul u e, and ec ea ional ac i i ies, as
well as c ea ing unheal hy condi ions o local plan and animal communi ies and
human heal h (S ie s e al. 2011; Hussne 2012; Ceschin e al. 2020a). Macêdo
e al. (2024) ecen ly epo ed ha be ween 1975 and 2020, he o al cos o he
global economy o he o e all managemen o alien aqua ic plan s has exceeded
32 billion dolla s. This highligh s no only he impo ance o he p oblem, bu
also i s ele an economic impac on a global scale.
In esponse o he signi ican inc ease in biological in asions in Eu ope o e
he las decades, in 2014 he Eu opean Communi y app o ed he Eu opean
Union (EU) Regula ion 1143/2014/EC on IAS (IAS Regula ion) ha es ab-
lishes a coo dina ed se o ac ions o p e en , con ol and mi iga e he impac
o he IAS. In 2016, he Eu opean Communi y d ew up a lis o IAS o Union
conce n which se es o di ec esea ch and managemen e o s (Eu opean
Union 2016). Wi h he la es upda e (Eu opean Union 2022), he lis in-
cludes 41 alien plan s, among which 13 a e s ic ly eshwa e species, includ-
ing Al e nan he a philoxe oides (Ma .) G iseb., Cabomba ca oliniana A.G ay,
Pon ede ia c assipes Ma . (= Eichho nia c assipes (Ma .) Solms), Elodea nu allii
(Planch.) H.S .John, Gymnoco onis spilan hoides (D.Don ex Hook. and A n.)
DC., Hyd oco yle anunculoides L. ., Laga osiphon majo (Ridl.) Moss, Ludwigia
g andi lo a (Michx.) G eu e and Bu de , L. peploides (Kun h) P.H.Ra en sub-
sp. mon e idensis (Sp eng.) P.H.Ra en, My iophyllum aqua icum (Vell.) Ve dc.,
M. he e ophyllum Michx., Pis ia s a io es L. and Sal inia moles a D.S.Mi ch.
Species included in his lis canno be ei he eleased in o he en i onmen o
aded o cul i a ed in any Eu opean Communi y coun y (Eu opean Union
443
NeoBio a 102: 441–472 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/neobio a.102.146280
Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
2014). Howe e , his Eu opean lis excludes some widesp ead aqua ic plan s
conside ed as in asi e neophy es in se e al Eu opean coun ies, such as Azolla
iliculoides Lam., Ege ia densa Planch., Elodea canadensis Michx., Hyd illa e -
icilla a (L. .) Royle, Lemna minu a Kun h and Ludwigia hexape ala (Hook.
and A n.) Za dini, H.Y.Gu and P.H.Ra en (Ceschin e al. 2018a; Galasso e al.
2018; Magliozzi e al. 2020; A ianou sou e al. 2023; O icialdegui e al. 2023;
Pelella e al. 2023a). In his backg ound, he p esen in es iga ion is aimed o
(i) collec and c i ically e iew he ele an scien i ic li e a u e on he in asi e
alien aqua ic plan s (IAAPs) occu ing in Eu ope, and (ii) assess he cu en
s a e o knowledge ega ding hei impac on in aded Eu opean eshwa e eco-
sys ems, wi h special ocus on en i onmen al impac . This e iew may highligh
any gaps in knowledge on he en i onmen al impac s exe ed by hese species
in Eu ope. In addi ion, i may also p o ide a basis o di ec ing u u e in es i-
ga ions in o hose IAAPs ha a e unde s udied.
Me hods
IAAPs selec ion
Bibliog aphic esea ch ocused on bo h IAAPs ha a e included in he Eu opean
lis o IAS o Union conce n (Eu opean Union 2016, and subsequen upda es),
and some alien aqua ic plan s ha , al hough ou side his lis , a e widesp ead in
Eu opean eshwa e ecosys ems based on dis ibu ion da a ex ac ed om Glob-
al Biodi e si y In o ma ion Facili y (GBIF 2023). In pa icula , he ollowing 19
IAAPs we e selec ed: Al e nan he a philoxe oides, Cabomba ca oliniana, Elodea
nu allii, Gymnoco onis spilan hoides, Hyd oco yle anunculoides, Laga osiphon ma-
jo , Ludwigia g andi lo a, L. peploides subsp. mon e idensis ( he ea e L. peploides),
My iophyllum aqua icum, M. he e ophyllum, Pis ia s a io es, Pon ede ia c assipes,
Sal inia moles a (IAAPs in EU lis ), and Azolla iliculoides, Ege ia densa, Elodea
canadensis, Hyd illa e icilla a, Lemna minu a, Ludwigia hexape ala (IAAPs ou
EU lis ) (Table 1).
Bibliog aphic esea ch
Bibliog aphic da a sou ces
Bibliog aphic esea ch on he selec ed IAAPs was conduc ed using he online da-
abase Web o Science (WOS) (Cla i a e Analy ics 2023), conside ing wo ldwide
dis ibu ed scien i ic con ibu ions. In he esea ch s ing, he keywo ds includ-
ed o each species bo h scien i ic names (including all synonyms) and common
English names, bo h aken om GBIF (2023), as well as he ollowing e ms:
“alien*”, “alloch honous”, exo ic*”, “in oduc*”, “IAS”, “in as*”, “non-indige-
nous plan ”, “non-indigenous species”, “non-na i e plan ”, “non-na i e species”
and “impac *”, “damage*”, “ educ*”, “ex inc *”, “allelopa hic”, “inhibi *”, “al e *”,
“con ol”, “compe *”.
The con ibu ions we e selec ed based on he ollowing c i e ia: (i) accessible on
he web, (ii) published in in e na ional pee - e iewed jou nals indexed in WOS,
(iii) w i en in English, (i ) published up o No embe 2023, and ( ) based on
ield and/o labo a o y s udies, excluding o ecas ing o simula ion s udies.
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
The collec ed con ibu ions o each species we e g ouped based on he main
opic add essed ( he ea e mac o opic). Ten main mac o opics we e iden i ied:
• “impac ” mac o opic: con ibu ions add essing he impac exe ed by he se-
lec ed IAAPs on he in aded ecosys em;
• “managemen ” mac o opic: con ibu ions analyzing he a ious me hods
es ed o manage he IAAPs;
• “dis ibu ion” mac o opic: con ibu ions wi h da a, lo is ic eco ds o dis i-
bu ion maps o he species conside ed;
• “ecology”, “biology”, “physiology” and “gene ics” mac o opics: con ibu ions
ela ed o hese aspec s, espec i ely;
• “uses” mac o opic: con ibu ions explo ing po en ial uses o he species (e.g.,
as bioene gy sou ce, bio ood, bioindica o , phy o emedia ion agen );
• “gene al” and “o he ”: in “gene al” we e included he mo e gene alis con-
ibu ions ha e e ence h ee o mo e mac o opics wi hou a speci ic ocus
on any one in pa icula , whe eas in “o he ” he con ibu ions wi h opics
di e en om hose men ioned abo e.
Da a collec ion
Fo each scien i ic con ibu ion collec ed, he ollowing in o ma ion was ex ac ed,
c ea ing a digi al da abase in Excel (Excel e s. 2409, Mic oso Co po a ion 365):
• scien i ic name o he aqua ic plan conside ed as alien in ha con ibu ion
(2023);
• yea o publica ion;
• main mac o opic add essed. Con ibu ions e e ing o wo di e en bu
equally add essed mac o opics we e a ibu ed o bo h, esul ing in being
coun ed wice in he inal coun o con ibu ions conside ed.
Speci ically wi h ega d o con ibu ions on he “impac ” and “managemen ”
mac o opics, he ollowing in o ma ion was also speci ied:
A ea o s udy – S udy a ea wi hin o ou side Eu ope
Type o s udy – Labo a o y s udy (indoo , mic ocosms, g een-
house)
– Field s udy (ou doo , mesocosms, na u e)
Type o impac – Socio-economic impac on socie y and local
economy (e.g., public heal h issues, wa e -
body landscape al e a ion, aes he ic deg a-
da ion, limi a ions on aquacul u e, ishing,
ou ism, and high managemen cos s)
– En i onmen al impac (on abio ic and/o bi-
o ic componen o he ecosys em)
Impac en i onmen al mechanism1 – On abio ic componen (chemical, physical)
1 Ca ego iza ion o mechanisms o en i onmen al impac ollowing he classi ica ion p oposed
by he IUCN (In e na ional Union o Conse a ion o Na u e) in he EICAT (En i onmen al
Impac Classi ica ion o Alien Taxa) p o ocol (Hawkins e al. 2015).
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
– On na i e bio ic componen (compe i ion,
di ec physical dis u bance, hyb idiza ion,
s uc u al, oxici y)
Managemen me hods – P e en ion
– Con ol me hod (chemical, physical, biological)
Da a analysis
The scien i ic con ibu ions esul ing om he bibliog aphic esea ch we e ana-
lyzed acco ding o poin s indica ed in he sec ion “Da a collec ion”. The esul s o
hese analyses we e shown in g aphs and ables c ea ed using Mic oso Excel e s.
2409 (Mic oso Co po a ion 365). The o al numbe o scien i ic con ibu ions
p oduced up o No embe 2023, and he a e age pe cen age o con ibu ions all-
ing wi hin each o he 10 mac o opics, we e calcula ed bo h conside ing all species
oge he ha o each IAAPs.
Fo he mac o opic on impac , he pe cen age o con ibu ions add essing di e en
ypes o impac (socio-economic, en i onmen al) was also calcula ed. In addi ion, o
assess he empo al end o he scien i ic p oduc ion conce ning his mac o opic on
a global and Eu opean scale, he yea o publica ion o each con ibu ion was consid-
e ed wi hin i e 8-yea in e als (1984–1991, 1992–1999, 2000–2007, 2008–2015,
2016–2023), wi h he i s in e al de e mined based on he da es o he ea lies con-
ibu ions ound. The las ime in e al conside ed includes he yea 2016, which
ma ks he publica ion da e o he i s lis o IAS o Union conce n. A simila empo al
analysis was conduc ed o con ibu ions ela ed o he mac o opic on managemen
o he selec ed IAAPs o e i y any consis ency in he empo al end be ween he
numbe o con ibu ions published on he impac o hese species and hose dedica ed
o hei managemen . In addi ion, a co ela ion analysis was ca ied ou using R so -
wa e (R Co e Team 2023) o assess he ela ionship be ween he numbe o Eu opean
coun ies in aded by IAAPs and he scien i ic con ibu ions on he impac ound on
globally o each species. Pea son’s co ela ion coe icien was calcula ed using he co .
es unc ion, ob aining bo h co ela ion alue ( ) and s a is ical signi icance (p alue).
Resul s
Bibliog aphic analysis
Based on he bibliog aphic analysis o he 19 IAAPs, 1918 scien i ic con ibu ions
published up o No embe 2023 in in e na ional pee - e iewed jou nals and indexed
in WOS we e collec ed. The analysis iden i ied ecological and managemen s udies as
he mos in es iga ed mac o opics, ep esen ing 27.1% and 20.7% o he con ibu-
ions, espec i ely. Seconda ily, he e we e s udies on he dis ibu ion (11.5%), uses
(11.2%) and impac (10.5%) o hese alien species. Each o he emaining mac o op-
ics accoun ed o less han 7% o he o al scien i ic con ibu ions collec ed (Fig. 1).
The in-dep h analysis o he con ibu ions e e ing o impac s exe ed by he 19
IAAPs showed ha 77% o he s udies ha e a wo ldwide dis ibu ion, while he e-
maining 24% e e speci ically o s udies ca ied ou in Eu opean coun ies. O he
wo ldwide con ibu ions on impac , 81.2% (181) ocus on he en i onmen al impac ,
while he emaining 18.8% (42) on socio-economic impac . Among he s udies on
en i onmen al impac , 70.5% (155) documen impac s on bio ic componen s (e.g.,
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
mic oalgae, mac ophy es, mac oin e eb a es, aqua ic bi ds) o he in aded aqua ic
ecosys ems, while 29.5% (65) e eals impac s on abio ic componen s, such as phys-
ical and chemical ac o s (e.g., empe a u e, ligh , pH, dissol ed oxygen, nu ien s).
64.6% (128) o he con ibu ions on en i onmen al impac e e ed o ield s udies,
while 35.4% (70) o indoo expe imen s pe o med in he labo a o y o g eenhouses.
O e ime, scien i ic p oduc ion ega ding he impac o he selec ed IAAPs
showed a signi ican upwa d end. Wo ldwide con ibu ions inc eased exponen-
ially anging om he ea lies ime in e al analyzed (1984–1991) o he la es
(2016–2023), when he highes pe cen age o con ibu ions (63.4%, 123 con i-
bu ions) was eco ded (Fig. 2a). A simila end can be obse ed when conside ing
only con ibu ions on he impac s udies p oduced in Eu ope. Indeed, in he las
pe iod, also coinciding wi h he inclusion o some o he IAAPs conside ed in he
lis o Union conce n, mos o he con ibu ions p oduced on impac a e con-
cen a ed. Simila ly, con ibu ions on he managemen o hese species p oduced
a bo h global and Eu opean le el, ha e also g own p og essi ely o e ime, wi h
mos s udies (49.4%, 167) concen a ed in he mos ecen ime in e al (Fig. 2b).
Bibliog aphic analysis o each IAAPs
Ou o he 1918 scien i ic con ibu ions collec ed in his e iew, abou 64% a e
concen a ed on 4 o he 19 selec ed IAAPs. In pa icula , P. c assipes (22.9%,
440 con ibu ions), A. philoxe oides (16.3%, 312), E. densa (14.1%, 270) and
H. e icilla a (10.5%, 201) we e p o en o be he IAAPs mos s udied globally. In
Figu e 1. Pe cen ages o scien i ic con ibu ions on he selec ed IAAPs in ela ion o he 10 mac o-
opics conside ed.
Figu e 2. Tempo al ends in he numbe o scien i ic con ibu ions ela ed o he impac (a) and managemen (b) o he selec ed IAAPs.
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
con as , C. ca oliniana (2%, 38), L. peploides (1.8%, 34), L. minu a (1.4%, 27),
L. g andi lo a (1.2%, 23), H. anunculoides (1%, 19), M. he e ophyllum (0.8%,
16) and G. spilan hoides (0.3%, 5) we e he leas s udied ones (Fig. 3). Gene ally,
he mos ep esen ed mac o opics o mos o he species e e o ecological and
managemen s udies, excep o L. minu a, which showed a p opo ionally high
numbe o con ibu ions on he impac (Table 1).
Co ela ing he numbe o Eu opean coun ies in aded om each o he con-
side ed IAAPs (index o species sp ead in Eu ope) wi h he o al numbe o s ud-
Figu e 3. To al numbe o scien i ic con ibu ions ound o each o he 19 selec ed IAAPs.
Table 1. Fo each IAAPs, i is indica ed whe he he alien species is included (in, g ey colou ) o no (ou , whi e colou ) in he lis o
IAS o Union conce n, he o al numbe (n) and pe cen age (%) o scien i ic con ibu ions ela ed o he di e en mac o opics. In bold,
con ibu ion numbe ≥ 20.
UE
lis IAAP Impac Biology Dis ibu ion Ecology Gene ics Managemen Physiology Uses Gene al O he
in Al e nan he a philoxe oides 36 (11.0%) 65 (19.8%) 24 (7.3%) 113 (34.5%) 18 (5.5%) 32 (9.8%) 22 (6.7%) 16 (4.9%) 2 (0.6%) -
ou Azolla iliculoides 4 (9.5%) 3 (7.1%) 7 (16.7%) 5 (11.9%) -15 (35.7%) -8 (19.0%) - -
in Cabomba ca oliniana 4 (9.8%) 1 (2.4%) 7 (17.1%) 8 (19.5%) 2 (4.9%) 10 (24.4%) 6 (14.6%) -3 (7.3%) -
ou Ege ia densa 20 (7.1%) 7 (2.5%) 22 (7.8%) 106 (37.5%) 8 (2.8%) 32 (11.3%) 47 (16.6%) 25 (8.8%) 1 (0.4%) 15 (5.3%)
ou Elodea canadensis6 (6.1%) 2 (2.0%) 19 (19.2%) 49 (49.5%) 4 (4.0%) 9 (9.1%) 4 (4.0%) 3 (3.0%) 2 (2.0%) 1 (1.0%)
in Elodea nu allii 10 (13.0%) 5 (6.5%) 12 (15.6%) 33 (42.9%) 1 (1.3%) 12 (15.6%) 2 (2.6%) 2 (2.6%) - -
in Gymnoco onis spilan hoides - - - 4 (80.0%) - - - - - 1 (20.0%)
ou Hyd illa e icilla a 31 (14.9%) 9 (4.3%) 17 (8.2%) 54 (26.0%) 7 (3.4%) 57 (27.4%) 10 (4.8%) 12 (5.8%) 3 (1.4%) 8 (3.8%)
in Hyd oco yle anunculoides3 (15.0%) 1 (5.0%) 4 (20.0%) 4 (20.0%) 1 (5.0%) 5 (25.0%) -1 (5.0%) 1 (5.0%) -
in Laga osiphon majo 7 (13.7%) 1 (2.0%) 5 (9.8%) 17 (33.3%) 1 (2.0%) 18 (35.3%) 1 (2.0%) -1 (2.0%) -
ou Lemna minu a 9 (31.0%) 2 (6.9%) 5 (17.2%) 8 (27.6%) 2 (6.9%) 1 (3.4%) 1 (3.4%) 1 (3.4%) - -
in Ludwigia g andi lo a 3 (13.0%) 1 (4.3%) 2 (8.7%) 6 (26.1%) 1 (4.3%) 6 (26.1%) 3 (13.0%) - - 1 (4.3%)
ou Ludwigia hexape ala 8 (15.4%) 7 (13.5%) 5 (9.6%) 16 (30.8%) -10 (19.2%) 4 (7.7%) 1 (1.9%) 1 (1.9%) -
in Ludwigia peploides 1 (2.9%) 4 (11.4%) 6 (17.1%) 12 (34.3%) -5 (14.3%) 4 (11.4%) 2 (5.7%) 1 (2.9%) -
in My iophyllum aqua icum 4 (5.4%) 6 (8.1%) 6 (8.1%) 26 (35.1%) -18 (24.3%) 5 (6.8%) 4 (5.4%) 5 (6.8%) -
in My iophyllum he e ophyllum 4 (25.0%) -2 (12.5%) 5 (31.3%) 1 (6.3%) 3 (18.8%) 1 (6.3%) - - -
in Pis ia s a io es 3 (3.0%) 7 (7.0%) 12 (12.0%) 19 (19.0%) 2 (2.0%) 32 (32.0%) 2 (2.0%) 20 (20.0%) 2 (2.0%) 1 (1.0%)
in Pon ede ia c assipes 54 (11.3%) 9 (1.9%) 72 (15.1%) 59 (12.4%) 1 (0.2%) 125 (26.3%) 17 (3.6%) 123 (25.8%) 12 (2.5%) 4 (0.8%)
in Sal inia moles a 7 (9.1%) 7 (9.1%) 7 (9.1%) 8 (10.4%) 2 (2.6%) 31 (40.3%) -11 (14.3%) 2 (2.6%) 2 (2.6%)
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ies ca ied ou in he wo ld on hei impac , no co ela ion be ween he wo a i-
ables is eme ged ( = - 0.15, p > 0.05, Pea son co ela ion coe icien ) since he mos
widesp ead species in Eu ope a e no always hose whose impac was mos s udied
(Table 2). In ac , some o he alien aqua ic species ha a e common in Eu ope
(n ≥ 12, high numbe o Eu opean coun ies in aded) p o e o be li le s udied in he
wo ld (e.g. Elodea canadensis, Azolla iliculoides, My iophyllum aqua icum, Pis ia s a-
io es); on he o he hand, some species ha do no show wide Eu opean dis ibu ion
(n ≤ 11, medium-low numbe o Eu opean coun ies in aded), ha e had many s ud-
ies on hei impac (e.g., Al e nan he a philoxe oides, Ege ia densa, Pon ede ia c assipes).
The a e age numbe o con ibu ions on he impac o IAAPs included and
no -included in he lis o he IAS o Union conce n is 10.5 and 13.0 globally, and
2.3 and 4.0 o Eu ope, espec i ely (Fig. 4). The IAAPs included in he lis esul
a e agely less s udied han hose no -included, bo h a he global and Eu opean
le el, excep o P. c assipes and A. philoxe oides, which a exceed hese a e ages
when conside ing global s udies.
By compa ing he numbe o Eu opean s udies on he impac and managemen
o he IAAPs included in he Union lis and he yea in which each o hese was
included in his lis (Table 3), i eme ged ha in mos species, he numbe o
s udies on impac inc eased li le a e hese we e lis ed (minimal lis ing e ec ).
In some cases, a lowe numbe o s udies was also eco ded a e inclusion in he
lis (E. nu allii, L. g andi lo a, L. peploides, P. s a io es, S. moles a), o e en no
Table 2. Numbe o Eu opean coun ies in aded by each selec ed IAAPs and o al numbe o scien i ic con ibu ions ex ac ed om
he li e a u e conce ning hei impac on in aded ecosys em. Dis ibu ion da a o each IAAP wi hin we e ob ained om GBIF (2023).
Ac onyms o Eu opean coun ies: Aus ia (AT), Belgium (BE), Bulga ia (BG), Swi ze land (CH), Czech Republic (CZ), Ge many (DE),
Denma k (DK), Spain (ES), Finland (FI), F ance (FR), G eece (GR), C oa ia (HR), Hunga y (HU), I eland (IE), I aly (IT), Li huania
(LT), La ia (LV), Ne he lands (NL), Poland (PL), Po ugal (PT), Romania (RO), Sweden (SE), Slo akia (SK), Uni ed Kingdom (UK).
IAAP In aded EU coun ies coun ies (n) impac con ibu ions (n)
Al e nan he a philoxe oides ES, FR, IT, NL, PT 5 36
Azolla iliculoides AT, BE, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FR, GR, HU, IE, IT, NL, PL, PT, RO, SE, UK 17 4
Cabomba ca oliniana BE, CH, DE, DK, FR, HU, NL, PL, RO, SE, UK 11 4
Ege ia densa BE, CZ, DE, ES, FR, IE, IT, NL, PT, UK 10 20
Elodea canadensis AT, BE, BG, CH, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, HU, IE, IT, NL, PL, PT, RO, SE, UK 18 6
Elodea nu allii AT, BE, BG, CH, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, HU, IE, IT, LT, NL, PL, RO, SE, UK 18 10
Gymnoco onis spilan hoides HU, IT, NL, SE 4 -
Hyd illa e icilla a AT, CH, DE, ES, FR, IE, IT, LT, LV, PL, UK 11 31
Hyd oco yle anunculoides BE, CH, DE, DK, ES, FR, HU, IE, IT, NL, UK 11 3
Laga osiphon majo AT, BE, CH, DE, FR, IE, IT, NL, PT, UK 10 7
Lemna minu a AT, BE, CH, DE, ES, FR, IE, IT, NL, PL, PT, RO, UK 13 9
Ludwigia g andi lo a AT, BE, CH, ES, FR, HU, IE, IT, NL, PT, UK 11 3
Ludwigia hexape ala BE, ES, FR, HU, IT, PT, UK 7 8
Ludwigia peploides BE, ES, FR, IT, NL, PT 6 1
My iophyllum aqua icum AT, BE, CH, DE, ES, FR, IE, IT, NL, PT, RO, UK 12 4
My iophyllum he e ophyllum AT, BE, CH, DE, ES, FR, HU, NL, SE, UK 10 4
Pis ia s a io es BE, CH, DE, ES, FR, HR, IT, NL, PL, SE, SK, UK 12 3
Pon ede ia c assipes BE, DE, ES, FR, HU, IT, NL, PL, PT, UK 10 54
Sal inia moles a AT, BE, CH, DE, ES, FR, HU, IT, NL, PT 10 7
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
Figu e 4. Numbe o scien i ic con ibu ions on he impac o he IAAPs included and no -included in he lis o he IAS o Union con-
ce n. The black ho izon al lines ma k he a e age numbe o con ibu ions o each IAAP g oup.
Table 3. Fo each species included in he lis o IAS o Union conce n, he yea o i s inclusion and
he numbe o scien i ic Eu opean con ibu ions on i s impac s and managemen we e epo ed.
Species a e lis ed acco ding o he yea o hei inclusion in he EU lis .
IAAP yea o inclusion
in EU lis
EU impac con ibu ions EU managemen con ibu ions
be o e lis a e lis be o e lis a e lis
Cabomba ca oliniana 2016 - 1 - 1
Hyd oco yle anunculoides 2016 1 1 1 2
Laga osiphon majo 2016 1 4 5 6
Ludwigia g andi lo a 2016 2 1 1 2
Ludwigia peploides 2016 1 - 1 -
My iophyllum aqua icum 2016 1 2 1 2
Pon ede ia c assipes 2016 1 3 - 3
Al e nan he a philoxe oides 2017 - - - 1
Elodea nu allii 2017 5 3 3 7
My iophyllum he e ophyllum 2017 - 1 - -
Gymnoco onis spilan hoides 2019 - - - -
Sal inia moles a 2019 1 - - -
Pis ia s a io es 2022 1 - - -
con ibu ion was dedica ed ei he be o e o a e (A. philoxe oides, G. spilan hoides)
(no lis ing e ec ). As ega ds he con ibu ions ela ing o he managemen o he
IAAPs included in he lis , i appea s ha in mos cases, he numbe o con ibu-
ions inc eased sligh ly a e hese species we e included in he lis (minimal lis ing
e ec ). Howe e , also in his case, he e a e species ha we e no in es iga ed ei-
he be o e o a e hei inclusion in he lis (G. spilan hoides, M. he e ophyllum,
P. s a io es, S. moles a) (no lis ing e ec ).
The 19 conside ed IAAPs we e g ouped in o nine g oups based on sys ema ic a -
ini y o mo pho-s uc u al simila i y. A de ailed desc ip ion o he selec ed IAAPs,
aking in o accoun he main scien i ic con ibu ions abou hem, is gi en below.
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
(Cook and Lüönd 1982). Despi e being ecognized as highly in asi e in a ious Eu-
opean coun ies (Table 2), only L. majo and E. nu allii a e lis ed as IAS o Union
conce n (Eu opean Union 2016, 2017). Wi h 201 and 270 con ibu ions, E. densa
and H. e icilla a a e among he mos s udied IAAPs. Howe e , he o he species o
his g oup ha e also ecei ed conside able a en ion, pa icula ly on hei ecological
aspec s (Fig. 3). Con ibu ions on managemen a e nume ous, especially o L. majo
(35.3%) and H. e icilla a (27.4%). Con e sely, E. densa and E. canadensis ha e
ew s udies on his opic (10%) (Table 1). The managemen me hods documen ed
o hese species include mainly chemical and physical con ol. As o chemical con-
ol, he use o syn he ic he bicides was documen ed, such as Diqua o E. densa
in B azil and Connec icu (Ma ins e al. 2008; Bugbee e al. 2020), Flumioxazin
o E. canadensis in New Zealand (Ho s a e al. 2021) and Endo hal and Flo py-
auxi en-benzyl o H. e icilla a in Uni ed S a es (O iz e al. 2022). The use o
Diqua and Endo hal is p ohibi ed in Eu ope (Eu opean Commission 2025). Phys-
ical con ol was used especially agains E. nu allii by adding biodeg adable dyes in
wa e o applying shading co e o educe ligh a ailabili y and inhibi plan g ow h
(Ho mann e al. 2013; Ze e man 2014). In addi ion, cases o biocon ol we e doc-
umen ed, such as he use o he Asian ly Hyd ellia pakis anae Deonie agains H. e -
icilla a in Flo ida (Wheele and Cen e 2001) and H. laga osiphon Deeming agains
L. majo in I eland (Mangan and Baa s 2023). Despi e he subs an ial numbe o
con ibu ions ound o his g oup o species, he s udies analyzing hei impac
p o e o be ela i ely ew (Table 1). The mos documen ed impac mechanisms o
hese species a e bo h chemical and physical, as i occu ed in some in aded wa e -
bodies o I eland, No way and F ance (Mjelde e al. 2012; Kelly e al. 2015; Ribaudo
e al. 2018), and compe i i e wi h na i e plan s, as obse ed o H. e icilla a in
Sou h Ame ica, E. densa in Cali o nia and E. canadensis in No way (San os e al.
2011; Mjelde e al. 2012; Sil ei a e al. 2018). In addi ion, some s udies documen
ha E. densa has a nega i e impac on na i e plan s in China (Dai e al. 2023),
while E. nu allii and L. majo a ec na i e Eu opean plan s by eleasing allelopa hic
subs ances ha inhibi hei g ow h (E ha d and G oss 2006; Cu hbe e al. 2020).
Gymnoco onis spilan hoides (As e aceae – eme gen hizophy es)
Gymnoco onis spilan hoides, na i e o Sou h Ame ica (Tippe y e al. 2014), was
in oduced as an o namen al aqua ium plan in Eas Asia, Aus alia, New Zealand
and Eu ope. In Eu ope, al hough i occu s in ew coun ies (Table 2), i is conside-
ed in asi e (Lukács e al. 2014; A denghi e al. 2016) and was included in he lis
o IAS o Union conce n (Eu opean Union 2019). Bibliog aphic esea ch e ealed
e y ew s udies on his species, coun ing only i e published con ibu ions mainly
ocused on i s ecology (Table 1; Fig. 3). No con ibu ions ela ed o he impac o
managemen o his species was ound.
Discussion
C i ical li e a u e analysis
The bibliog aphic esea ch on he main Eu opean IAAPs showed ha he scien i ic
knowledge gained wo ldwide on hese species is unequal. I is ocused only on
ce ain species (P. c assipes, A. philoxe oides, E. densa, H. e icilla a) and e y sca ce
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
and agmen ed on o he s (G. spilan hoides, H. anunculoides, L. minu a, M. he e o-
phyllum, L. g andi lo a, L. peploides). Such knowledge inequali y is a phenomenon
al eady documen ed in li e a u e and can be a ibu ed o a combina ion o ac o s.
As highligh ed by Pyšek e al. (2008), geog aphical, socio-economic and axonom-
ic biases can play a c ucial ole in d i ing knowledge on in asion ecology. Species
ha in ade egions o g ea e socio-economic in e es , such as Eu ope o USA,
and hose belonging o axa ha a e be e known o pe cei ed as mo e impac ul,
gene ally end o ecei e mo e a en ion. This may explain why species, such as
P. c assipes o S. moles a, which a e known o be impac ul, a e he a ge species
o nume ous s udies globally, while o he s, such as G. spilan hoides, which a e less
widesp ead in ele an egions, o pe haps pe cei ed as less p oblema ic, emain
ela i ely igno ed. Fu he mo e, Hulme e al. (2013) poin ed ou ha ac o s, such
as he a ailabili y o esea ch esou ces and he pe cep ion o an economic impac
as a esul o he in asion o an alien species, con ibu e o widening hese dispa i-
ies. Species wi h e iden economic o ecological damage end o ca alyze scien i ic
in e es , explaining he obse ed di e ences in he knowledge be ween he consid-
e ed IAAPs. This di e ence highligh s on he one hand he need o mo e balanced
esea ch on hese IAAPs and on he o he hand he isk o unde es ima ing he
impac o less s udied axa.
This bibliog aphic esea ch shows ha mos scien i ic con ibu ions p oduced
on he in es iga ed IAAPs up o 2023 ha e p ima ily add essed ecological aspec s
and, seconda ily, managemen s a egies, o en neglec ing impo an opics, such
as he impac exe ed by hese alien species on he in aded ecosys em. Indeed,
he scien i ic p oduc ion o s udies analyzing he en i onmen al impac s o hese
IAAPs u ned ou o be limi ed in numbe s, o en quali a i e and de icien in
ield da a. Wha is su p ising is ha o many o he IAAPs included in he lis o
Union conce n (G. spilan hoides, H. anunculoides, L. peploides, L. g andi lo a, P.
s a io es, C. ca oliniana, M. he e ophyllum, L. majo , E. nu allii), he e a e only a
ew ield s udies e alua ing he eal ex en and se e i y o hei impac s on in aded
ecosys em (Table 1). I is wo h no ing he impo ance o ield s udies ha allow
o collec ing eal da a ha a e capable o showing wha ac ually occu s in na u al
condi ions, al hough some imes he complex abio ic and bio ic in e ac ions may
c ea e con usion in he in e p e a ion o he da a i sel . Fo his eason, labo a o y
s udies, which howe e su e om ce ain limi a ions, such as sho ime ames,
educed olumes and lowe ecosys em complexi y (Ca pen e 1996; Schindle
1998), by educing he a iables o be analyzed, allow o ocus only on wha is
expe imen ally impo an o e alua e. I is he e o e e iden ha , in o de o ob-
ain a comple e unde s anding o a phenomenon being in es iga ed, i would be
necessa y o pe o m ield s udies combined wi h labo a o y in es iga ions.
Ano he impo an aspec eme ging om his in es iga ion is ha o some o
he IAAPs conside ed, such as E. canadensis, L. minu a, A. iliculoides, L. hexape ala
and E. densa, despi e a ious au ho s documen hei in asi eness and en i on-
men al impac in se e al Eu opean coun ies, hey a e no included in he lis
o IAS o Union conce n. Consequen ly, in Eu ope, hese species migh e ade
any ype o con ols o hei comme cializa ion, on ee use, o o elease in o he
en i onmen . The eason why hese IAAPs a e no ye included in his EU lis
migh only be a ma e o ime. Indeed, he scien i ic documen a ion on hei
impac s in Eu ope may s ill be unde e alua ion by he Eu opean Commission,
which may no allow o egula ed and coo dina ed Eu opean ac ions agains hese
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
species o da e. Howe e , some o hese IAAPs, such as A. iliculoides, E. canadensis
and E. densa, a e included in legally egula ed na ional lis s (e.g., Spanish Ca a-
logue o IAS by Spanish Minis y o Ag icul u e, Food and En i onmen 2013
- Royal Dec ee 630/2013). The p omulga ion o hese na ional ca alogues allows
he membe s a es o he Eu opean Communi y o manage IAS ha pose a h ea
o conse a ion o he na ional e i o y, e en i no p io i ized a Eu opean le el.
Unde s anding how (mechanism) and how much (se e i y) an IAS exe s on
impac is undamen al o accu a ely assessing whe he ha species, despi e being
locally widesp ead, poses a eal h ea o he conse a ion o na i e biodi e si y and
in eg i y o he ecosys em in aded. Should signi ican e idence eme ge ega ding
he dange o a species, i becomes impe a i e o p omp ly con ain i s sp ead.
This in ol es p omo ing p e en ion campaigns, as well as moni o ing, ield s udy,
and e adica ion ac i i ies, o p e en ecosys em damage and managemen cos s
om becoming unsus ainable. Fo example, wi h e e ence o he la e aspec , a
s udy conduc ed in Spain showed ha he managemen o P. c assipes alone cos
app oxima ely 55 million dolla s be ween 1997 and 2019 (Angulo e al. 2021).
Fu he mo e, an es ima e by Cu hbe e al. (2021) on da a published om 1971
o 2020 on IAAPs, e ealed ha he o e all managemen o IAAPs cos he global
economy mo e han 20 billion dolla s.
Tempo al analysis o he collec ed li e a u e
The numbe o con ibu ions on he impac o he conside ed IAAPs inc eased
exponen ially om 1980 o 2023, wi h a pa icula peak in ecen yea s (2016–
2023) (Fig. 2a). This end is aligned wi h bo h he inc easing numbe o in o-
duc ions o alien species ou side hei na i e anges (Seebens e al. 2017), and he
awa eness o esea che s o he se ious impac s ha in asions o hese species can
en ail on ecosys em conse a ion. Based on hese conside a ions, and limi ing he
analysis o he s udies ca ied ou in Eu ope on he IAAPs included in he lis o
IAS o Union conce n ( om 2016 onwa ds), one would ha e expec ed ha he
numbe o con ibu ions on he impac and managemen on hese species would
inc ease once hey we e included in he lis ; in ac , he inclusion o an alien
species in his lis should en ail he acquisi ion o he s a us o po en ial en i on-
men al h ea , such ha in es iga ions, moni o ing and con ol ac i i ies should
be in ensi ied. Ins ead, con a y o wha was expec ed, he esul s showed ha
scien i ic p oduc ion in Eu ope on he impac and managemen o hese species
was no much a ec ed by he “lis ing” e ec ; indeed, o mos o he species, a -
e being included in o he EU lis , only a sligh inc ease was eco ded (minimal
“lis ing” e ec ) o e en a dec ease o absence (no “lis ing” e ec ) o Eu opean
s udies abou (Table 3).
Based only on Eu opean s udies ound on he impac o he selec ed IAAPs,
and dis inguishing be ween included and no -included species in he EU lis , i
eme ged ha he i s g oup was on a e age less s udied han he second (Fig. 4).
This unde lines once again ha a species, e en i included in he EU lis , has no
necessa ily been he a ge o g ea e scien i ic in e es in Eu ope, al hough he
opposi e would ha e been expec ed. Fu he mo e, he highe a e age numbe o
con ibu ions ocused on he non-lis ed IAAPs, whose en i onmen al impac was
o en documen ed by scien i ic e idence, should sugges a u u e conside a ion o
hese species in he lis upda es o IAS o Union conce n.
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Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
Analysis o IAAPs impac mechanisms
The in es iga ed IAAPs we e ound o a ec bo h abio ic and bio ic componen o
in aded aqua ic ecosys ems. Impac s on abio ic componen occu when hese plan s
al e physical (physical impac ) and chemical (chemical impac ) p ope ies o he
ecosys em in aded, consequen ly a ec ing indi ec ly he composi ion and di e si y
o he na i e plan and animal communi ies. Fo ins ance, i is well documen ed ha
ee- loa ing alien hyd ophy es, such as A. iliculoides, L. minu a, S. moles a and P.
s a io es, o m dense popula ions on he wa e su ace and hus modi y wa e physi-
cally (e.g., ligh , empe a u e) and chemically (e.g., dissol ed oxygen, pH, nu ien s),
hus indi ec ly comp omising he su i al o na i e plan and animal communi ies
(e.g., Pine o-Rod íguez e al. 2019, 2021; Wahl e al. 2021c; L e al. 2022).
The mechanisms o impac we e ound o mainly esul om in e speci ic compe-
i ion o ligh and nu ien s wi h na i e plan s, o en esul ing in he dominance o
in asi e species o e na i e ones (e.g., Ceschin e al. 2016, 2020b; Paolacci e al. 2018;
Jaklič e al. 2020; Wahl e al. 2021b). Roo ed alien hyd ophy es, such as E. canaden-
sis, E. nu allii and P. c assipes, can p oduce dense and monospeci ic popula ions ha
eplace na i e plan communi ies, educing local plan di e si y and simpli ying plan
communi y s uc u e (Bubíko á e al. 2021; Lahon e al. 2023). I was also demon-
s a ed ha ex ensi e popula ions o H. anunculoides, M. aqua icum and S. moles a lead
o a s uc u al simpli ica ion o he plan communi ies wi h se ious consequences on
mac oin e eb a e communi ies, mani es ed by he decline o he mos sensi i e axa
and he su i al o he mos adap able ones (S ie s and T ies 2017; Wahl e al. 2021c).
Ano he impac mechanism ha was documen ed is linked o he phy o oxici y
showed by some IAAPs ha a e able o p oduce and elease allelopa hic subs ances
inhibi ing he seed ge mina ion and/o g ow h o na i e aqua ic plan s. Fo exam-
ple, L. hexape ala eleases glycosidic subs ances (que ci in) which inhibi ege a i e
g ow h o he na i e U icula ia aus alis (Pelella e al. 2023b). Simila ly, A. philox-
e oides eleases allelochemicals a ec ing nega i ely he seed ge minabili y o he na-
i e Ph agmi es aus alis (Ca .) T in. ex S eud. and he i ali y o he soil mic obio a
(Ge e al. 2018; Liu e al. 2020). Hyb idiza ion is ano he de ec ed impac mech-
anism, whe eby alien species c oss wi h na i e species, p oducing hyb ids ha a e
mo e in asi e han pa en al alien species. An example is M. he e ophyllum, which
hyb idizes in se e al a eas o he USA wi h he na i e congene s M. hippu oides
Nu . ex To . and A. G ay and M. laxum Schu l. ex Chapm. (Thum e al. 2011).
Conclusions
This s udy ound ha he sp ead o IAAPs in Eu ope poses a signi ican h ea o he
conse a ion o Eu opean biodi e si y and eshwa e ecosys ems. Despi e g owing
awa eness o he se e i y o he nega i e e ec exe ed by hese species in in aded
habi a s, esea ch ocused on hei en i onmen al impac s and he ecological ai s
upon which hei compe i i eness and in asi eness a e ounded, emains limi ed o
only a ew in asi e alien species. In such con ex , his in es iga ion highligh ed bo h
he di e en ea men be ween IAAPs (lis ed and no -lis ed species in he Union
lis ) and he inequali ies ha exis in he knowledge o hei impac and manage-
men . In pa icula , some species ha e ha dly been in es iga ed a ei he he Eu o-
pean o global le el. The e o e, i is e iden ha he e is a need o ill his knowl-
edge gap and de elop managemen p ac ices ha can con ain he in asion o hese
460
NeoBio a 102: 441–472 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/neobio a.102.146280
Da io Di Le nia e al.: Re iew o Eu opean in asi e alien aqua ic plan s
alien plan s in Eu ope. Inc easing ield s udies, possibly supplemen ed by labo a o y
es s, becomes essen ial o p o ide eliable da a on he impac o hese species. Such
an app oach, based on eal da a a he han simula ions o po en ial impac s, will be
able o con ibu e o a mo e e ec i e managemen o he conside ed IAAPs, as well
as imp o ing he obus ness o en i onmen al conse a ion policies. In his ega d,
i is hoped ha he species ha a e cu en ly no lis ed bu we e ound o be im-
pac ul and widely dis ibu ed in Eu ope (e.g., E. densa, H. e icilla a, L. minu a, E.
canadensis, L. hexape ala), a e included in he lis o IAS o Union in e es as soon as
possible. This will suppo consis en managemen p ac ices a he Eu opean le el, a
c ucial equi emen o p o ec ing he in eg i y o na i e communi ies and ensu ing
he p ope sus ainabili y and unc ionali y o eshwa e ecosys ems in Eu ope.
Acknowledgemen s
Thanks a e due o he anonymous e iewe s, whose sugges ions and commen s
helped o imp o e his pape . The au ho s acknowledge he suppo o NBFC o
Depa men o Science-Uni e si y o Roma T e, unded by he I alian Minis y
o Uni e si y and Resea ch, PNRR, Missione 4 Componen e 2, “Dalla Rice ca
all’Imp esa”, In es imen o 1.4, P ojec CN00000033.
Addi ional in o ma ion
Con lic o in e es
The au ho s ha e decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis .
E hical s a emen
No e hical s a emen was epo ed.
Funding
No unding was epo ed.
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion: SC, DDL. Da a cu a ion: DDL, SC. Fo mal analysis: DDL. In es iga ion: LP,
DDL, SC. Resou ces: SC. Supe ision: SC. Valida ion: SC. Visualiza ion: DDL, SC. W i ing – o ig-
inal d a : DDL, LP, SC. W i ing – e iew and edi ing: DDL, LP, SC.
Au ho ORCIDs
Da io Di Le nia h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0006-6847-2065
Lo enzo Pinzani h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7395-7925
Simona Ceschin h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5964-1855
Da a a ailabili y
All o he da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable in he main ex .
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