R-TWT in Wi-Fi 7 and Beyond: Enabling Bounded Latency, Energy Efficiency, and Reliability

R-TWT in Wi-Fi 7 and Beyond: Enabling Bounded
La ency, Ene gy E iciency, and Reliabili y
E an Moza a iah a ∗, F ancesc Wilhelmi†, Lo enzo Gala i-Gio dano‡,
Pasquale Impu a o§, Michael Men h∗, and S e ano A allone§
∗Uni e si y o Tuebingen, Ge many, †Uni e si a Pompeu Fab a, Spain
‡Nokia Bell Labs, Ge many, §Uni e si y o Naples, I aly
Email: {e an.moza a iah a , men h}@uni- uebingen.de, [email p o ec ed],
lo enzo.gala i [email p o ec ed], {pasquale.impu a o, s a allo}@unina.i
Abs ac —Applica ions wi h de e minis ic quali y o se ice
(QoS) equi emen s a e becoming widesp ead, d i ing he e o-
lu ion o wi eless ne wo ks o mee s ic pe o mance demands.
Wi-Fi 7, he la es gene a ion o IEEE 802.11 s anda d, in o-
duces Res ic ed Ta ge Wake Time (R-TWT). I se es la ency-
sensi i e a ic by p o iding con en ion- ee channel access o
ce ain de ices and educing hei ene gy consump ion. This
pape e alua es he pe o mance o R-TWT ac oss di e se
se ice ypes and ne wo k sizes in e ms o wo s -case la ency,
ene gy e iciency, collision a e, and h oughpu . The esul s,
gene a ed using he ns-3 simula o , show ha R-TWT achie es
bounded la ency o sensi i e a ic ypes, such as In e ne o
Things (IoT) and eal- ime (RT) applica ions. Mo eo e , R-TWT
ou pe o ms legacy mechanisms, i.e., Powe Sa ing Mode (PSM)
and Dis ibu ed Coo dina ion Func ion (DCF), by achie ing
highe ene gy e iciency and a lowe collision a e. Fu he mo e,
R-TWT main ains s able and scalable pe o mance as ne wo k
size inc eases. This makes i a obus solu ion o la ency-sensi i e
and ene gy-e icien wi eless applica ions.
Index Te ms—R-TWT, Wi-Fi 7, la ency, eliabili y, ene gy.
I. INTRODUCTION
E e y Wi-Fi gene a ion, based on new amendmen s o
he IEEE 802.11 s anda d, comes along wi h pe o mance
and quali y o se ice (QoS) imp o emen s o suppo new
use cases wi h s ingen equi emen s [1]. Mode n use cases
such as sma ac o ies, obo s, medical de ices, ex ended
eali y (XR), and ideo games demand de e minis ic la ency,
eliabili y, ene gy e iciency, and high h oughpu [2].
To mee he demands o mode n applica ions equi ing
de e minis ic pe o mance, Wi-Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be) in o-
duces Res ic ed Ta ge Wake Time (R-TWT), which is based
on he Ta ge Wake Time (TWT) mechanism om Wi-Fi 6
(IEEE 802.11ax). TWT was designed o educe he powe
consump ion and con en ion in clien de ices by allowing hem
o nego ia e scheduled wake-up imes wi h he Access Poin
(AP) [3]. I was p ima ily concei ed o In e ne o Things
(IoT) de ices wi h low a ic in ensi y and discon inued a ic
bu wi h signi ican powe supply cons ain s.
Since TWT canno gua an ee de e minis ic pe o mance—
he wake-up imes o di e en de ices may o e lap, leading
o con en ion and addi ional delays—, R-TWT in oduces
enhanced channel access p o ec ion and esou ce alloca ion
mechanisms o la ency-sensi i e a ic. In R-TWT, an AP
alloca es exclusi e channel access pe iods ha a e es ic ed
o speci ic s a ions (STAs) and p ede ined a ic ypes wi hin
he Basic Se ice Se (BSS), he eby educing con en ion and
minimizing collisions. Fu he mo e, R-TWT ans o ms he
channel in o a managed esou ce, op imizing i s u iliza ion
o la ency-sensi i e applica ions while main aining ene gy
e iciency o de ices wi h limi ed powe esou ces. This
con olled access enhances he p edic abili y and eliabili y o
ne wo k pe o mance unde a ying a ic condi ions.
This pape in es iga es he capabili ies o R-TWT in Wi-
Fi 7 and beyond and del es in o he iple o bounded la ency,
ene gy e iciency, and eliabili y. The key con ibu ions o his
wo k a e summa ized as ollows:
•We e alua e R-TWT ia simula ions ac oss key me ics,
including wo s -case la ency, ene gy consump ion, colli-
sion a e, and h oughpu o uplink UDP and TCP a ic.
We compa e i s pe o mance agains legacy mechanisms
such as Powe Sa ing Mode (PSM) and Dis ibu ed
Coo dina ion Func ion (DCF).
•We analyze R-TWT’s capabili y o suppo a ious a ic
ypes, including In e ne o Things (IoT), eal- ime (RT),
and bulk a ic wi h di e en la ency and bandwid h
equi emen s, and assess i s obus ness unde mixed-
a ic scena ios.
•We e alua e R-TWT’s scalabili y by e alua ing i s pe o -
mance o a ious ne wo k sizes and examining i s abili y
o main ain pe o mance ac oss lows.
•We iden i y and analyze he ade-o s in R-TWT’s de-
sign, highligh ing i s s eng hs and limi a ions.
The es o he pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion II
desc ibes PSM, TWT, and R-TWT. Then we discuss ela ed
wo ks in Sec ion III. Sec ion IV desc ibes he conside ed
R-TWT implemen a ion, simula ion se up, and pe o mance
e alua ion. Finally, we conclude he pape in Sec ion V.
II. FROM TWT TO R-TWT
In his sec ion, we i s o e iew he PSM mechanism. Then,
we elabo a e on he TWT mechanism in oduced in Wi-Fi 6
and i s e olu ion in o R-TWT in Wi-Fi 7.
A. Powe Sa ing Mode (PSM)
PSM is a powe -sa ing mechanism om Wi-Fi ha allows
STAs o conse e ene gy by pe iodically swi ching be ween
sleep and ac i e modes. In he sleep mode, an STA can
empo a ily u n o i s adio in e ace o sa e ene gy. Du ing
he STA sleeping pe iods, he AP bu e s any da a des ined
o i . In he ac i e mode, he STA is ully awake and eady
o ansmi o ecei e da a. Speci ically, he STA pe iodically
wakes up e e y beacon in e al o ecei e beacon ames
b oadcas by he AP, which con ain a T a ic Iden i ica ion
Map (TIM) including in o ma ion abou he a ailabili y o
bu e ed da a o he STA. I da a is a ailable, he STA eques s
and ecei es i om he AP, and hen swi ches back o sleep
mode un il he nex beacon ame. This mechanism educes
ene gy consump ion bu is less e icien in dense ne wo ks o
o applica ions wi h s ic QoS equi emen s [4].
B. Ta ge Wake Time (TWT)
TWT was i s in oduced in he IEEE 802.11ah s anda d o
mee he s ingen powe e iciency equi emen s o IoT de-
ices ope a ing in he sub-1 GHz equency band. By allowing
de ices o schedule wake-up imes o da a exchange, TWT
enables de ices o en e idle (o sleep) modes o sa e ene gy.
Howe e , TWT in IEEE 802.11ah was p ima ily designed o
low-powe IoT de ices in spa se deploymen s, hence no being
well-sui ed o scena ios wi h high ne wo k densi y, di e se
a ic ypes, o he need o QoS di e en ia ion [5]. The
IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) expanded TWT o suppo di e se
use cases beyond IoT and o imp o e he ne wo k capaci y
and e iciency in dense en i onmen s. TWT enables de ices
o sa e ene gy by le e aging speci ic wake-up imes o da a
ansmission and ecep ion.
STAs implemen ing TWT nego ia e a TWT ag eemen wi h
he AP du ing he associa ion o eassocia ion p ocess. This
ag eemen de ines a schedule speci ying when he STAs will
wake up o exchange da a wi h he AP (TWT se up). A TWT
ag eemen de ines he Se ice Pe iod (SP), which is he ime
window du ing which he STA emains awake and eady o
communica e. This SP is epea ed pe iodically a he beginning
o e e y Wake In e al (WI) du a ion. Thus, he STA wakes
up e e y WI, ini ia es i s SP, and exchanges da a wi h he AP.
Ou side his SP, he STA may go o sleep mode, po en ially
educing powe consump ion and a oiding channel access. As
a esul , he p opo ion o ime he STA is ac i e wi hin i s
WI, e e ed o as he du y cycle (DC), can be calcula ed as:
DC =SP
WI ·100.(1)
1) TWT ag eemen s: TWT ag eemen s a e o wo ypes,
Indi idual TWT Ag eemen and B oadcas TWT Schedule
(bo h illus a ed in Fig. 1). In an Indi idual TWT Ag eemen ,
he AP and he STA nego ia e an ag eemen speci ying pa-
ame e s such as he WI, SP, and s a ime. The ag eemen is
exclusi e o he STA, meaning o he STAs in he ne wo k a e
unawa e o i , so hey migh be ac i e du ing he SP and in lic
channel con en ion o collisions. As shown in Fig. 1, du ing
he TWT Se up, STA 3 eques s an Indi idual ag eemen and
AP acknowledges he eques . A e he TWT du a ion, i.e., he
ime un il he ag eemen becomes ac i e, he i s Indi idual
...
Da a
...
WI
SP (STA 3)
AP
STA 1
STA 2
STA 3
TWT eq.
Ta ge 
WakeTime
(STAs 1 & 2)
TWT
Se up
TWT
Se up
TWT eq.
TWT esp.
TWT eq.
TWT esp.
Awake
WI
Sleep
Da a
Da a
SP
(STAs 1 & 2)
BlockAck
Awake Sleep
BlockAck
Awake Sleep
...
Indi idual
Ag eemen
B oadcas
Schedule
BlockAck
Ta ge Wake
Time(STA 3)
Fig. 1: Indi idual and B oadcas TWT Ag eemen s.
TWT SP begins. Du ing STA 3’s SP, he STA ansmi s da a
o he AP and hen ecei es an acknowledgmen . Ou side he
SP, STA 3 emains in a sleep s a e, conse ing ene gy.
As o he B oadcas TWT Schedule, he AP b oadcas s a
schedule o he ne wo k, which is unde s ood by all TWT-
enabled STAs. This schedule a ge s a g oup o STAs in
he ne wo k o wake up du ing he de ined SP and con end
o channel [6]. While his mechanism imp o es coo dina ion
among STAs, i s ill esul s in con en ion wi hin he g oup.
In Fig. 1, STAs 1 and 2 eques an ag eemen , and he AP
solici s hem a B oadcas TWT Schedule. A e he TWT
du a ion, he i s SP begins and he AP sends da a o bo h
STAs and ecei es BlockAck om bo h STAs. Ou side he SP,
bo h STAs al e na e be ween wake and sleep s a es, conse ing
ene gy while awai ing he nex SP.
2) TWT ope a ion modes: A TWT ag eemen can op-
e a e in a ious modes, depending on he equi emen s o
he ne wo k o applica ion. These modes include implici o
explici , announced o unannounced, and igge -enabled o
non- igge -enabled:
•Implici s. Explici : While an implici ag eemen occu s
pe iodically un il i is explici ly o n down, an explici
ag eemen equi es enego ia ion upon he eques o he
STA o AP, ypically a e an SP ends.
•Announced s. Unannounced: In an announced ag ee-
men , he STA is expec ed o no i y he AP i s eadiness
o ecei e da a. This is ypically done by sending a Powe
Sa ing Poll (PS-Poll) o Au oma ic Powe Sa e Deli e y
(APSD) igge ame o he AP, signaling ha i is
awake and eady o communica ion. In an unannounced
ag eemen , in con as , he AP sends he ames o he
STA wi hou equi ing any p io signal, us ing ha he
Elemen ID Leng h Con ol TWT Pa ame e In o ma ion
Oc e s: 1 1 1 a iable
(a) TWT Elemen
Reques Type
Oc e s: 2 2 1
Ta ge Wake
Time
Nominal
Minimum TWT
Wake Du a ion
2
TWTWake
In e al
Man issa
2
B oadcas 
TWTIn o
0 o 3
Res ic ed TWT
T a ic In o
(op ional)
(b) B oadcas TWT Pa ame e In o ma ion ield
Res ic ed TWT
T a ic In oP esen
Bi s: 1 2 5
Res ic ed TWT
Schedule In o
B oadcas 
TWT ID
8
B oadcas TWT
Pe sis ence
(c) B oadcas TWT In o ield
DL TID
Bi mapValid
UL TID
Bi mapValid
Oc e s: 1 1
T a ic In o Con ol
Res ic ed TWT
DLTID Bi map
1
Res ic ed TWT
ULTID Bi map
Rese ed
Bi s: 1 1 6
(d) Res ic ed TWT T a ic In o ield
Fig. 2: TWT Elemen Including B oadcas TWT Pa ame e
In o ma ion.
STA wakes up a he scheduled ime.
•T igge -Enabled s. Non-T igge -Enabled: In a igge -
enabled TWT ag eemen , he AP explici ly con ols he
uplink ansmissions du ing he SP by sending igge
ames o he STA. Bu in non- igge -enabled mode,
STAs do no wai o any signal om he AP and con end
o channel access i hey ha e da a o send.
3) TWT signaling: TWT ag eemen s a e es ablished and
managed h ough an In o ma ion Elemen (IE) known as
he TWT elemen in Wi-Fi. A TWT elemen con eys he
necessa y pa ame e s o scheduling SPs. As shown in Fig. 2a,
i consis s o ou p ima y ields: Elemen ID, Leng h, Con ol,
and TWT Pa ame e In o ma ion. The Elemen ID iden i ies
he ype o elemen wi hin he managemen ame, while
he Leng h ield speci ies he size o he Con ol and TWT
Pa ame e In o ma ion ields. The Con ol ield de ines key
a ibu es o he ag eemen , including he ype o TWT
ag eemen (Indi idual o B oadcas ), powe -sa ing mode, and
ope a ional pa ame e s.The TWT Pa ame e In o ma ion ield
con ains con igu a ion de ails speci ic o one o mul iple TWT
ag eemen s. These include Reques Type, lags o ope a-
ional modes such as igge -enabled/non- igge -enabled and
announced/unannounced, and iming de ails o SPs and WIs.
C. Res ic ed Ta ge Wake Time (R-TWT)
TWT was o iginally p oposed o educe powe consump ion
while p o iding scheduled access be ween he STA and AP,
mi iga ing con en ion. Howe e , TWT does no o e QoS o
p io i iza ion. To add ess his limi a ion, Wi-Fi 7 in oduces
R-TWT as a mechanism o de ining new ypes o TWT
ag eemen s ha p io i ize la ency-sensi i e a ic.
R-TWT is buil on op o B oadcas TWT Schedule in Wi-
Fi 6 and inco po a es de e minis ic scheduling by allowing
he AP o de ine es ic ed channel access pe iods o speci ic
STA(s) and a ic ypes wi hin he BSS. The nego ia ion
phase o an R-TWT schedule ollows he same p ocedu e as a
B oadcas TWT Schedule bu wi h addi ional ields speci ic o
R-TWT pa ame e s in he TWT elemen s. A key cha ac e is ic
o R-TWT schedules is hei ope a ion in a igge -enabled
mode, whe e he AP explici ly con ols uplink ansmissions
by sending igge ames o he STAs. Fig. 2b ep esen s he
TWT elemen o B oadcas TWT Schedule which is enhanced
o suppo R-TWT schedules. Unde lined sub ields in Figs. 2b
and 2c a e newly added o suppo R-TWT.
1) R-TWT heade : As shown in Fig. 2b, he R-TWT a ic
in o ma ion is embedded in he B oadcas TWT Pa ame e
In o ma ion ield. The B oadcas TWT In o ield (Fig. 2c), pa
o he B oadcas TWT Pa ame e In o ma ion ield, is used
o iden i y he p esence o R-TWT pa ame e s in he TWT
elemen . Two sub ields—Res ic ed TWT T a ic In o P esen
and Res ic ed TWT Schedule In o—indica e i) he p esence
o R-TWT in o ma ion in he elemen , ii) he cu en s a e o
he R-TWT schedule, indica ing whe he i is ac i e o idle.
Fo R-TWT schedules, he Res ic ed TWT T a ic In o ield
is included in he B oadcas TWT In o ield (Fig. 2b). As
shown in Fig. 2d, his ield speci ies he ype o a ic assigned
o his schedule. The T a ic In o Con ol sub ield de e mines
he alidi y o T a ic Iden i ie (TID) bi maps o uplink and
downlink a ic di ec ions. I any o he a ic di ec ions a e
alid, he nex wo oc e s ep esen hei co esponding TID
bi maps. A alue o 1 in bi posi ion pwi hin he TID bi map
indica es ha TID pis conside ed as la ency-sensi i e a ic
o he co esponding di ec ions (uplink and/o downlink).
Con e sely, a alue o 0 means egula a ic.
2) R-TWT ope a ion: R-TWT allows he AP o de ine
es ic ed access pe iods o speci ic STA(s). Du ing he con-
igu a ion o R-TWT, he AP and he scheduled STA(s) mus
se he R-TWT T a ic In o ield (Fig. 2d) in he TWT elemen
o speci y he TID(s) ha handle la ency-sensi i e a ic in
uplink and downlink. This ensu es ha only assigned STA(s)
and hei designa ed a ic ypes pa icipa e in R-TWT SPs.
To ensu e ha he s a ime o he R-TWT SP is p o ec ed
and he AP o membe STA(s) gain channel access as soon
as possible om he expec ed s a ime, he R-TWT-enabled
STAs a e equi ed o end hei T ansmission Oppo uni ies
(TXOPs) be o e he s a ime o he R-TWT SP. This ensu es
ha he channel is almos idle, educing con en ion and
enabling p edic able access o R-TWT SP membe s. Fo non-
R-TWT STAs wi hin he same BSS, he AP may se up a quie
in e al (1024 µs) o quie hem, which minimizes in e e ence
du ing he s a ime o he R-TWT SPs. Howe e , legacy STAs
a e no obliged o espec he quie in e al and may in e e e
wi h he es ablished R-TWT SPs.
Fig. 3 illus a es an example o an R-TWT schedule con-
sis ing o wo R-TWT-enabled STAs. AP and STA 2 a e
membe s o an R-TWT SP. In o ma ion abou he R-TWT
SP is b oadcas ia beacon ames, ensu ing ha all ele an
de ices a e awa e o he schedule. Be o e he s a o he
R-TWT SP, STA 1, which is no a membe o he SP, has an
AP
STA 1
(R-TWT-enabled)
STA 2
(membe o 
R-TWT SP) TXOP
STA 1
R-TWTSP
T igge 
UL DATA
Ack
Ack
Da a
TXOP e mina ion
be o eR-TWT SP
..
Quie
In e al
Backo
TWT eq.
TWT esp.
Beacon
Fig. 3: Res ic ed TWT Schedule.
ongoing TXOP and is exchanging da a wi h he AP. To p o ec
he s a ime o he R-TWT SP, STA 1 is equi ed o e mina e
i s TXOP be o e he SP’s s a ime o lea e he channel idle
(g ayed a ea). This ensu es ha he AP o he STA membe s
o he SP can gain access o he channel a ha expec ed s a
ime. Du ing he quie in e al, a he beginning o he R-TWT
SP, he AP gains access o he channel and igge s STA 2 o
ansmi da a using a igge ame, ensu ing con en ion- ee
access o he channel. The ype o a ic ansmi ed by STA
2 is de e mined by he TID in he TWT elemen , which is
in o med ia beacon ames.
This con olled mechanism signi ican ly educes channel
con en ion. By es ic ing access wi hin he SP, R-TWT en-
ables mo e p edic able and e icien communica ion.
III. STATE OF THE ART
TWT and R-TWT ha e been concei ed o add ess dis inc
objec i es: TWT a ge s op imizing ene gy e iciency by min-
imizing de ice powe consump ion, while R-TWT ocuses
on achie ing de e minis ic and bounded la ency o la ency-
sensi i e a ic. Al hough conside able esea ch has explo ed
he ene gy-sa ing aspec s o TWT, ela i ely ew wo ks ha e
in es iga ed he po en ial o TWT and R-TWT in suppo ing
la ency-sensi i e a ic and enabling de e minis ic scheduling.
In [7], he au ho s p opose an analy ical model o es ima e
packe loss p obabili y and delay p obabili y dis ibu ion o
RT applica ions. This model conside s R-TWT pa ame e s
such as SP and WI, as well as a ic ypes, e ansmission
a emp s, and ne wo k con igu a ion. The AP u ilizes his
model o de e mine op imal R-TWT pa ame e s, ensu ing
e icien suppo o RT applica ions. Haxhibeqi i e al. [8]
implemen ed a cyclic TWT SP scheduling on a so wa e-
de ined adio pla o m o emula e he R-TWT beha io . They
minimize channel con en ion by sequen ially scheduling TWT
SPs and a oiding o e laps. Thei expe imen consis s o wo
dis inc ime-c i ical a ic lows wi h unique la ency bounds
and shows ha R-TWT gua an ees la ency o sensi i e a ic.
Simila ly, [9] in oduces a amewo k o maximizing imely
h oughpu using B oadcas TWT schedules. The s udy in-
oduces a join op imiza ion app oach ha con igu es TWT
pa ame e s such as SP, WI, and s a ime, in combina ion wi h
esou ce alloca ion and STA g ouping o ensu e packe s a e
deli e ed wi hin hei deadlines. The op imiza ion p oblem o
op imal TWT con igu a ion is di ided in o wo pa s: g ouping
STAs and alloca ing esou ces o he membe s o each g oup.
By e alua ing di e en s a egies, he pape concludes ha
he p oposed mechanism ou pe o ms o he mechanisms o
g ouping and alloca ing esou ces.
Addi ionally, se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed me hods o
enhance he e iciency o TWT. Fo ins ance, a ic cha ac-
e iza ion o imp o e TWT scheduling is explo ed in [10]. The
s udy in oduces a me hod o accu a e a ic cha ac e iza ion,
using In-band Ne wo k Teleme y (INT) o measu e a ic
gene a ion pa e ns accu a ely. I embeds a ic in o ma ion in
he TCP heade o p o ide su icien in o ma ion o he AP
o schedule he TWT SPs e ec i ely. This me hod op imizes
ene gy e iciency and h oughpu .
Some wo ks ocus on Uplink O hogonal F equency Di-
ision Mul iple Access (UL-OFDMA) o u he op imize
TWT’s WIs and s a imes. Fo ins ance, he au ho s o [11]
p opose a scheduling mechanism ha minimizes con en ion
and maximizes esou ce alloca ion by managing he numbe
o awake de ices based on a ailable Resou ce Uni s (RUs),
con en ion window size, and WIs eques ed by STAs. Sim-
ila ly, [12] in oduces a scheme ha ensu es he numbe o
awake STAs ma ches he a ailable RUs a each a ge beacon
and op imizes he WIs o achie e con en ion- ee channel
access. The au ho s employ a gene ic algo i hm o maximize
h oughpu while sa is ying delay cons ain s and imp o ing
ene gy e iciency. Au ho s o [13] e alua e TWT scheduling
s a egies by p oposing a ma hema ical model o op imize SP
du a ion based on STAs’ a ic loads. The s udy compa es
wo s a egies: max- a e, which p io i izes high- a e STAs, and
p opo ional ai ness, which balances h oughpu and ai ness.
The esul s show ha max- a e achie es highe h oughpu ,
while p opo ional ai ness ensu es be e esou ce dis ibu ion.
The e iewed wo ks highligh ad ancemen s in TWT and
R-TWT o ene gy e iciency, h oughpu , and la ency. While
subs an ial p og ess exis s in op imizing ene gy-sa ing mecha-
nisms, esea ch on de e minis ic and bounded la ency emains
limi ed, pa icula ly o R-TWT. These gaps emphasize he
need o u he in es iga ion in o la ency-sensi i e scheduling
and QoS di e en ia ion in u u e wi eless ne wo ks.
IV. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
In his sec ion, we i s desc ibe ou implemen a ion and
ou line he simula ion se up used o he e alua ion. We hen
p esen and analyze he ob ained esul s.
A. Implemen a ion Conside a ions
We mimic he es ic ed access beha io o R-TWT by
adop ing Indi idual TWT, whe eby he AP nego ia es TWT
SPs wi h each STA, and by assigning non-o e lapping wake-
up imes o speci ic STAs. Acco dingly, only he scheduled
STA is expec ed o communica e du ing he nego ia ed SP,
hence c ea ing a pseudo- es ic ed access pe iod.
To s udy he QoS aspec s o R-TWT, we assign a single
a ic ype o each indi idual STA, ensu ing ha a single
a ic ype is ansmi ed a a gi en TWT SP. This elimina es
he need o a ic classi ica ion o in e nal QoS p io i iza ion,
as he STA ansmi s o ecei es only i s designa ed a ic low.
Since he ne wo k me ely consis s o TWT-enabled STAs,
de e minis ic scheduling o TWT in e als, du a ions, and s a
imes, R-TWT beha io is ealized, esul ing in con en ion- ee
channel access o each STA.
Mo eo e , da a packe s a e gene a ed pe iodically bu a e
no synch onized wi h he beginning o he SPs, leading o
asynch onous a i als ha a e bu e ed un il he nex SP. This
bu e ing in oduces queuing delays, pa icula ly when WIs
a e long, as packe s mus wai longe o hei ansmission
oppo uni y. In addi ion, con ol ames a e ansmi ed ia
hese R-TWT SPs, which may cause addi ional delays.
B. Simula ion Se up
We conduc ed he expe imen s in he ns-3 simula o ( e sion
ns-3.36.1) [14] o e alua e he pe o mance and obus ness
o R-TWT in handling he e ogeneous applica ion demands.
Thus, we selec ed h ee a ic ypes, namely In e ne o Things
(IoT), eal- ime (RT), and unlimi ed bulk, each including
dis inc cha ac e is ics obse ed in eal-wo ld deploymen s:
•IoT a ic: which is uplink, pe iodic, low da a a e
UDP ansmission common in indus ial au oma ion and
moni o ing. Acco ding o he Time-Sensi i e Ne wo king
(TSN) es bed cha ac e iza ion [15], such a ic ypes
a e la ency-sensi i e (≤20 ms) and equi e de e minis ic
deli e y. R-TWT’s con en ion- ee scheduling makes i
sui able o such ime-sensi i e applica ions. In ou sim-
ula ions, IoT lows a e con igu ed wi h a da a a e o
500 Kb/s, payload size o 200 B, and a maximum la ency
h eshold o 20 ms.
•Real- ime (RT) a ic: e lec s he la ency-c i ical appli-
ca ions such as webcam eeds, ideo con e encing, XR,
and cloud gaming. Se ices like Zoom and Mic oso
Teams ecommend end- o-end la encies below 150 ms,
wi hin 20–50 ms conside ed ideal o highly in e ac i e
expe iences [16], [17]. R-TWT is designed o suppo
such scena ios h ough de e minis ic access and bounded
la ency. In ou se up, RT lows ha e a da a a e o 6 Mb/s
and a e e alua ed in uplink UDP and TCP. Each packe
has a 1000 Bpayload, and he la ency h eshold o ideal
use expe ience is se o 50 ms.
•Bulk a ic: ep esen s high- h oughpu , bes -e o ap-
plica ions, such as ile ans e s, which sa u a e he chan-
nel and c ea e con en ion. Including such lows allows
us o assess he obus ness o R-TWT unde backg ound
load and i s abili y o isola e la ency-c i ical a ic. Bulk
a ic is modeled as uplink TCP lows wi h no a e
limi a ion, aiming o u ilize he ull a ailable bandwid h.
Each packe has a payload size o 1300 B.
These a ic ypes we e chosen o emula e a ealis ic mul i-
se ice en i onmen and o s ess he R-TWT mechanism
unde di e se pe o mance equi emen s. We ocus exclusi ely
on uplink a ic o e alua e how R-TWT coo dina es channel
access unde high STA-side con en ion.
All expe imen s we e conduc ed in a single BSS, consis ing
o one AP and mul iple STAs, posi ioned 1-2 me e s om
he AP. The channel wid h is se o 40 MHz, ope a ing in
he 6 GHz equency band, and he selec ed Modula ion and
Coding Scheme (MCS) is 7. Mo eo e , we use he Medium
Access Con ol (MAC) queue size o 500 packe s o he
AP and he STAs. These con olled Physical (PHY)/MAC
se ings a e chosen o isola e and analyze he impac o R-TWT
scheduling on ne wo k pe o mance.
Each expe imen was pe o med independen ly, wi h all
STAs in he ne wo k implemen ing a single mechanism,
namely R-TWT, PSM, o DCF, which is he legacy con en ion-
based channel access me hod. This sepa a ion ensu es ha
no mixed-mechanism scena ios occu , allowing o a di ec
and ai compa ison o he pe o mance o each mechanism.
Simula ion esul s we e a e aged o e i e uns wi h di e en
andom seeds. Each simula ion las ed 15 seconds plus a
1.2-second wa mup phase. Du ing he wa mup phase, TWT
ag eemen s we e es ablished, and da a collec ion began a e
his phase. The TWT ag eemen s a e con igu ed o ope a e in
implici , unannounced, and igge -enabled modes.
Pe o mance e alua ion ocuses on he ollowing key me -
ics: applica ion-laye wo s -case la ency (99 h pe cen ile,
in ms), ene gy consump ion (J), collision a e (%), and
h oughpu (Mb/s). Collision a e ep esen s he p opo ion o
packe s d opped due o o e lapping ansmissions a he PHY
laye . We classi y a packe as collided i he p eamble o signal
ields (e.g., legacy SIG, HT-SIG, HE-SIG) a e co up ed,
o i ecep ion is abo ed due o in e e ence om a new
ansmission. D ops caused by powe s a e changes (e.g.,
sleep) o unsuppo ed con igu a ions a e excluded om he
collision coun .
C. Expe imen 1: R-TWT Pa ame e Con igu a ion
We s a showing how c i ical i is o p ope ly con igu e
he pa ame e s o he R-TWT mechanism. In pa icula , a
sho e WI esul s in mo e equen SPs, which educes la ency
as he de ice has mo e oppo uni ies o access he channel.
The e o e, he WI du a ion o each low mus be selec ed
based on he la ency bounds o he a ic o be suppo ed. As
o he SP du a ion, a longe alue allows exchanging mo e
da a (ac i e pe iods a e longe ), po en ially educing la ency.
Howe e , his can inc ease he wai ing ime o o he de ices,
as hei ansmissions a e de e ed un il he cu en SP ends.
I may also lead o a bu e o e low on he sende side.
To s udy he ade-o be ween educing la ency o one
de ice and inc easing i o o he s, we analyze he sensi i i y
o he RT low o di e en DC alues in he p esence o IoT
and bulk lows. Based on hese esul s, we selec he mos
sui able DC con igu a ion o he RT low and use i in he
subsequen expe imen s ha e alua e R-TWT’s pe o mance
unde a ying ne wo k sizes. Fo simplici y and ai ness, a
common WI is used o all lows. This alue is chosen based
on he la ency equi emen o he IoT low, which has he mos

s ingen cons ain . As a esul , he WI mus be sho enough
o ensu e ha he la ency h eshold is me .
The simula ion consis s o a single BSS wi h one AP and
11 STAs. The i s STA gene a es an uplink UDP IoT low,
he second ca ies an uplink UDP RT low, and he emaining
9 STAs gene a e uplink TCP bulk lows. The bulk lows se e
as backg ound a ic o in lic cons an channel con en ion.
All lows consis o a ixed WI o 17408 µs. The IoT low
has a p e- alida ed DC o 10% o sa is y i s la ency cons ain s.
The emaining DC is spli be ween he RT and bulk lows, such
ha he RT low’s DC is ecip ocal o ha o he bulk lows.
We a y he RT DC om 6% o 18%by adjus ing hei SPs
o e alua e he impac on key pe o mance me ics.
Fig. 4 p esen s he pe o mance o he RT low as a unc ion
o he DC. The pe o mance o he IoT low, which assumes
a ixed DC o 10%in all he cases, is also included. As
shown in Fig. 4a, a lowe DC, which esul s in insu icien
ai ime, leads o unaccep able la ency o RT compa ed o he
RT h eshold. As DC inc eases, RT’s la ency dec eases due o
mo e equen and longe SPs, hus allowing i o mee he
la ency equi emen . Howe e , highe DC alues also lead o
inc eased ene gy consump ion, as shown in Fig. 4b, since he
RT STA emains ac i e o longe du a ions wi hin each WI.
The collision a e emains nea ly unchanged ac oss di e en
DCs. Simila ly, he h oughpu o he RT low ma ches i s
con igu ed a e, due o he na u e o UDP a ic, which
con inuously ansmi s packe s wi hou low con ol. The co -
esponding plo s a e omi ed o sa e space. Finally, alloca ing
mo e DC o he RT low educes he ai ime a ailable o
backg ound bulk lows, leading o a decline in hei agg ega ed
h oughpu , as shown in Fig. 4c. Hence, he op imal DC alue
o UDP RT a ic is 12%.
These esul s highligh he impo ance o ca e ully selec ing
he DC in R-TWT o balance la ency, ene gy, and ai ness.
To alida e his beha io o di e en anspo p o ocols,
we epea ed he expe imen o he RT low using TCP (no
included o he sake o space). We de e mined ha he op imal
DC is 16% o sa is y he equi ed pe o mance cons ain s.
D. Expe imen 2: Robus ness o R-TWT o Va ious Se ices
In his expe imen , we e alua e he obus ness o R-TWT in
suppo ing la ency-sensi i e a ic unde mixed- a ic condi-
ions. Speci ically, we assess how IoT and RT a ic pe o m
in he p esence o uplink TCP bulk lows c ea ing inc easing
channel con en ion. The goal is o de e mine whe he R-TWT
can main ain accep able la ency and h oughpu o p io i ized
lows, while explo ing how a ic cha ac e is ics and ne wo k
size in luence o e all ne wo k pe o mance.
TABLE I: Con igu a ion o a ic lows.
Flow ype Da a a e Payload (B) DC (%) WI (µs)
IoT 500 Kb/s200 10 17408
Real- ime 6 Mb/s1000 12 17408
Bulk Unlimi ed 1300 75 17408
The simula ions consis o a single BSS wi h one AP and
nSTAs, whe e n anges om 3 o 15. We conside IoT, RT,
and bulk a ic ypes, each wi h dis inc cha ac e is ics sum-
ma ized in Table I. Th oughou all he simula ion scena ios,
he i s STA is con igu ed wi h he IoT low, he second STA
ca ies he RT low, and STAs 3 o neach gene a e a single
uplink TCP bulk low. The R-TWT con igu a ions in his
expe imen a e based on he empi ical es s in Sec ion IV-C.
1) RT UDP: Fig. 5 e alua es R-TWT pe o mance in e ms
o wo s -case (99-pe cen ile) la ency (wi h la ency h esholds
o 20 ms o IoT and 50 ms o RT), ene gy consump ion,
and collision a e o IoT and RT lows unde R-TWT, PSM,
and DCF mechanisms. As shown in Fig. 5a, only R-TWT
consis en ly mee s bo h h esholds as ne wo k size inc eases,
due o R-TWT’s con en ion- ee scheduling, which isola es
a ic in p ede ined SPs. In con as , PSM exceeds hese
h esholds in la ge ne wo ks due o sleep-wake bu e ing and
inc eased con en ion upon waking (e.g., 100 ms). Likewise,
DCF leads o signi ican la encies (e.g., o e 300 ms om 7
STAs) due o excessi e channel con en ion and collisions.
In e ms o ene gy consump ion, R-TWT signi ican ly ou -
pe o ms bo h PSM and DCF (Fig. 5b), e en as he ne wo k
size inc eases, hanks o he long sleep du a ions ha IoT
and RT STAs main ain unde R-TWT. The scheduled na u e
o R-TWT also educes collisions o la ency-sensi i e lows,
as shown in Fig. 5c. E en as he ne wo k size inc eases,
collision a es o IoT and RT lows emain minimal in R-TWT
compa ed o PSM and DCF. This imp o emen esul s om
R-TWT’s con en ion- ee access, which isola es each low in
i s designa ed SP.
Fig. 6 p esen s he h oughpu o IoT and RT lows,
along wi h he agg ega ed h oughpu o backg ound bulk
ansmissions. As o he h oughpu (Fig. 6a), bo h IoT and
RT lows achie e hei de ined a ge s (500 Kb/s o IoT,
6Mb/s o RT). This shows ha R-TWT main ains p edic able
h oughpu o la ency-sensi i e a ic ac oss a ying ne wo k
sizes. Howe e , his comes a he cos o o e all ne wo k pe -
o mance. As shown in Fig. 6b, R-TWT signi ican ly educes
he agg ega ed h oughpu o bulk lows compa ed o PSM
and DCF, due o he educed channel access ime alloca ed o
bulk ansmissions. This highligh s R-TWT’s design p io i y
on de e minis ic access, which limi s bandwid h a ailable o
bes -e o a ic in a o o p o ec ing la ency-sensi i e lows.
2) RT TCP: Changing he anspo p o ocol o he RT low
o TCP esul s in simila ends in ene gy consump ion and
collision a e. The e o e, we omi hose plo s due o space
cons ain s. As mo i a ed in Sec ion IV-C, ixed DCs o 10%
and 16%a e chosen o IoT and RT lows, espec i ely. The
emaining DC is ese ed o bulk lows.
Fig. 7a shows he wo s -case uplink la ency o IoT UDP
and RT TCP lows unde R-TWT, PSM, and DCF as he
numbe o backg ound STAs inc eases. R-TWT main ains
s able and bounded la ency, consis en ly mee ing he la ency
h esholds o bo h lows (20 ms o IoT, 50 ms o RT), e en
as ne wo k densi y inc eases. This demons a es R-TWT’s
abili y o p o ide con en ion- ee access h ough isola ed SPs.
6 12 18
DC (%)
20
40
60
80
100
120
La ency (ms) - P99
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
RT h esh.
IoT h esh.
(a) Wo s -case la ency
6 12 18
DC (%)
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Ene gy (J)
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
(b) Ene gy consump ion
6 12 18
DC (%)
30.0
32.5
35.0
37.5
40.0
42.5
45.0
Agg ega ed h oughpu (Mb/s)
R-TWT
(c) Agg ega ed bulk h oughpu
Fig. 4: Uplink UDP eal- ime (RT) a ic wi h DC a ied om 6% o 18%; IoT low ixed a 10%.
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
0
100
200
300
400
La ency (ms) - P99
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
PSM (IoT)
PSM (RT)
DCF (IoT)
DCF (RT)
RT h esh.
IoT h esh.
(a) Wo s -case la ency
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
2
3
4
5
6
7
Ene gy (J)
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
PSM (IoT)
PSM (RT)
DCF (IoT)
DCF (RT)
(b) Ene gy consump ion
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
0
5
10
15
20
25
Collision a e (%)
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
PSM (IoT)
PSM (RT)
DCF (IoT)
DCF (RT)
(c) Collision a e
Fig. 5: Uplink IoT and eal- ime (RT) UDP a ic pe o mance unde R-TWT, PSM, and DCF, ac oss key me ics.
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
1
2
3
4
5
6
Th oughpu (Mb/s)
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
PSM (IoT)
PSM (RT)
DCF (IoT)
DCF (RT)
RT da a a e
IoT da a a e
(a) Th oughpu
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
20
40
60
80
100
Agg ega ed h oughpu (Mb/s)
R-TWT
PSM
DCF
(b) Agg ega ed bulk h oughpu
Fig. 6: Th oughpu o uplink IoT and RT UDP a ic.
PSM shows ela i ely s able la ency g ow h bu exceeds he
50 ms h eshold a la ge ne wo k sizes (e.g., 10 STAs). This
deg ada ion is due o inc eased bu e ing a he AP and delayed
channel access caused by sleep-wake ansi ions. In con as ,
DCF exhibi s a sha p ise in la ency o bo h a ic ypes,
exceeding 300 ms o 8 STAs. This beha io is he esul o
con en ion and equen e ansmissions.
As o h oughpu shown in Fig. 7b, he IoT low main ains
i s expec ed h oughpu ac oss all mechanisms. This is due o
i s low da a a e and he abili y o R-TWT, PSM, and DCF o
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
0
100
200
300
400
La ency (ms) - P99
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
PSM (IoT)
PSM (RT)
DCF (IoT)
DCF (RT)
RT h esh.
IoT h esh.
(a) Wo s -case la ency
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Numbe o backg ound STAs
1
2
3
4
5
6
Th oughpu (Mb/s)
R-TWT (IoT)
R-TWT (RT)
PSM (IoT)
PSM (RT)
DCF (IoT)
DCF (RT)
RT da a a e
IoT da a a e
(b) Th oughpu
Fig. 7: Uplink IoT UDP and RT TCP a ic pe o mance.
accommoda e such a ic e en unde inc easing con en ion.
In con as , he RT TCP low unde R-TWT expe iences
a g adual deg ada ion in h oughpu as he ne wo k g ows.
This is due o he bu e size a he AP. As mo e uplink TCP
lows a e in oduced, he AP mus manage an inc easing ol-
ume o TCP acknowledgmen s. Gi en limi ed bu e capaci y,
acknowledgmen packe s o he RT low a e d opped. The
STA in e p e s hese missing acknowledgmen s as conges ion,
esul ing in educed conges ion window size and a educed
send a e. Consequen ly, he STA canno ully u ilize i s
alloca ed SPs, leading o lowe h oughpu .
In PSM, he RT low also su e s h oughpu deg ada ion due
o delayed acknowledgmen s and inc eased channel con en ion
du ing ac i e pe iods. DCF, on he o he hand, s a s wi h
highe h oughpu in low-densi y scena ios bu deg ades as
con en ion and collisions inc ease wi h ne wo k size.
3) Takeaways: The esul s con i m ha R-TWT e ec i ely
p o ides low-la ency gua an ees o la ency-sensi i e a ic,
such as IoT and RT applica ions, while main aining ene gy
e iciency and consis en pe - low h oughpu and eliable
channel access ac oss a ying ne wo k sizes. This is p ima ily
because o R-TWT’s con en ion- ee scheduling mechanism,
whe e speci ic STAs and a ic ypes a e assigned o p ede-
ined SPs, ensu ing imely and isola ed access. As a esul ,
R-TWT signi ican ly educes collision a es o p io i ized
lows, u he enhancing eliabili y.
Howe e , hese bene i s come wi h ade-o s. Bulk lows
expe ience deg aded pe o mance due o limi ed ai ime unde
R-TWT’s ixed schedule. Addi ionally, TCP-based RT lows
su e h oughpu deg ada ion in la ge ne wo ks because o
acknowledgmen packe d ops a he AP caused by bu e
o e low. These d opped acknowledgmen s dis up he TCP
beha io , educing conges ion window g ow h and unde u i-
lizing he alloca ed SPs. While R-TWT p o ides s ic iming
gua an ees, i does no manage o gua an ee bu e space a
he ecei e . As a esul , bu e limi , pa icula ly a he AP,
can signi ican ly a ec end- o-end TCP pe o mance.
Finally, in dense deploymen s, he equi emen o gua an-
ee con en ion- ee access o many STAs educes he AP’s
lexibili y in alloca ing su icien SP du a ions pe de ice. As
a esul , he limi ed ai ime pe low can lead o inc eased
la ency and educed h oughpu .
V. CONCLUSION
In his pape , we modeled and e alua ed he beha io o
R-TWT in he ns-3 simula o o assess i s po en ial a en-
hancing low la ency, ene gy e iciency, and eliabili y. Th ough
simula ions, we assessed he obus ness o R-TWT agains
di e se a ic ypes and showcased he scalabili y o he mech-
anism o a ying ne wo k sizes. The esul s highligh ha
R-TWT achie es bounded la ency o la ency-sensi i e a ic,
such as IoT and RT applica ions, mee ing expec ed bounds
o hese use cases. Fu he mo e, R-TWT scales e ec i ely
wi h ne wo k size, main aining consis en h oughpu and
achie ing supe io ene gy e iciency in all scena ios. R-TWT
ou pe o ms PSM and DCF in mos o he e alua ed me ics,
pa icula ly o dense en i onmen s whe e con en ion is high.
Mo eo e , R-TWT in e ac s be e wi h UDP applica ions such
as indus ial sensing and su eillance. I may no be ideal o
TCP lows, as i s igid scheduling can lead o bu e o e low
and educed h oughpu due o dis up ed conges ion window.
In u u e wo k, we plan o e alua e R-TWT pe o mance
unde mo e conges ed and he e ogeneous a ic condi ions
o u he alida e i s scalabili y in dense deploymen s. We
also aim o in es iga e adap i e DC con igu a ions o en-
hance channel access ime and e iciency in dynamic ne wo k
en i onmen s. Finally, we will explo e he impac o bu e
managemen in R-TWT scheduling on TCP-based lows.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
F. Wilhelmi is pa ially unded by Wi-XR PID2021-
123995NB-I00 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER,UE). L. Gala i-Gio dano
is pa ially suppo ed by UNITY-6G p ojec 101192650
(EU/SNS JU).
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