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Compa a i e Assessmen o Bac e iological D inking Wa e
Quali y in U ban and Ru al A eas o Peshawa , Pakis an
Muhammad Essa
Bs Depa men o En i onmen al Science Uni e si y o Peshawa .
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Shahid Nawaz
Bs Depa men o En i onmen al Science Uni e si y o Peshawa .
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Access o sa e d inking wa e is essen ial o li e, ye Pakis an s uggles wi h wa e bo ne pa hogens
a ec ing i s supply. This s udy compa es d inking wa e quali y in u ban (Haya abad) and u al (La ama)
a eas o Peshawa , Khybe Pakh unkhwa. Randomly collec ed wa e samples om sou ces and use
poin s we e es ed o bac e iological pa ame e s, including o al and ecal coli o ms, and physicochemical
pa ame e s like pH, u bidi y, ha dness, TDS, EC, and chlo ide. Resul s showed 90% o u ban samples
we e ee om ecal con amina ion, while 80% o u al samples we e con amina ed. U ban wa e mos ly
me na ional s anda ds, whe eas u al wa e o en exceeded limi s o coli o ms and TDS, posing heal h
isks. Recommenda ions include enhanced sani a ion, eliable wa e sys ems, and egula quali y
moni o ing, especially in u al a eas.
Key Wo ds: D inking Wa e Quali y, Pa hogen Con amina ion, U ban-Ru al Compa ison, Wa e
T ea men .
In oduc ion
Access o sa e d inking wa e is uni e sally ecognized as a undamen al human igh
and an indispensable necessi y o sus aining li e. Wa e is i al o nume ous
physiological unc ions, including was e elimina ion, empe a u e egula ion, diges ion,
and nu ien anspo . I cons i u es app oxima ely 60% o he human body, and
su i al wi hou adequa e wa e is limi ed o only a ew days. Howe e , he a ailabili y
o sa e d inking wa e emains a signi ican challenge wo ldwide. Wa e con amina ion,
pa icula ly by mic oo ganisms, is a p ima y ac o con ibu ing o he p e alence o
wa e bo ne diseases. Deep g oundwa e , o en conside ed a secu e sou ce o d inking
wa e globally, is no immune o con amina ion, as nume ous s udies ha e documen ed
cases o mic obial pollu an s in il a ing g oundwa e supplies. In Pakis an, wa e
quali y issues a e a p essing en i onmen al and public heal h conce n. Bo h su ace and
g oundwa e esou ces a e inc easingly pollu ed wi h ha m ul subs ances and mic obial
con aminan s, esul ing in widesp ead heal h isks. Poo sani a ion, inadequa e was e
managemen , and he in e mixing o sewage and d inking wa e sys ems exace ba e he
p oblem. Despi e g oundwa e being a c i ical esou ce, accoun ing o nea ly one- hi d
o Pakis an’s o al wa e supply, only abou 20% o he popula ion has access o sa e
d inking wa e . The emaining 80% ely on unsa e wa e sou ces, wi h a p onounced
dispa i y be ween u ban and u al a eas. S a is ics e eal ha 70% o he u al
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popula ion lacks access o po able wa e , while u ban access anges be ween 40% and
60%, unde sco ing signi ican inequi ies in wa e esou ce dis ibu ion. U ban wa e
quali y in Pakis an is o en comp omised due o aging in as uc u e and leakage in
wa e dis ibu ion sys ems, leading o c oss-con amina ion wi h sewage lines. In u al
a eas, he absence o cen alized wa e supply sys ems lea es communi ies dependen
on un ea ed sou ces such as wells and sp ings, which a e equen ly con amina ed wi h
pa hogens. S udies ha e iden i ied a ange o ha m ul mic oo ganisms in Pakis an's
wa e sou ces, including E. coli, Salmonella spp., Vib io chole ae, Pseudomonas
ae uginosa, and o he s, o en a concen a ions exceeding Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
(WHO) s anda ds. These con aminan s pose se e e isks o wa e bo ne diseases, which
a e a leading cause o mo bidi y and mo ali y in he coun y. In Peshawa , he capi al o
Khybe Pakh unkhwa, he challenges o ensu ing sa e d inking wa e a e pa icula ly
acu e. U ban a eas, cha ac e ized by high popula ion densi ies and apid economic
g ow h, ace signi ican s ain on wa e ea men and dis ibu ion sys ems. Leakages in
pipelines, inadequa e ea men acili ies, and imp ope disposal o indus ial and
municipal was e con ibu e o mic obial con amina ion o wa e supplies. As a esul , a
subs an ial p opo ion o wa e samples collec ed om u ban households in Peshawa
ha e been ound o con ain o al coli o ms and ecal coli o ms, exceeding pe missible
limi s. Such con amina ion indica es sewage pollu ion and aises conce ns abou public
heal h in u ban se ings. Con e sely, u al a eas o Peshawa o en lack access o any
o malized wa e supply sys ems, elying ins ead on un ea ed su ace and g oundwa e
sou ces. The absence o il a ion o disin ec ion p ocesses in hese a eas u he
compounds he isks associa ed wi h wa e bo ne pa hogens. Resea ch has e ealed
ala ming le els o mic obial con aminan s, including E. coli, in u al d inking wa e
sou ces. This dispa i y be ween u ban and u al wa e quali y in Peshawa e lec s
b oade na ional ends and highligh s he need o a ge ed in e en ions o add ess
wa e sa e y and access issues in bo h se ings. The oo causes o wa e quali y
challenges in Peshawa a e mul i ace ed. They include poo was e managemen
p ac ices, inadequa e egula o y en o cemen , lack o public awa eness abou wa e
sa e y, and insu icien in es men in wa e in as uc u e. Mo eo e , apid u baniza ion
and popula ion g ow h ha e placed addi ional p essu e on exis ing wa e esou ces,
u he de e io a ing hei quali y. In u al a eas, he lack o basic wa e ea men
acili ies means ha communi ies emain ulne able o diseases caused by mic obial
con aminan s. I hese issues a e no add essed p omp ly, he heal h and economic
impac s could be ca as ophic, wi h inc eased disease p e alence and educed
p oduc i i y exace ba ing po e y and inequali y in he egion. This esea ch seeks o
p o ide a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he biological d inking wa e quali y in
Peshawa by conduc ing a compa a i e assessmen o u ban and u al a eas. The s udy
ocuses on he p e alence o mic obial con aminan s, including o al coli o ms and ecal
coli o ms, in d inking wa e samples om selec ed loca ions. By quan i ying hese
con aminan s and e alua ing compliance wi h na ional wa e quali y s anda ds, he
esea ch aims o iden i y dispa i ies be ween u ban and u al wa e supplies. The
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indings will help o elucida e he unde lying ac o s con ibu ing o con amina ion and
in o m he de elopmen o s a egies o imp o e wa e quali y in bo h se ings. Th ough
his compa a i e assessmen , he s udy also aims o add ess he b oade implica ions o
wa e quali y dispa i ies in Peshawa . Unde s anding he di e ences in con amina ion
le els be ween u ban and u al a eas can p o ide aluable insigh s in o he e ec i eness
o exis ing wa e managemen p ac ices and highligh a eas equi ing u gen
in e en ion. Recommenda ions based on he esea ch indings will ocus on enhancing
wa e ea men and dis ibu ion in as uc u e, p omo ing public awa eness abou
wa e sa e y, and s eng hening egula o y amewo ks o ensu e compliance wi h
quali y s anda ds. By add essing hese c i ical issues, he s udy seeks o con ibu e o
he b oade goal o sa egua ding public heal h and imp o ing wa e esou ce
managemen in Peshawa .
Li e a u e Re iew
Access o sa e and clean d inking wa e is essen ial o he heal h and well-being o
indi iduals, and is ecognized as a undamen al human igh . Ye , in many de eloping
coun ies, including Pakis an, signi ican challenges pe sis in ensu ing equi able access
o sa e d inking wa e . These challenges a e compounded by issues such as wa e
sca ci y, inadequa e in as uc u e, poo wa e quali y, and socio-economic inequali ies,
which oge he con ibu e o a high bu den o wa e bo ne diseases. Wa e sca ci y, in
pa icula , is a p ominen issue in a id and semi-a id egions, whe e wa e esou ces a e
limi ed, and inadequa e s o age acili ies u he es ic access o wa e . The dispa i y
be ween u ban and u al a eas ega ding wa e a ailabili y is also signi ican , wi h
u ban cen e s ypically ecei ing be e wa e se ices, while u al a eas emain
unde se ed and o en ely on con amina ed wa e sou ces (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
[WHO], 2019).
Poo sani a ion p ac ices, he lack o was e disposal sys ems, and un ea ed sewage
discha ge con ibu e signi ican ly o he con amina ion o wa e sou ces in de eloping
coun ies. Pa hogenic mic oo ganisms such as bac e ia, i uses, and pa asi es a e
commonly ound in d inking wa e sou ces, leading o a ange o diseases including
dia hea, chole a, yphoid, and hepa i is. These diseases disp opo iona ely a ec
ulne able popula ions, such as child en and he elde ly, causing signi ican mo bidi y
and mo ali y (WHO, 2019). In addi ion, many a eas su e om aging wa e
in as uc u e, including leaking pipelines, ou da ed ea men acili ies, and ine icien
wa e dis ibu ion sys ems. These issues con ibu e o wa e losses and diminished
wa e quali y, u he exace ba ing he challenges in p o iding sa e d inking wa e o
communi ies (UN-Wa e , 2017).
Socio-economic ac o s play a pi o al ole in shaping access o sa e d inking wa e .
Po e y, limi ed esou ces, and poli ical challenges o en hinde in es men s in
necessa y in as uc u e and sani a ion p og ams. As a esul , ma ginalized
communi ies con inue o ace wa e insecu i y, and he cycle o po e y is u he
pe pe ua ed by he ad e se heal h impac s o wa e bo ne diseases. The economic
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bu den o hese illnesses is subs an ial, including high heal hca e cos s, educed
p oduc i i y, and he di e sion o esou ces om o he c i ical needs, ul ima ely
exace ba ing he po e y cycle (UNICEF, 2018). The lack o access o clean wa e and
sani a ion no only impac s public heal h bu also s i les socio-economic de elopmen by
limi ing educa ional and economic oppo uni ies, and con ibu ing o en i onmen al
deg ada ion.
Wa e bo ne diseases emain a signi ican public heal h h ea in Pakis an, wi h
con amina ed wa e being a majo sou ce o mo bidi y and mo ali y. Acco ding o
WHO, wa e bo ne diseases such as dia hea, chole a, and yphoid a e widesp ead in
bo h u ban and u al a eas, whe e wa e con amina ion is o en a esul o inadequa e
wa e ea men , poo sani a ion, and he discha ge o un ea ed sewage. The quali y o
wa e in many a eas is comp omised by indus ial discha ges, ag icul u al uno , and
open de eca ion, which pollu e wa e sou ces. Hea y me als, chemicals, and pa hogens
om hese sou ces pose se ious heal h isks o he popula ion. Addi ionally, poo wa e
ea men in as uc u e and he lack o egula main enance o wa e acili ies
con ibu e o he pe sis ence o wa e bo ne diseases (Muzammil e al., 2020; Kuma e
al., 2023).
Ag icul u al p ac ices also con ibu e signi ican ly o wa e con amina ion in Pakis an.
The excessi e use o pes icides, e ilize s, and o he chemicals in ag icul u e leads o
he con amina ion o bo h su ace and g oundwa e sou ces. These chemicals can leach
in o wa e bodies, causing long- e m en i onmen al damage and posing a h ea o
public heal h. The lack o p ope sani a ion in as uc u e u he exace ba es wa e
pollu ion, pa icula ly in u al a eas whe e open de eca ion emains p e alen , leading
o con amina ion o wa e sou ces wi h ecal ma e . The elease o un ea ed sewage
in o wa e bodies is a common p ac ice, especially in u ban cen e s, signi ican ly
impac ing wa e quali y and inc easing he isk o wa e bo ne diseases (Ejaz e al.,
2020; Iqbal e al., 2023).
The inadequacy o exis ing wa e ea men acili ies in Pakis an is ano he c i ical issue
ha unde mines he sa e y o d inking wa e . Many wa e ea men plan s a e
ou da ed, lack he necessa y capaci y, and a e poo ly main ained. As a esul , hey ail o
e ec i ely emo e ha m ul con aminan s om wa e , lea ing he popula ion exposed o
wa e bo ne diseases. Mic obial con amina ion, such as he p esence o coli o m bac e ia
and E. coli, is widesp ead in wa e samples ac oss he coun y, u he highligh ing he
insu icien ea men in as uc u e. The challenges o inadequa e wa e ea men a e
u he compounded by he lack o access o mode n ea men echnologies, which can
emo e chemical and mic obial con aminan s mo e e ec i ely (Pa een e al., 2023;
Mohsin e al., 2017).
The e ec s o clima e change also pose signi ican challenges o wa e quali y in
Pakis an. E a ic ain all pa e ns, p olonged d ough s, and ising empe a u es
con ibu e o changes in he a ailabili y o wa e esou ces, leading o he concen a ion
o pollu an s in limi ed wa e sou ces. Fo ins ance, in imes o d ough , he low olume
o wa e in i e s and lakes inc eases he concen a ion o pollu an s, making i e en
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mo e di icul o ensu e sa e d inking wa e . Fu he mo e, ex eme wea he e en s such
as loods and hea wa es can damage wa e in as uc u e, compounding he exis ing
wa e quali y issues and pu ing mo e s ain on wa e sys ems (Ahmad e al., 2020).
Clima e change is, he e o e, a key d i e o wa e quali y de e io a ion in Pakis an and
equi es adap a ion measu es o ensu e wa e secu i y and public heal h.
P e ious s udies on he d inking wa e quali y in Peshawa , Pakis an, ha e highligh ed
signi ican conce ns ega ding wa e sa e y, wi h high le els o mic obial con amina ion
and physicochemical issues obse ed in bo h u ban and u al a eas. Ahmad e al. (2013)
ound ala mingly high le els o o al coli o ms and E. coli in wa e sou ces in u al a eas,
indica ing signi ican public heal h isks. Yousa e al. (2019) conduc ed a s udy in which
hey assessed he physicochemical pa ame e s o d inking wa e , inding no able
a ia ions in wa e quali y be ween u ban and u al loca ions. The s udy e ealed ha
while u ban a eas had ela i ely be e wa e quali y, u al a eas su e ed om poo
wa e in as uc u e and highe con amina ion le els. In u ban Peshawa , Khan e al.
(2018) ound ele a ed le els o coli o m bac e ia, including E. coli, in 65% o wa e
samples, signaling se ious con amina ion and he po en ial o wa e bo ne diseases.
These indings unde line he u gen need o wa e quali y moni o ing and ea men
imp o emen s in he ci y.
Ahmad e al. (2021) ound ha wa e om u al a eas, especially om hand pumps and
wells, ha bo ed dange ous mic oo ganisms such as Salmonella, Shigella, and E. coli,
wi h 45.7% o samples es ing posi i e o hese pa hogens. The s udy emphasized he
need o public heal h in e en ions o educe he bu den o wa e bo ne diseases in
u al communi ies. Ali e al. (2012) simila ly ound high con amina ion le els in u al
wa e sou ces, wi h 90% o samples showing o al coli o m con amina ion and 60%
con amina ed wi h ecal coli o m. The p esence o hese con aminan s poses signi ican
heal h isks, especially in egions wi h inadequa e wa e ea men sys ems. These
s udies p o ide c i ical insigh s in o he wa e quali y issues in Peshawa and highligh
he need o imp o emen s in wa e in as uc u e, sani a ion, and public heal h
awa eness o educe he p e alence o wa e bo ne diseases.
Ma e ials and Me hodology
Peshawa , he capi al o Khybe Pakh unkhwa (KP), is a his o ically signi ican ci y and
a hub o comme cial, indus ial, social, and poli ical ac i i ies in Pakis an’s no hwes . I
lies nea he Hindu Kush moun ain ange and along he Kabul Ri e , o e ing a di e se
landscape om u banized a eas o u al communi ies, ideal o s udying wa e quali y
dispa i ies. Geog aphically, Peshawa is si ua ed a an al i ude o 359 me e s (1,178 ee )
abo e sea le el, be ween 33°44′ o 34°15′ No h La i ude and 71°22′ o 71°42′ Eas
Longi ude. Loca ed nea he Pak-A ghan bo de , i is 160 km om Islamabad and 48 km
om he his o ic Khybe Pass. The ci y’s s a egic loca ion, coupled wi h i s oad, ail,
and ai links, unde pins i s his o ical, mili a y, economic, and poli ical signi icance.
Figu e (1) Map o he Ru al S udy A ea (La ama)
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Figu e (2) Map o U ban S udy A ea (Haya abad)
The s udy, conduc ed a he Depa men o En i onmen al Sciences, Uni e si y o
Peshawa , assessed d inking and domes ic wa e quali y in u ban Haya abad and u al
La ama, Peshawa . Random sampling was used o collec 20 ep esen a i e wa e
samples (10 u ban and 10 u al) om sou ces and use poin s be ween No embe 2022
and Ap il 2023. Samples we e es ed o pa ame e s such as pH, elec ical conduc i i y,
u bidi y, alkalini y, ha dness, chlo ide, and o al dissol ed solids (TDS). Addi ional
da a on con amina ion sou ces and sani a ion acili ies we e ga he ed h ough
ques ionnai es du ing a ield su ey.
Following WHO guidelines, bac e iological samples we e collec ed in 100 ml s e ilized
bo les, ensu ing no ai bubbles en e ed, and labeled wi h de ails like sou ce, si e, and
collec ion ime. Samples we e deli e ed o he lab wi hin wo hou s o p ese e
mic obial in eg i y. Fo physicochemical analysis, s e ile 1-li e bo les we e used o
collec wa e di ec ly om sou ces o poin s o use.
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The da a we e analyzed o compa e wa e quali y in u ban and u al a eas agains
NDWQS s anda ds, iden i ying any de ia ions om pe missible limi s. This
s anda dized app oach ensu ed accu acy in assessing mic obial con amina ion and
wa e quali y in bo h egions.
Labo a o y Analysis
pH is a measu e o he acidi y o alkalini y o wa e , de e mined by he concen a ion o hyd ogen ions in
he wa e . To measu e pH, he pH me e is calib a ed using s anda d bu e solu ions wi h known pH
alues. A wa e sample ee om con aminan s is hen collec ed, and he elec ode o he pH me e is
imme sed in he sample. A e s abiliza ion, he pH eading is eco ded, and he elec ode is insed wi h
dis illed wa e o p e en c oss-con amina ion. Alkalini y, he wa e ’s capaci y o neu alize acids, is
de e mined h ough i a ion. A measu ed olume o wa e is ea ed wi h phenolph halein indica o and
i a ed wi h sul u ic acid un il he pink colo disappea s, ollowed by he addi ion o me hyl o ange o a
second endpoin . The o al alkalini y is calcula ed based on he olume o acid used. To measu e chlo ide
con en , a wa e sample is i a ed wi h a sil e ni a e solu ion in he p esence o a po assium ch oma e
indica o . A eddish-b own colo indica es he endpoin . The chlo ide con en is calcula ed using he
olume o sil e ni a e used. The o al ha dness o wa e , p ima ily due o calcium and magnesium ions,
is de e mined using an EDTA i a ion me hod. A wa e sample is ea ed wi h E ioch ome Black T
indica o and i a ed wi h EDTA un il a colo change om wine- ed o blue occu s, indica ing he
endpoin . Calcium ha dness is simila ly de e mined using he Mu exide indica o and a NaOH solu ion o
main ain pH-12. Tu bidi y, a measu e o wa e cla i y, is de e mined using a u bidi y me e calib a ed
wi h s anda d solu ions. A ep esen a i e sample is es ed, and he u bidi y is exp essed in
Nephelome ic Tu bidi y Uni s (NTU). To al Dissol ed Solids (TDS) a e measu ed g a ime ically by
e apo a ing a known olume o wa e a 103-105°C and weighing he esidue. The TDS concen a ion is
calcula ed based on he weigh di e ence be o e and a e e apo a ion. Elec ical conduc i i y, indica ing
wa e 's abili y o conduc elec ici y, is measu ed using a conduc i i y me e calib a ed wi h s anda d
solu ions. A wa e sample is es ed, and he eading is exp essed in mic o Siemens pe cen ime e
(μS/cm). Bac e iological analysis is conduc ed using he Memb ane Fil a ion Me hod, whe e a wa e
sample is il e ed h ough a memb ane wi h a po e size o 0.45 mic ons. The memb ane is hen
ans e ed on o selec i e aga media o g ow and iden i y coli o m bac e ia. Lau yl Sul a e B o h is used
as a selec i e medium o inhibi non-coli o m bac e ia. This analysis iden i ies mic obial con amina ion,
including ecal coli o ms and E. coli, indica ing po en ial heal h isks in d inking wa e .
Figu e (3) Labo a o y es ing o wa e samples
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Resul s and Discussion
The discussion and in e p e a ion o he esul s p o ide a comp ehensi e unde s anding
o he indings ob ained om he compa a i e assessmen o wa e quali y in u ban and
u al a eas o Peshawa . The pa ame e s analyzed include pH, u bidi y, elec ical
conduc i i y, bica bona e/alkalini y, ca bona e, calcium, magnesium, ha dness,
chlo ide, o al dissol ed solids (TDS), ecal coli o ms, and o al coli o ms. These esul s
we e compa ed wi h he maximum pe missible limi s de ined by he Na ional D inking
Wa e Quali y S anda ds (NDWQS) o e alua e compliance and po en ial heal h isks.
The bac e iological analysis o u ban Peshawa 's d inking wa e p o ides c i ical
insigh s in o mic obial con amina ion, ocusing on ecal and o al coli o ms as key
indica o s o wa e quali y and associa ed heal h isks. Fecal coli o ms, bac e ia
o igina ing om he in es ines o wa m-blooded animals, a e used o indica e ecal
con amina ion in wa e . An analysis o en samples e ealed ha mos we e wi hin he
NDWQS pe missible limi s, indica ing he absence o ecal con amina ion and
con i ming he wa e 's sa e y o consump ion.
To al coli o ms, which include bo h ecal and non- ecal bac e ia, e lec b oade
con amina ion isks. Ou o he en samples analyzed, nine we e wi hin he NDWQS
limi s, indica ing minimal mic obial con amina ion. These indings sugges ha u ban
wa e sou ces a e la gely ee om signi ican mic obial pollu an s, demons a ing
accep able quali y in e ms o bac e iological pa ame e s.
Figu e (4) De e mina ion o u ban biological pa ame e s esul
The bac e iological analysis e eals ha d inking wa e in he selec ed u ban a eas o
Peshawa complies wi h egula o y s anda ds o mic obial quali y. The absence o ecal
and o al coli o ms in he samples indica es low isks o mic obial con amina ion,
e lec ing he wa e 's sa e y o consump ion, as shown in he indings (1).
S . #
Sampl
e Code
Loca ion
Sou ce
Fecal
Coli o ms
To al
Coli o ms
Uni s
-
(CFU/100 ml)
(CFU/
100 ml)
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Table 1 Resul s o bac e iological pa ame e s o u ban a ea
The analysis o physicochemical pa ame e s in u ban Peshawa highligh s he quali y o
d inking wa e , ensu ing i s sui abili y o consump ion. The pH o he wa e anged
om 7.20 o 8.40, wi hin he accep able limi s o 6.5-8.5 se by Pakis an's Na ional
D inking Wa e Quali y S anda ds (NDWQS), indica ing balanced acidi y and alkalini y.
Tu bidi y le els we e below 5.0 NTU, e lec ing clea wa e ee om signi ican
suspended pa icles. Pa ame e s like bica bona e, ca bona e, calcium, magnesium, and
o e all ha dness we e wi hin pe missible anges, ensu ing app op ia e bu e ing
capaci y, essen ial mine al con en , and desi able wa e ha dness. Chlo ide le els we e
also wi hin accep able limi s, p e en ing ad e se e ec s on as e, while o al dissol ed
solids (TDS) we e ound in sa e concen a ions, indica ing no excessi e dissol ed
subs ances. Collec i ely, hese indings con i m ha he d inking wa e om u ban
a eas o Peshawa complies wi h NDWQS o physicochemical quali y, making i sa e o
consump ion.
Table 2 Resul s o physiochemical pa ame e s o u ban a eas (Haya abad)
Loca ion
Uni s
-
µS/c m
-
NTU
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
Maximum
Pe missible Limi s
NDWQS
-
NGVS
6.50-
8.50
5.00
NGVS
NGVS
NGVS
500
250
1000
1
UH -01
House no. 5,
Sec o J-1, Phase
2.
Tap
1021
8.10
1.5
275
185
200
485
155
758
Maximum Pe missible Limi s NDWQS
-
0
0
1
UH-01
House no. 5, Sec o J-1, Phase 2.
Tap
0
0
2
UH-02
House no. 6, Sec o J-2, Phase 2.
Tap
0
0
3
UH-03
Masjid Tu angzai, Sec o G-1,
Phase 2.
Tap
0
0
4
UH-04
Tube Well no. 11, Sec o G-4, Phase
2.
T. Well
0
0
5
UH-05
House no. 134, Sec o H-3, Phase
2.
Tape
0
0
6
UH-06
House no. 16, F-2, Phase 6.
Tape
0
0
7
UH-07
House no.177, F-2, Phase 6.
Tap
11
23
8
UH-08
Tube Well, F-3, Phase 6.
T. Well
0
0
9
UH-09
House no. 795, F-6, Phase 6.
Tape
0
0
10
UH-10
House no. 78, Sec o F-9, Phase 6.
Tape
0
0
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Con aminan s
Ho spo s
iden i ied
Po en ial
Heal h E ec s
om Inges ion
o Wa e
Sou ces o
Con aminan in
D inking Wa e
Possible
ea men
Mic obiological
con amina ion
RL-01
RL-02
RL-03
RL-04
RL-05
RL-07
RL-09
RL-10
UH-07
Chole a
Dia hea
Typhoid
Dysen e y
Gas oen e i is
Hepa i is A & E
Coli o ms a e
na u ally p esen in
he en i onmen ; as
well as eces; Fecal
coli o ms and E- coli
only come om
human and animal
ecal was e
Chemical
disin ec an s
(chlo ine, chlo ine
dioxide, and
ozone), Physical
disin ec an s
(ul a iole ligh ,
and boiling),
Fil a ion.
Ha dness
RL-04
RL-05
RL-07
Ha dness is no a
heal h conce n, bu
i can cause mine al
buildup in
plumbing, ix u es,
and wa e hea e s,
and poo
pe o mance o
soaps and
de e gen s.
Calcium and
magnesium p esen
in many
sedimen a y ocks
(i.e. limes one
and chalk)
Wa e
So ene s, Re e se
Osmosis.
TDS
RL-03
RL-04
RL-05
High TDS le el
al e s he as e o
wa e and makes
i sal y, bi e , o
me allic
High TDS le els
also indica e he
p esence o heal h
haza dous oxic
mine als
TDS is made up
o ino ganic sal s, as
well as a small
amoun o o ganic
ma e
Re e se
Osmosis,
Dis illa ion,
Deioniza ion (DI).
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In as uc u e and Wa e T ea men Facili ies in U ban and Ru al A eas
U ban a eas ha e mo e de eloped in as uc u e wi h cen alized wa e ea men
acili ies, ensu ing consis en moni o ing and be e con ol o e wa e quali y. In
con as , u al a eas lack such acili ies and moni o ing mechanisms, esul ing in
comp omised wa e quali y and limi ed access o sa e d inking wa e .
Concluding Rema ks.
The compa a i e analysis o d inking wa e quali y in u ban and u al a eas o Peshawa
e ealed signi ican dispa i ies. U ban wa e sou ces demons a ed be e mic obial
quali y, wi h 90% o samples ee om ecal con amina ion and adhe ence o he
Na ional D inking Wa e Quali y S anda ds (NDWQS). In con as , u al wa e sou ces
showed ala ming le els o mic obial con amina ion, wi h 80% o samples es ing
posi i e o ecal and o al coli o ms, alongside issues like high ha dness and o al
dissol ed solids (TDS). The di e ences s em om u ban a eas ha ing supe io
in as uc u e, cen alized wa e ea men , and sani a ion sys ems, while u al a eas
s uggle wi h inadequa e acili ies and un egula ed wa e sou ces. Add essing hese
challenges in u al a eas h ough imp o ed in as uc u e, sani a ion, and wa e
ea men is essen ial o ensu e sa e d inking wa e o all.
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