ADVANCED AND CONTEMPORARY STUDIES IN ENGINEERING

ADV ANCED AND
CONTEMPORAR Y STUDIES
IN ENGINEERING
Editor:
Assoc. Prof. Mehmet Sait CENGİZ

Advanced and Contemporary Studies in Engineering
Editor: Assoc. Prof. Mehmet Sait CENGİZ
Editor in chief: Berkan Balpetek
Cover and Page Design: Duvar Design
Printing : December -2023
Publisher Certificate No: 49837
ISBN: 978-625-6585-69-0
© Duvar Y ayınları
853 Sokak No:13 P .10 Kemeraltı-Konak/İzmir
T el: 0 232 484 88 68
www .duvaryayinlari.com
[email protected]

TABLE OF CONTEN TS
Chapter 1.................... 7
The Effects of Using Superplasticizer and
Pozzolans at Different Ratios on the Rheological
Properties of Self-Compact ing Cement Paste
Fethi İŞSEVER , M. Hulusi ÖZKUL , Sadık VAROLGÜ NEŞ
Chapter 2................. .... 33
Formation Mechanisms an d Deposition Processes of
Pyroclastic Rocks
Abdullah SAR , Mehmet Al i ERTÜRK
Chapter 3................. .... 50
Effects of Operating Param eters on NOX Emıssıons in Diesel En gines
Adem TÜYLÜ , Kub ilay HAN , Yasin AKIN
Chapter 5.....................64
In -Situ Hydrogen Peroxide and Hydrogen Production in Wastewater
Treatment with Fenton-Fenton Like Oxidation
Ay şe Elif ATEŞ , Sinan ATEŞ
Chapter 4................. .... 77
Modeling the COD removal of DMS O-Con taining Wastewater from the
Pharmaceutical Industry Using Photo -Fenton Oxidation with the
Response Surface Method
Ay ş e Elif ATE Ş
Chapter 6.....................88
Energy Management Strategies and Techniques in
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Bayram KILIÇ , Emr e ARABACI
Chapter 7.....................97
ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY PROCESSES IN THE
TREATMENT OF LIVESTOCK WASTES
B üş ra YAYLI 1
İlker KILIÇ 2
Chapter 8.....................112
Environmental Impact Assessment Of Laying Hen
Production Systems Through Life Cycle Assessment
B üş ra YAYLI , İlker KILIÇ

Chapter 9.....................132
Material Strength Tests With Electrical Approach
Emrah KAPLAN , Dursun EKMEKCI
Chapter 10 152
Effects of the Use of Nanofluids in Solar Collectors on Thermal-
Hydraulic Performance
Fatma OFLAZ
Chapter 11.....................162
The Effect of Using Wire Coil Inserts on Heat Transfer
Enhancement in Tube Flow
Fatma OFLAZ
Chapter 12.....................173
Urban Climate Change Resilience
Gökhan KARA , Esma Gül EMECEN KARA
Chapter 13.....................186
Investigation Of Chaotic Behavior In A 3D Nonlinear System With
Exponential Function
Haris CALGAN , Metin DEMİ RTAS
Chapter 14.....................196
Investigation of the Phase Development of NBT, KB T and BT
Lead-Free Piezoelectric Ceramics
Hatice Şule ÇOBAN TET İK
Chapter 15.....................210
SMALL HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE: A CASE STUDY
Kemal ERM İŞ , Mehmet ÇALIŞKAN , Mur at KARABEKTA Ş 3
Chapter 16.....................230
The Role of Sensors and Encoders in Exoskeleton Technologies
Melih CANLIDİNÇ , Musta fa GÜ LE Ş EN
Chapter 17.....................242
Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources,
Soil Resources and Weather Events
Sümeyye ADALI , Melike YALIL I KILIÇ
Chapter 18.....................254
The Rehabilitation Of Open Solid Waste
Dumping Areas
Fatma ALFARRA , Mirac Nur CİNER , H. Kurtulus Ozca n

Chapter 19 .....................284
Criteria for Determining Parameters in Metal Powder Production
by Gas Atomization
Mustafa GÜ LE Ş EN , Osman S elim Kİ BAR
Chapter 20 .....................296
The Response Of Soil Properties To Global Climate Change
Fatma Olcay TOPAÇ
Chapter 21.....................311
Modeling and Simulation of Fuzzy Logic MPPT Method for
Photovoltaic DC/DC Boost Converter
Yasemin ÖNAL
Chapter 22.....................328
Results and Suggestions Regarding Cutting Forces, Surface
Roughness And Tool Wear In Turning Inconel 718 With Different
Cutting Tools
Abdullah ALTIN
Chapter 23.....................337
Contact Mechanics of Functionally Graded Orthotropic
Materials: Semi-Analytical Solution for Rigid Punch Loading
Erdal ÖNER , Ahmed Wasfi Hasa n AL-QADO
Chapter 25.....................348
Blockchain Technology and Consensus Algorithms
İrfan SARIYILDIZ , Mehta p KÖSE ULUKÖK
Chapter 25.....................357
A Review on the Design, Modeling and Optimization of Fused
Deposition Process Printing Parameters
Melih SAVRAN
Chapter 27 .....................385
Analyzing and Fixing the Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm
Okkes Tolga ALTINOZ
Chapter 27.....................396
Health Problem Pre-Application System Recommendation for
International Transportation Personnel and Passengers and
Evaluation of The Proposed System
Orhan GÖNEL , Beng isu OLGUN BEKMAN

Chapter 28.....................414
Detect�on a nd Recogn� t �on of Allerg�c Fru�t w� th
Deep Learn�ng Model s
Sev� nç AY
Chapter 29.....................424
A Compa r at�ve Study on S i gnal Pro cess�ng for Ha r mon�cs
S ı tk ı AKKAYA
Chapter 30.....................439
Numer�cal Analys�s of the Effects of
D�fferent F�n Geometr�es on the Performance of
Thermoelectr�c Modules �n Channel Conf�gurat�ons
Al � T A Ş KI RAN , İhs a n D A ĞT EK İ N , Cel al KIST AK , Nev � n ÇE Lİ K
Chapter 31.....................459
Energy Sav�ng Potent�als �n Compressed A�r Systems
Er gün KORKMAZ
Chapter 32.....................491
Invest�gat�on of the Effect of Hole D�ameter and Aspect Rat�o on
Elast�c Buckl�ng Strength and Determ�nat�on Buckl�ng Coeff�c�ents for
Th�n Plate Structural Parts �n Aerospace Industry w�th F�n�te Elements Method
Mert SUBRAN, Fat�h KARPAT1
Chapter 33.....................507
Energy Consumpt�on of Headl�ghts �n Electr�c Veh�cles Wh�le Dr�v�ng
Ç�ğdem CENGİZ, Met�n KAYNAKLI
Chapter 34.....................527
R-SHINY App As An Interface For Top�c Model�ng: Rtoptech
Ahmet ALBAYRAK, Muammer ALBAYRAK

Chapter 1
The Effects of Using Su perplasticizer a nd
Pozzolans at Different Ratios on the Rh eological
Properties of Self -Compacting Ce ment Paste
Fethi İŞSEVER 1
M. Hulusi ÖZKUL 2
Sadık VAROLGÜNEŞ 3
I N T R O D UCT IO N
Se lf - c om p a c ti ng c o n c r et e (S C C) h a s a u ni q u e pr o p e r ty t ha t e n a bl e s it t o s p r e ad t o
s m a l l - f or m e d an d t ig h t ly r ei n fo r c ed e le me n t s w hi ls t re ta i ni n g i ts ho mo g e ne i t y,
w i t h o ut t h e r e qu i r e m en t o f c o m pre ss io n. T h i s m a k e s SC C w e l l-s ui t e d f o r h i g h -
pe rf or m a nc e c onc re te st ru ct u r e s, w h i c h t yp i c a l ly u s e c o n v e nt i o na l v i b ro- c om p a c te d
c o n c r e te . T h e co n c e pt of SC C wa s i n t r od u c ed fo r u n d e r wa t e r c o n c r et e a p p l ic a t io n s
i n t h e ea r l y 19 8 0s (O ka m ura , 19 97 ) . Se lf -c o m pa c ti n g c o n c r e te ( SC C) f i nd s
a p p l i c a ti o n i n p r e c a st c o nc r e te , o n-s it e p o ur e d c on c re t e , o r f i br e - re i n f or c ed c on c r e t e
( S ka re nd a hl & P e t e r s so n , 20 00 ) . M o r e o ve r , S C C t a ke s t h e f o r m o f c em e n t p a s te s or
m o r t a r s i n a va ri e ty o f st ru ct u r a l a n d s o i l i m p r ov e m en t a p p l i ca t io n s , s u c h a s s o i l
gr ou ti n g or f i l l in g co n c re t e c r a c k s ( La c e rd a, da Si lv a , Al va , & de Li ma , 20 1 8 ; T u l li n i
& M in gh i n i , 20 16 ; Va su mi t h r an , An an d, & Sa th ya n , 2 0 2 1 ) . As SC C ha s a le ss
po ro us st ru c tu r e wi th a mo re u n i f or m i n t e r fa ci a l t r a ns i t i on z o n e ( I T Z ) t ha n t r a d i t io n a l
c o n c r e te , i t ha s f e we r po r e s .
Mo re ov e r , c e m e nt pa s te pr ov id e s se ve ra l be ne fi t s pe rt ai ni n g t o la bo u r a n d wo r ke r
s a f e t y , wo rk a b i l it y, se gr e ga t i o n, ea se a n d du ra t i on o f pr od u c ti o n, en e rg y ef fi c ie n c y,
s o u n d i n s u l at i o n a n d d u r a bi l i ty ( R a m an a t h a n, B a s ka r , M u t hu p r i ya , &
V e n k a t as u b r a ma ni , 2 0 1 3 ) . I t i s a l s o e m pl o y e d in th e re s t o r a t i on of hi st o r i c al
c o n s t r uc t i on s , p r e c as t e n g i n e er i n g, a nd f i ll i ng t il e jo i nts ( Va su m i t hr a n et a l ., 2 02 1 ) .
1 Asst. Prof.; Bingöl University Facult y of Engineering a nd Architecture, Department of Civil Engineering.
[email protected] .tr ORCID No: 0000 -0002-8394 -7026
2 2Prof. Dr.; Beykent University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Civ il Engineering.
[email protected] .tr ORCID No: 0000 -0002-6453-8 956.
3 3Asst. Prof.; Bingöl University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Civ il Engineering.
[email protected] .tr ORCID No: 0000 -0001-9580 -9889
7

C h e m i c a l a d mi x t u r e s u t i li z ed i n t h e p r od u c t io n o f s e lf- c om p a c t in g c o n c re t e
c o m p r i se a bl en d of va ri ou s ad m i xt u r e s , ma in l y su p e rp l a s ti c iz e rs an d vi s c os i t y-
r e g u l a t in g a d m i x t ur e s . S u p er p l a s ti c i z er a d m i x t ur e s ar e e m p l o ye d t o de li ve r hi g h
f l u i d i ty an d lo we r th e wa te r /b i nd e r ra ti o. Vi sc o s i ty re gu l a ti n g ad m ix t ur e s ar e us ed to
pr ev en t s e gr e ga t i on s uc h a s s w ea t i ng a n d p r e c ip it a t io n , to e n s ur e un i fo r m i ty o f t he
c o n c r e te , a n d t o r e duc e t h e s h e a r y i e ld s t r e ss ( B ü r g e , 1 9 9 9 ). Mo s t c on c re t e s t r u c tu r e s
c u r r e nt l y i n us e ha ve s ta nd a rd st r e ng t h. Ho we v e r , du e t o th e p r a c t ic a l co ns t r a in t s ,
t he re is li mi te d sc op e fo r t h e a p p l i c a ti on of c o n v e n t io n al co nc r e te . He nc e , t h e r e is a
ne ed t o i nn o v at e l ow- bo nd i n g , n o r m a l- s tr e ng t h a nd h i gh - f l o w a bi li t y co n c re t e , w hi c h
c a n be i m p l e me n t e d n o t o n l y in re gu la r co ns t ru c ti o n s b u t al s o in s pe c i a li z e d
bu il di n gs . Th is de ve lo p m e nt ha s th e p o t e nt i a l t o s ig n i fi c an t l y re du c e c o n s t r uc t io n
t i m e l i ne a n d la bo r c o s t s . T h i s h a s a l s o pa ve d t h e w a y fo r t h e d i s c ove ry a n d
a p p l i c a ti o n o f P o l y c ar bo x y l a te - b a s e d s u pe r pl a s t ic i z e rs ( K on g & L e e , 2 0 2 1 ).
U p o n e x a m i na ti o n o f t h e wo r k i ng p r i n ci p l e s o f s u p e rp l a s ti c i z er s , i t b e c o m e s
e v i d e n t th a t th e la t e s t ge n e ra t io n of su p e rp l a s ti c i z er s, co nt a i ni n g l e ng t h y po l y m e r
c h a i n s , am a ss o n t he s ur f a c e of f in e p a r t ic l e s. Co ns e qu e nt l y , th e e l e ct r i ca l i m p ul s e
a n d s te ri c ef fe c t a re ut il i ze d , e n s u r i ng th e di s t ri bu t i o n o f ce m en t gr ai ns ( U c hi k a wa ,
H a n e h a r a , & Sa wa k i , 19 97 ; Yo sh i ok a , S a k a i , Da im o n, & Ki ta h a ra , 1 9 9 7). Wh il e
t r a d i t io n a l su pe r p l a st i ci z e rs ar e de ri v e d fr om su lf on e na ph t h a le n e f o r ma ld e h y de or
s u l f o na t e d m e la m i n e fo rm a l de h y de , ne w e r s up e rp l a st i c iz er s c on s is t of c op o l ym e r s
i n w h i c h a c a rb o x yl i c g r o u p is p r e s en t in t h e ma i n c ha in an d a p o l y e th y l e ne gl yc o l
gr o u p i s c on ne c t e d t o t he s id e c ha in ( H o u s t e t a l. , 1 9 99) . V is c os it y - r e gu l a t in g
a d m i x t ur e s or f in e a gg r e ga t e , o r bo th , ma y of f e r in c re a se d re s i s ta n c e to se gr e g a ti o n,
s e t t l in g , a nd co m p r e s s ib il i t y. T h e f in e ma t e ri a l c o n t en t ( l e s s th a n 90μ m) , wh i c h
i nc lu de s ce me nt , is de l i be r at e l y in cr e a se d be yo nd a c e rt a i n th re sh o ld to im pr ov e
r e s i s t a nc e to we at h e ri n g ( Ö z ku l , Do g a n, Ça vd a r , Sa gl a m, & Pa rl a k, 20 0 0 ; Öz ku l ,
D o ğa n, Ça v d ar , S a ğ la m , & Pa rl a k, 19 9 9 ) . M i n e r al a d m i xt u r e s , f i n e ly g r ou n d
m a t e r i al s bl e n de d w i th c e m en t mo rt ar a n d co nc r e te , a r e us ed to ac hi ev e sp ec if i c
e n g i n e e ri ng pr o pe r t i es ( A S T M _ C 12 5 - 1 3a , 20 13 ) . Th e se ma t e r ia l s ma y be ad d e d
du ri ng m i xi n g o r t h e c li n k e r p ro d u c ti o n s t a ge . S u bs e q u e nt l y f in e gr i n di n g m a y b e
e m p l o y e d f o r bo th na tu ra l a n d pr oc es s e d ma nu f ac t ur e d m a t e ri a l s us e d as mi n e ra l
a d m i x t ur e s . Nu m e ro u s s t ud i e s h a ve r e s e ar c h e d m a te r i a l s th a t a c t as m i ne r a l
a d m i x t ur e s , r e d u c i n g t h e c e m e n t q u a n ti t y us e d (A rd al an , Jo s ha gha n i , & Ho ot o n ,
20 17 ; C h o u d h a ry , Gu pt a , A l o m a yr i , Ja in , & N a g a r, 20 2 1 ; C h o u d ha r y , G u p t a , &
N a g a r , 2 0 2 0 ; Da ds e t a n & B a i , 2 0 1 7 ; Gü ne y i s i, G e s oğ l u, Al - R a w i , & M e r m e r da ş ,
20 14 ; M e n de s & Du t ra , 20 04 ; Pr in c en & K i s s , 19 89 ; Ra ma n a t ha n et al ., 20 13 ;
Sa dr m om t a zi , G a sh t i , & T a h m o u r e si , 2 02 0 ; S ha r b a td a r , Ab b a s i, & Fa kh ar i a n, 2 0 2 0 ) .
C e m e n t p a s t e fe a tu r e s no n- N e w t o ni a n f l u i d wi th Bi ng h a m at tr i b ut e s ; it s fr e sh
8

RESULTS AND DISCUS SIONS
Plastic viscos ities and yield shear stresses of CPs were measured considering
that they have Bingham body properties. In the measurements made with the
Viscometer (Rheomat) test device, the averages of the forward and reverse
readings were measured between (6 -120) minutes and at (10-15 0) RPM speeds.

Figure 3: Rheomat measu rement graph fo r the 90th mi nute of the CP8 sample

For this, thresho ld shear stress  0 and viscosity  pl data, known as Bingham
constants, were con sidered in all test result evaluations. Cement paste tests were
evaluated in four sections. These are:
I. Superplasticizer effect for varyin g proportions of Viscocrete
II. Water effect
III. Effect of Mineral Admixture and binders
IV. Correlations between above relation s.

In the evalu ations, the first readings, which are the sixth minute readings, were
neglected as they contradicted Bingham behavior and distorted the linear part.
Viscosity was found from the slope of the linear part, and SYS values were found
from the point where the cur ve cuts the shear axis.

4,19
16,2
26,05
34,75
40,3
45,4
53,6
62,5
6,39
11,2
17,65
25,95
35,55
47,1
62,5
y = 2,5142x - 8,9365
R² = 0,9859
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 20 40 60 80
Rotational Speeds (RPM)
Shear Yield Stress (Pa)
CP8(90)

15

Effects of Fresh Concrete Properties
• Effects on Shear Yield Stress (SYS)
- Superplasticizer Effect
In CPs without admixtures and FA add ed CPs, SYS decreases whe n the ratio
of ot her materials is kept constant (W/B= 0.26, C/B=100%) and SP is in creased
(Figure 4a, b). If the amount of both W and FA is to o high, the SY S values take
small values (Figure 4c). This indicates that there is near to segregation. It has
been foun d that the appropriate rate for FA in this combination is about 20 %.
Optimum SYS values in terms of workability and consistency are obtained with
20% FA, 1.2% SP and 26% water.
When the amount of SP increased in SF -doped CP, the SYS value decreased,
albeit slightly. However, it was ob served that the viscosity tester could not
measure when the SF ratio was high, and the SP and water ratio s were lo w. This
shows that due to the very fine structure of the SF, it needs a lar ge amount of
water to get wet (Figure 4d).

Figure 4: SYS change s in CP caused b y SP effect

- Water Effect
In CP without mineral admixtures, when the value of SP was kept constant
and the W/B ratio increased, the SYS value decreased. Thi s rate of decrease was
approximately 10 times. However, when the SP ratio increases from 1% to 1.5%,
there is no point in incr easing the water. Fig ure 5 (a, b)
While the SP ratio was lo w in FA added mixtures, there w as an insignificant
decrease in SYS when the amount of water was increased. In other word s, the

1. CP1-CP2-CP3 ( SP effect) (b) CP4-CP6-CP8 (FA%2 0, W/B%26)

1. CP17- CP 19 (FA%35, W/B%30) (d) CP 21 - CP 23 (SF%35, W/B%30)

5,17
16,40
24,05
41,85
0 4,56 6,3 12 ,36
19,34
5,68 3,67 1 ,80 2,42 2 ,36
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
1% 1,2% 1,5%

10,77
7,76 9,22
11,09 11 ,74
0,50 1,71 2 ,28 2,33 2 ,80
2,96 3,67 3 ,96 3,55 4 ,15
0
5
10
15
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
1% 1,20% 1,50%

1,06
1,34 1,39 1 ,54 1,71
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
1,06 1,34 1,3 9 1,54 1,71
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
1% 1,50%

53,13
67,16 68, 20 75,31 7 6,22
16,40 20 ,06 22,1 1 23,72 23 ,17
0
20
40
60
80
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
1% 1,50%

16

desired yield could not be obtained by increasing the water. In addition, if both
the FA ratio and the SP ratio are high, as in the CP16 experiment, segregation
occurred in the CP and water vomiting was observed. Figure 5 (c)
It was observed that in th e experiments with high SF ratio, lo w water and SP
admixtures, a consistency that was too dense to be measured in SF-added CP and
viscosity and spread measu rements cou ld not be made. When SF is in very fine-
grained structure, it was be neficial to have both water and SP ratios as high as
possible. Fo r Figure 5 (d) SF, appropriate ratios of 5% SF/B, 30 -32% W/B, 1. 5-
2% SP would be appropr iate.

Figure 5 : SYS changes in CP caused by water effect

- Pozzolan Effect
In pure CP experiments, it was observed that SYS decreased in general when
the FA/B rati o was incr eased from 20 % to 35%. It was observed that SYS values
decreased by an average of 5 times when the FA ratio was kept con stant at
W/B=26%, and SP=1.5% in FA added mixtu res and the FA ratio was increase d
from 20% to 35%. Figure 6 (a) and (b)
It was observed that in th e experiments with high SF ratio, lo w water and SP
admixtures, a consistency that was too dense to be measured in SF-added CP and
viscosity and spread measu rements cou ld not be made. When SF is in very fin e -
grained structure, it was beneficial to have both water and SP ratios as high as

(a) CP1-CP14 (SP %1) (b) CP1-CP14 (SP %1.5)

(c) CP14- CP16 (FA %20 ,SP%1) (d) CP12 -CP22 (SF%5, SP%1.5)

5,17
16,40
24,05
41,85
0,87 1,9 0 1,91 2,1 8 3,47
0
10
20
30
40
50
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
0,26 0,3

5,68
3,67
1,80 2,4 2 2,36
2,48
4,31 4,3 0 4,09 4,1 4
0
2
4
6
8
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
tim e (min)
0,26 0,3

10,77
7,76 9 ,22
11,09 11 ,74
1,91 1, 89 2,36 3 ,71 4,23
-1
3
7
11
15
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
0,26 0,3

13,82
19,51 19 ,84 22,1 0 22,30
11,63
14,85 14 ,18 14,2 5 15,11
0
5
10
15
20
25
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (min)
0,26 0,3

17

possible. Fo r Figure 5 (d) SF, appropriate ratios of 5% SF/B, 30 -32% W/B, 1. 5-
2% SP would be appropr iate Figure 6(c).

Figure 6 : Change of SYS wit h the effect of mineral a dmixtures in C P

• Effects on Viscosity
Viscosity is the most impo rtant rh eological property in determ ining the
homogeneity of CP and thus of concrete. Th erefore, it is desirable th at the
viscosity be above a certain ratio. In the experiments carried out, it has been seen
that SP gives a better beh avior to CP than water for viscosity. Because water,
besides being effective in reducing SYS, also reduces the viscosity below the
desired valu es, causing segregatio n and deterio ration of ho mogeneity. Although
separations were observed when the SP was a pplied more th an the required dose,
an excellent machinability was obtained when the SP/B ratio was well adju sted.
In other words, the more advantageous aspect of SP than water is that it prevents
segregation whil e increasing the work ability. In add ition, the processing time of
CP has increased.

1. CP4- CP 5 (W/ B %2 6,SP%1 ) (b) CP14- CP16 (FA %20,SP%1)

(c) CP12-CP13 (W/B%26, SP%1.5 )

10,77
7,76 9,22
11,09 11 ,74
0,52 0,8 8 1,40 1,4 1 2,28
-2
2
6
10
14
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
tim e (min)
0,2 0,35

2,96
3,67 3,9 6 3,55
4,15
1,06 1,1 9 1,17 1,22 1 ,37
0
2
4
6
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
0,2 0,35

13,8 2 19,51 19 ,84 22, 10 22,3 0
36,3 3
47,24 48 ,48 51,5 0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
6 30 60 90 120
SYS (Pa)
time (m in)
5% 10%

18

- Superplasticizer Effect
I n the CP experiments witho ut mineral admixtures (control samples), it was
observed that the viscosity increased as th e SP ratio increased. Figure 7 (a).
It was observed that increasing the SP ratio (1-1.2 -1.5%) in CP with FA did
not improve the viscosity, on the contrary, when the SP ratio increased with the
water ratio, undesired separation became inevitable. Naturally, when FA and
other admixtures are used at optimum values, v ery good consistency and
workability are provided in CP. Fig ure 7(b, c)
In admixtur es with SF, when the SP ratio increased from 1% to 1.5%, the
viscosity did not change much. For these experiment s, th e reason for this is that
SF is already a ma terial that requires a l ot of water and SP on its own. Figure 7
(d).

Figure 7: Effects of SP o n viscosity i n CP

- Water Effect
In CP without mineral admixtures, viscosity decreases enormou sly when
water increases (26- 30%). It can be said that among all binders, the material that
interacts best with water is cement. However, in general, th e viscosity increases
rapidly over time, as water decrea ses the viscosity. Figure 8 (a, b, c).

(a) CP1-CP2- CP3 (W/B %26) (b) CP1-CP2-CP3 (FA %20, W/B %26)

(c) CP17- CP19 (FA%35, W/B %30) (d) CP21-CP23 (SF%10, W/B %30)

0,51 0,5 3 0,56 0,6 1
0,42
0,50 0,5 4 0,57 0,6 3
0,58 0,6 3
0,74 0,7 4 0,79
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
1% 1,20% 1,50%

0,30
0,35 0,3 6 0,36
0,39
0,33
0,34
0,38
0,40
0,41
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,40
0,45
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
1% 1,20% 1,50%

0,14 6 0,149 0,148 0,154 0,154
0,13 5 0,139 0,144 0,144 0,145
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
1% 1,50%

0,08 0,1 0 0,09 0 ,09 0,09
0,17 0,1 6 0,16 0 ,16 0,1 7
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
1% 1,50%

19

Water, which already has th e ability to reduce viscosity in CP mixtures with
FA, also decreases when it is processed with a coarser gr ained material than
cement.
In SF, although the viscosity decreased when th e amount of water was
increased, this did not decrease over time and preserved its value. Figur e 8(d).

Figure 8 : Effect of water ef fect on viscosit y in CP

- Pozzolan Effect
In FA added CP, the viscosity increases with the amount of FA (20 -35%) at
low water (26%) and SP ratios, that is, it sho ws the desired behavior. On the other
hand, when FA increases, viscosity decreases in mixtures with high water and SP
content. Figure 9 (a, b) It is observed that the viscosity decreas es very littl e when
the SF increases.
All evaluations were obta ined because of the comparison of the specified
experiments with other experiments. Viscosity increases from 6 to 120 minutes
because of the recovery of so me of the mixtures over time, and the condensation
of some of the mixtures over time, since they already have a normal consistency,
in almost all exp eriments, in other word s, they go towards the viscou s state. Th e
amount of this increase varies from mixture to mixture. It has been observed that
time alone is not as effective as S YS for v iscosity.

(a) CP1-CP14 (SP %1) (b) CP3-CP15 (SP %1.5 )

(c) CP14- CP16 (FA%20, SP %1) (d) CP12-CP22 (SF%5, SP %1.5 )

0,51 0,53 0 ,56 0,61
0,19 0,21 0 ,23 0,26 0, 31
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
0,26 0,3

0,58 0,63
0,74 0,74 0 ,79
0,24 0,25 0 ,26 0,27 0 ,27
0,00
0,30
0,60
0,90
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
0,26 0,3

0,19 0,21 0 ,23 0,26
0,31
0,15 0,17 0 ,18 0,19 0,1 9
0,00
0,10
0,20
0,30
0,40
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
0,26 0,3

0,25 0,2 4 0,24 0 ,23
0,17 0,1 6 0,16 0 ,16 0,17
0,00
0,10
0,20
0,30
0,40
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
time (m in)
0,26 0,3

20

Figure 9: Effect of SF on viscosity i n CP

• Evaluation of Spread Test Results
Slump-scattering experiments were performed for CP mixtures using slump
cones. For each mixture, the spreading diameter, and the time to reach 100 mm
were measured in seconds.

- Superplasticizer Effect
In the examinations made with mini slump spreading experiments, it was
understood that the use of SP increased the spread and maintained this spread
regularly for 12 0 minutes. Wh ile no measurement could be made after the 30th
minute in contro l samples, this problem was overcome with the use of S P, in
addition, it was observed that viscosity and homog eneity were preserved. It has
been determined that the use of SP together with FA ensures that the spread is
smooth and uniform in all directions. When the time to reac h a diameter of 100
mm in CP was examined, it was observed that the us e of SP shortened the time
to reach. Thus, it is understo od that fres h material will settle into t he mold more
quickly in concrete pouring at con struction sites Figure 10(b).

Figure 10 : SP effect on CP4-CP8 s pread diamete r and time to reach 1 00 mm diameter

(a) CP4- CP 5 (W/B %2 6, SP % 1) (b) CP8-CP9 (W/B%26, SP %1,5)

0,27 0,3 5 0,37 0 ,40 0,38
0,42 0,5 0 0,54 0 ,57 0,63
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
tim e (min)
0,2 0,35

0,33 0,3 4 0,38 0,4 0 0,41
0,25 0,2 5 0,26 0,2 6 0,28
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
6 30 60 90 120
Vis. (Pa.s)
tim e (min)
0,2 0,35

(a) (b)

159 156 153 155 152
179 179
168 168 164
120
140
160
180
200
6 30 60 90 120
Spread ( m m )
tim e (min)
SP effect on spread diameter
CP4 CP8

1,89 2 ,2 2,35 2 ,38 2,6 3
1,44 1 ,54 1,7 1 ,87 1,9
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
6 30 60 90 120
Spread t ime (sn)
tim e (min)
SP effect on sam ples reaching 100mm
CP4 CP8

21

- Water Effect
When the effect of water on the spreading in CP was examin ed, it was
observed that the spreading increased with the increase in water . Th e diameter
difference between the samples was maintained at almost th e same rate fro m the
6th minute to the 120th minut e. Figure 11 (a). When the time to reach 100 mm
was examined, it was understood that the amount of water accelerated the spread,
and this speed was maintained for 120 minutes. Figure 11 (b).

Figure 11 : W/B effect on CP 8-CP18 spread an d time to reach 100mm

- Pozzolan Effect
While examining the pozzolan effect in the diffu sion experiments for CP, the
effect of FA was examined first. While the use of FA was more effective in the
first minutes of the mixture, the effec t of th e use of FA on the spread decreased
as time progressed. The effect of using 35% FA instead of 20% FA decreased
rapidly after 30 minutes. Figure 12 (a). For the time to reach 100 mm, the use of
water reduced the time by approximately 40%, which was tru e for all 5
measurements over 120 minutes. Figure 12 (b).

Figure 12 : FA effect on CP16-CP 17 spread and time t o reach 100 mm diameter

Increasing the amount of Silica Fu me greatly reduced th e spread. Increasing
the SF/B ratio from 5% to 10% prevented measurements after a certain time in

(a) (b)

179 179
168 168 164
189 186 186 186 186
140
160
180
200
220
6 30 60 90 120
Spread ( mm )
tim e (min)
Water effect on t he spreading of sam ples
CP8 CP18

1,44 1,5 4 1,7 1,87 1 ,9
0,94 1,0 2 1,25 1, 31 1,41
0,5
0,8
1,1
1,4
1,7
2
2,3
6 30 60 90 120
Spread t ime (sn)
tim e (min)
Water effect on sam pl es reaching 100 m m
CP8 CP18

(a) (b)

170 168 168 168 168
188 184
175 172 171
140
160
180
200
6 30 60 90 120
Spread ( m m )
tim e (min)
FA effect on spreading diam eter of sam ples
CP16 CP1 7

0,93
1,31 1,3 2 1,41 1,4 1
0,72 0,8 9 1 1,05 1,0 5
0
0,4
0,8
1,2
1,6
6 30 60 90 120
Spread tim e (sn)
tim e (min)
FA effect on samp les reaching 100 m m diameter
CP16 CP1 7

22

many mixtures. Despite th e use of the h ighest amou nt of water and SP, both t he
final spread and the results of reaching a diameter of 100 mm could not be
measured after the 90th minute, even in the CP22 -CP23 samples. Figure 13 (a).
Figure 13 (b)
While th ere was a directly proportional difference in the spreadin g diameter
measurements depending on the time, there was a rapid slowdown in reaching
100 mm between the 6th and 30th minu tes.

Figure 13 : SF effect on CP spread and time to reach 100 mm diamete r

Analysis of Correlations between F resh Cement Paste Properties
• Correlation between Visco sity-Shear Yi eld Stresses
In general, a directly proportional relationship is determined between
viscosity and SYS. SYS in creased over time in con trol samples made with cement
only. Especially after the 60th minute, the increase accelerated. The viscosity
increase rate was not as m uch as SYS. However, the machinability loss was not
much (Figure 14 -a, b ).
In FA -added CP mixtures, when the ratio s of W/B=26% and SP/B=1% were
constant while th e FA ratio in creased from 20% to 35%, both SYS and viscosity
values decreased. The decrease of the v iscosity and the SYS reve aled that the
homogeneity of the material did not deteriorate, and the workability was
preserved (Figure 14 -c, d ).
In FA-added samples, when both W/B and FA ratios are maximum, and SP
kept constant whil e FA increased, th e decrease of viscosity is less, and th e
decrease of SYS is slightly higher. A situation with good workability has
occurred (Figure 14 -e, f ).
In SF-added mixtures, when W/B 30% and SP kept constant at 1.5% while SF
increased fro m 5% to 10%, SYS increased while vi scosity decreased. This show s
that the workability was redu ced (Figure 14 -g, h ).

(a) ( b)

136 134 133 129 128
105 103 103 100
80
100
120
140
160
6 30 60 90 120
Spread ( m m )
tim e (min)
CP22- CP23 num uneleri yayı lma ça pına SF etk isi
CP22 CP23

1,61 1,7 1 1,95 2,3 1 2,96
4,2
7,97 7,9
9,13
0
2
4
6
8
10
6 30 60 90 120
Yayılma süresi (sn)
tim e (min)
SF effect on CP22-CP23 reaching 100 m m
CP22 CP23

23

Figure 14 : Correlation between Vis-SYS

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g ) (h)

5,17
16,40
24,05
41,85
0,51 0,5 3 0,56 0,6 1
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
6 min 30 mi n 60 min 90 min 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP1 SYS-VIS
VIS (Pa.S)
SYS VISCOSITY

0,00
4,56 6,3 0
12,36
19,24
0,42 0,5 0 0,54 0,5 7 0,63
-0,1
0,2
0,5
0,8
0
10
20
30
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP2 SYS-V IS
VIS
SYS VIS COSITY

7,58 7, 76 9,22 1 1,09 11, 74
0,27
0,35 0,3 7 0,40 0,3 8
-0,15
0,05
0,25
0,45
-5
5
15
25
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP4 SYS-VIS
VIS
SYS VISCOS ITY

0,52 0,8 8
1,40 1,4 1 2,28
0,24 0,2 8 0,30 0,3 0 0,30
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0
1
2
3
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP5 SYS-V IS
VIS
SYS VISCOSITY

1,91 1,8 9 2,36
3,71 4,2 3
0,15 0,1 7 0,18 0,1 9 0,19
-0,08
0,02
0,12
0,22
0
2
4
6
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP16 SYS- VIS
VIS
SYS VISCOS ITY

1,06
1,34 1,3 9
1,54 1,7 1
0,15 0,1 5 0,15 0,1 5 0,15
0
0,1
0,2
1
1,4
1,8
2,2
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 mi n 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP17 SYS- VIS
VIS
SYS VISCOS ITY

11,63 14 ,85 14, 18 14,25 1 5,11
0,17 0,1 7
0,20 0,2 0 0,20
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0
10
20
30
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP22 SY S-VIS
VIS
SYS VISCOS ITY

16,40 20 ,06 22,1 1 23,72 2 3,77
0,17 0 ,16 0,16 0 ,16 0,16
-0,08
0,02
0,12
0,22
0
10
20
30
40
6 min 30 min 60 min 90 mi n 120 min
SYS (MPa)
CP23 SY S-VIS
VIS
SYS VISCOSITY

24

be am - to -c ol um n c o n n e c ti o ns of pr e c as t c on c re t e st r uc t ur e s – A n ex pe r i m en t a l
a n a l y s is . E ng i ne e r i ng S t r uc t ur e s , 1 7 2 , 2 0 1- 2 1 3 .
Me nd es , P. R . S. , & Du tr a , E. S . (2 0 04 ) . V i s c o s i ty fu nc ti o n f o r y i e l d- st r e ss li qu id s .
Ap pl i e d Rh e o lo g y , 1 4 ( 6 ) , 29 6 - 30 2 .
Mo nt go m e r y, D. C . ( 20 1 7 ) . D es i g n a n d a n a ly s i s o f e x pe ri m e n t s : J o hn w i l e y & s o n s.
N o r n b e r g, J . , Pe t e r s on , Ö ., & Bi ll b e r g, P . ( 1 9 9 7) . Ef fe c t o f n e w ge ne ra t i on
s u pe rp la s t ic i z er s on th e pr o p e r ti e s of fr es h c o nc r e t e , Su p e rp l as t i c iz er s an d
O t h e r Ch e m i c al A dm i x t ur e s in C o nc r e t e . P ap e r pr e s e nt e d a t th e P r o c e ed i ng s .
O k a m u r a , H . ( 1 9 9 7) . S e l f- c o m pa c t i ng h i gh- pe r fo r ma nc e c o n c re te . Co nc r et e
i nt er na t io n al , 19 ( 7 ) , 5 0 - 54 .
Ö z k u l , M ., D oga n, A ., Ç av da r , Z ., S a gl a m, A . , & P a rl ak , N . ( 2 00 0 ) . Ef fe c t s of s e lf
c o m p a c t in g co n c r e te a dm i x tu r e s on f r e s h a n d ha r de n e d c o n c r e t e pr o p e r ti e s .
Pa pe r p r es e n te d a t t he P r oc ee d i ngs .
Ö z k u l , M. , Do ğa n , A. , Ç a vd a r, Z ., Sa ğ l a m, A ., & P ar l ak , N . (1 99 9 ) . P ro pe r t i es of
f r e s h a nd ha r de n e d c on c re t e s p r e pa r e d by ne w g e ne r a ti o n s u p e r pl as t i c iz er s . I n
M o d e r n C o n c re t e Ma t e r ia l s: Bi n de r s , Ad di t io n s an d Ad m i xt u r e s ( p p. 4 6 7 -
47 4) : T h om a s T e l f or d P u b li s h i ng .
Pr in ce n , H. , & Ki s s, A. (1 98 9 ) . Rh eo l og y of fo am s a nd hi g hl y co nc e nt r a t e d
e m u l s i ons : IV . A n e xpe ri me nt a l s tu dy of t he sh e a r v is c o si t y a nd yi e l d s tr e s s
of c o nc e n tr a t e d em ul s i on s . Jo u r na l o f co ll o i d an d in te r fa c e sc ie n c e , 12 8 (1 ) ,
17 6- 18 7 .
R a m a n a th a n , P . , B a s ka r , I . , Mu t h u pr i y a, P . , & V e nk a t as u b r a ma ni , R . ( 2 01 3 ) .
Pe rf or m a nc e of s e lf - c o m pa c ti n g c o nc r e t e co n ta i ni n g d if f e re n t mi ne r a l
a d m i x t ur e s . K S C E j our n al o f C i v il E n g i n e er in g , 1 7 ( 2 ) , 46 5 - 4 72 .
Sa dr m om t a zi , A. , Ga s h ti , S. H. , & Ta hm ou r e s i , B. (2 02 0 ) . Re si d u a l st re n gt h an d
m i c r o s t ru c tu r e of fi b e r r ei nf o r c ed s el f - c om p a ct i n g co nc re t e ex p os e d to h ig h
t e m p e r a tu r e s . Co ns tr uc ti o n a n d B u i l di n g M a t e r ia l s , 2 3 0 , 1 1 6 9 69 .
Sh ar ba t da r , M . K. , A b ba s i , M. , & Fa k h a r i a n, P . ( 2 0 2 0) . I m p r ov i n g t h e pr op e rt i e s of
s e l f - c om p a c t ed c o n c re t e wi th us i ng c o m b i ne d s i l ic a f um e a n d m e t ak a o l in .
Pe ri od i c a P ol y t e ch n i c a C iv i l E n g i ne e r i ng , 6 4 ( 2 ) , 5 3 5 - 54 4.
Sk ar e nd a hl , Å. , & Pe t e rs s on , Ö . ( 2 0 00 ) . Re po r t 23 : Se l f - C om p ac t i n g Co n c r et e –
St at e - of - th e- A r t R e p or t of Ri le m Te c hn i ca l Co m m it t e e 17 4- SC C (V o l . 23 ) :
R I L E M pu b l i ca t io n s .
TS - EN - 197 - 1 . ( 20 1 2 ) . Ce m e nt – Pa r t 1: Co mp o s i ti o n , sp e c if i ca t i on an d co nf or m i t y
c r i t e r ia f or c om m on ce m en t s. I n C em e nt – P a r t 1: C om p os i t i on , s pe c i fi ca t i o n
an d co nf o r m i ty cr it e r ia fo r c om mo n ce m e nts (V ol . TS EN 19 7- 1 ) . An k a ra :
Tu rk i sh S t a n da r ds I n s ti t ut e .
31

Tu ll in i , N . , & Mi ng h i ni , F. (2 01 6 ). Gr ou t e d sl e e ve c on ne c ti o ns us ed in pr e ca s t
r e i n f o rc e d c o n c re t e c o n s tr u ct i o n – E xp e ri m en t a l i n v e s t ig a t i on o f a c ol u m n - to -
c o l u m n j o i nt . E n gi n e e ri n g S tr u c t u r es , 1 2 7 , 7 8 4 - 80 3 .
U c h i k a wa , H ., Ha ne h a ra , S. , & Sa wa ki , D. (1 99 7 ) . T he r o l e o f s te r ic r e pu l s i ve f or c e
i n th e d i s p e rs io n of c e m en t pa rt ic l e s i n f r e s h p a s t e p r ep a r e d w i t h o r g a ni c
a d m i x t ur e . C e m en t a nd C o n cr e t e R e s e ar c h, 2 7 ( 1) , 37 - 50 .
V a s u m i t hr a n, M. , A na n d, K ., & Sa th ya n , D. (2 02 1 ) . E f f ec t s o f fi ll e r s o n t h e rh eo l og y
of c e me nt g r o ut s . M at er i al s To d a y : P r o c ee di n g s , 4 6 , 5 15 3 - 51 5 9 .
Y o s h i o ka , K. , Sa k a i, E. , Da im o n , M. , & K i t a h a ra , A. ( 1 9 97 ) . Ro le of s t e r i c hi n dr a nc e
i n t h e p e rf o rm a n c e of s u pe r p l a st i c iz e r s fo r c o n c r e te . J o u r n al o f t h e A me r i c an
C e r a m i c So c i et y , 8 0 ( 1 0 ) , 2 6 6 7 -2 6 7 1 .

32

Chapter 2

Formation Mechanisms and Deposition Processes of
Pyroclastic Rocks
Abdullah SAR 1
Mehmet Ali ERTÜRK 2

ABSTRACT
The pyro clast is defined as crumbs throw n ou t of volcanic vents, regardless of
the orig in of the grains and their eruption patterns. Pyroclastic rocks are formed
by the transport, accumulation and consolidation of pyroclastic material produced
by a volcanic eruption by air or water. Pyroclastic eruptions are examined in four
sections: Hawaiian-ty pe, Stromboli -type, Vulcano -type and Plin ian-type
eruptions, according to magma density, viscosity, temperature, gas content and
chimney height. While Hawaiian eruptions with the lowest erup tion intensity are
represented by basaltic lavas, Plinian erup tions with the highest eruptio n intensity
are represented by dacitic lavas with high viscosity. Pyroclastic eruptions are
deposited as debris, flows and turbulence deposits. The siz es and shapes of the
debris tanks formed after the explosive rise of gas and tephra from the chimney
reflect the eruption column heig ht, speed and direction of atmospheric wind s. As
a result of the spreadin g of the risin g colu mn, the crumbs fall to th e gro und due
to gravity and thus form "debris depots". The fo rmation of flow depots, which
are formed due to the pyroclastic mass with high grain density flowing along the
surface, is contro lled by gravity, and the pyroclastic material is hot and
sometimes flui d. Pyroclastic material: Th e reservoirs are transported by a
widespread, turbulent, low -grain density gas-grain cloud across the surface with
turbulent motion.

Keywords: Pyroclast, Py roclastic rocks, Pyroclastic eruptions, Pyroclastıc
Eruptıon Deposites

1 Arş. Gör Dr..; Fırat University Engi neering Faculty Department of Geolo gical Engineering. [email protected] .tr
ORCID No: 0000- 0002 -9752-7807
2 Dr. Öğr. Üyesi; Fırat University Engineering Faculty De partment of Geological Engineering .
[email protected] ORCID No: 0 000 -0003-1197-9202
33

INTRODUCTION
Pyroclastic rock is formed by the transport, accumulation and consolidation
of pyroclastic material produced by a volcanic eruption by air or water (Sun et
al., 1987, 2001; Chang et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2019 ; Zh ou
et al., 2022 ). Regarding classification, pyroclastic rocks are lo cated in th e
transition zone between volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Sun et al., 1987, 2001;
Chang et al., 2009 ; Zhou et al., 2022 ). Although it has the characteristics of
volcanic and sedimentary r ocks, it has a complex litholo gy. (Sun et al., 1987 ,
2001; Chang et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2010; Wang et al., 20 19; Yuan et al.,
2021). The mineral compo sition and cementation mode are different from th e
other two species (Sun et al., 2001; Huang et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2019; Yuan
et al., 2021). Pyroclastic rocks are mainly composed of pyroclastic material with
some sedim ents or lava materials (Chang et al., 2009; Huan g et al., 2010; Wang
et al., 2019 ; Zhou et al., 2022 ). Physically, these ro cks can be described as hard,
semi-plastic or plastic (Sun et al., 1987, 2001; Chang et al., 2009; Huang et al.,
2010; Wang et al., 20 19 ; Zhou et al., 2022). Typically, py roclastic rocks consist
of a combination of rock debris, crystal debris, a nd volcanic glass debris (Huang
et al., 2010; Wang et al., 20 19). ). Py roclastic rocks can also form from
amorphous cooled molten mud, as pyroclastic material is subj ected to rapid
changes in pre ssure and te mperature as lava advances towards th e surface (Sun
et al., 1987, 2001; Ch ang et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2019 ; Zhou et al., 2022).
Pyroclast is defined as fragments of grains thro wn out from volcanic vents,
regardless of their origin and eruption form (Schmid, 1981 ). Pyroclastic clasts
are clasts formed directly by volcanic means. Volcanic materials that have been
involved in sedimentation processes are defined as volcanoclastic. Hydroclastic
clasts are a type of pyro clasts formed fr om steam eruptio ns where magma -water
interaction occurs, rapid cooling, and mechanical gr aining of lavas in contact
with water or water-saturat ed sediments (URL-1) .

ERUPTION TYPES
Pyroclastic eruptions are divided into Hawaiian (Fig ure 1a), Stromboli
(Figure 1b) , Vulcano (Figure 1c), and Plinian (Figure 1d)erup tions.

Hawaiian-Type Eruptio ns
Hawaiian erup tions are one of the types of volcanic eruptions named after
Hawaiian volcanoes. These are among the calmest eruptions, characterized by
intense eruptions of fluid basaltic lavas due to their low gas content. The volume
of materials ejected in Hawaiian eruptions is less than half that in other eruptions.
The continuous production of small amounts of lava creates the lar ge shape of a
34

shield volcano. Eruptions are not centred on the main summit as in other volcanic
types but generally occur in cracks radiating fro m outside th e centre and in
chimneys around the summit (URL-2 ).

Figure 1: Pyroclastic eruptio n types a. Hawaii-type eru ption, b. Stromboli-type
eruption, c. Vulcano-type eruptio n, d. Plinien-type eruption (URL-2).

Hawaiian er uptions begin as an eruption line along cracks called "fire
curtains." These are cut off over time as lava accumulates in the crevices. Centr al
vent eruptions, meanwhil e, take the form of large lava foun tains that can reach
hundreds of meters hi gh. Particles in lava fountains often cool in the air before
falling to the ground, accumulating volcanic cinders. However, w hen the air is
concentrated, especially with volcanic fragments, it does not cool quickly enough
due to the surrounding temperature . The pieces f all ho t to the ground and form
cinder cones (URL-2)..
If eruption rates are high enough, they can prod uce splatter -fed lava flows.
Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long - lasting; Pu'u O'o, a cinder cone of
Kilauea, has erupted continuously since 1983. Another feature of Hawaiian
35

volcanoes is active lava lakes. Currently, there are only 5 of th ese lakes in the
world. Kilauea's Kupaianaha crater is o ne of them.
The flows in the Hawaiian eruptio ns are basaltic, and their structural character
is di vided int o two types. Pahoehoe lavas are fairly smooth lava flows that can be
wavy or rope-shaped. A'a lava flows are den ser and more viscous than Pahoehoe
lavas and tend to be transported more slowly. Flows can be measured between 2-
20 meters th ick. A'a l avas are so thick that their outer shell coo ls from the inside,
like a rock mass that protects it from cooling and isolates the heat inside.
Pahoehoe lavas can turn into A'a lavas as their viscosity increases , but A'a lavas
never turn into Pahoeho e flows (URL-2) ..
Hawaiian eruptions are responsible fo r several specific volcano logical
formations. Small volcanic particles are formed and carried by t he wind, quickly
cooling th e inside of teardrop -shaped glassy fragm ents known as Pele's tears
(URL-2).. Especially during strong winds, these pieces can take the form of long
striped hairs known as Pele's h air (Figur e 2).

Stromboli-Type Eruptio ns
Stromboli eruptions are one of the types of volcanic eruptions named after the
Stromboli volcano, which has been erup ting contin uously for centuries.
Stromboli eruptions are triggered by the explosion of ga s bu bbles within magma.
These gas bubbles within the ma gma coalesce and accumulate into large bu bbles
called gas slugs. These grow large enough to rise throughout the lava column.
Once th ey reach the surface, differences in air pressure cause the bubbles to burst
with a loud noise. Due to the high gas pre ssure associated with lavas, sustained
activity usually consists of episodic explosive eruptions accompanied by
distinctive high eruptions (URL -2). During an eruption, these explosion s occur
every few minutes.
The term stro mboli is used to describe a variety of volcanic erup tions, ranging
from small volcanic eruptions to large eruption columns. True stromboli
eruptions are characterized by the exp losive eruption of short -term and
moderately viscou s lavas. Eruption columns can rea ch height s of hundreds of
meters (URL - 2) . The lavas formed by these erup tions are partl y a form of high -
viscosity basaltic lavas, and their fin al product is mostly scoria (Fig ure 3).

36

Figure 2: Samples of pyr oclastic Pele's hair

Strombolian erup tions eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments (Figure 4 )
that travel in a parabolic orbi t before falling into a region around the crater. Th e
continuous accumulation of small fragments forms cind er con es formed entirely
by combin ing basaltic pyroclasts. Stro mboli erup tions are similar to Hawaiian
eruptions, but there are some differ ences. Stromboli erup tions are louder and do
not have a continuous eruption column. Pele's hair does not produce some
volcanic products associated with Hawaiian volcanism, such as Pele's tears
(Figure 2), and produces less molten lava flows (URL -2).

Vulcano-Type Eruptio ns
Vulcanian eruptio ns are one of the types of volcanic eruptions named after the
Vulcan volcano, which gave the word volcano its name. In Vulcan -type
eruptions, sep arating gases from the mag ma is difficul t due to their high viscosity.
Similar to Stromboli eruptions, an increase in hi gh gas pr essure is observed in
these eruptions. However, un like Stromboli eruptions, the lava pieces ejected in
vulcano-type eruptions are not aerodynamic. This is due to the high viscosity of
37

the magma. Th ey are mu ch more exp losive than stromboli -type eruptions, with
eruption co lumns reaching 5 to 10 km (URL-2 ).

Figure 3: Samples of pyr oclastic scoria

Vulcanian deposits are andesitic or dacitic rather than basaltic. Initial volcanic
activity involves a series of short -liv ed eruptio ns lasting from a few minu tes to
several ho urs, typically ejected volcanic bombs and bl ocks. These erup tions
erode the lava domes that preserve the magma underneath and break it apart with
numerous and continuous eruptions. Therefore, early signals of future Vulcanian
eruptions are lava dome growth. As la va domes collap se, pyroclastic material
forms on the volcano's slopes (URL-2).
Deposits clos e to the crater contain large volcanic blocks and bombs (Figure
4), particularly commonly called "bread crust bombs". They are formed by
rapidly cooling t he ejected lava's outer surface into a glass or fine -grained shell.
However, cooling and void formation contin ue inside. The centre of the piece
expands, cracking th e o uter surface. However, Vulcanian deposits consist of fine-
grained ash. This ash is partially dispersed, and its abundan ce indicates high gas
pressure within the magma and a hi gh degree of fragmentation (URL -2).

38

Figure 4: Samples of py roclastic bomb

Plinian-Type Eruptio ns
In Plinian -type eruptions, the process begins in the magma chamber, where
dissolved volatile gases accumulate in the magma. Gases rise along the magma
channel, accu mulate and form a void. Th ese bubbles coalesce an d bu rst when
they reach a certain size (approximately 75% of the total volume of the magma
conduit). Narrow sections of the channel put pressure on the gases that shape the
eruption column . The gas content in the magma column controls the eruption
rate, and low-strength surface rocks disintegrate under the eruption pr essure,
forming a conical outlet stru cture (URL -2)..
Large-diameter eruption columns are a distinctive feature of Plinian eruptions.
They reach an altitude of between 2 and 45 km in the atmosphere. These hi ghly
explosive eruptions are associated with rhyolitic or dacidic lavas, ri ch in volatile
content, and are typically seen in stratovolcanoes. Eruptio ns can continue for
days, with longer -lasting eruptions more commonly associa ted with fels ic
volcanoes (URL -2). Alth ough associated with felsic magma, Plinian eruptions
can also occur in basaltic volcanoes.
Plinian erup tions are similar to Vulcani an and Strombolian eruptions, except
for distinct explosive eruptions. Continuous eruption columns shape plinian
eruptions. These erup tions are similar to the Hawaiian erup tion type. Bot h ty pes
of erup tions form con tinuous eruption c olumns fu eled by the growth of bubbles
that are transported at approximately the same spe ed as the surroun ding magma
(URL-2)..
Regions affe cted by Plin ian erup tions are exposed to dense pumice (ash)
clouds, affecting an area of 0. 5 to 50 km3. Th e most dangerou s eruption feature
is pyroclastic flows, which occur when material transp orted down the mountain
slope at a speed of appr oximately 700 km per hou r collapses.

PYROCLASTIC ERUPTION DEPOS İTES
Pyroclastic deposits, fo rmed due to magm a or r ock's disintegration by
explosive vo lcanic activity, are divided into three groups according to their
39

origin, transportation and storage methods. Th ese are (i) debris, (ii) flow, and (iii)
turbulence (Helvacı and Erkül , 2001).

Spill Deposite
The size s and shapes of the debris tanks formed after the explosive rise of gas
and tephra from th e chimney reflect the erup tion column height, speed and
direction of atmospheric winds. As a result of the spreading of the rising column,
the crumbs fall to th e ground due to gravity and thus form "debris depots". Larger
pieces fly ou t of the chimney due to explosions, and the pieces called " ballistic
crumbs or clasts" are unaffected by the wind. Pyroclastic flo ws partially form
other fine-grained pyroclastic debris depots. They are fo rmed by separating from
the upper part. These depots are called "debris dep ots derived from the ash cloud"
(He lvacı and Erkül, 2001).
Debris deposits that form overburden layers generally have equal thickness,
except for areas with hi gh slop e topography. Although poor sorti ng is generally
observed in pyroclastic deposits, debris deposits show good sorting due to their
separation in air durin g transportation. In some cases, they show planar
lamination or layering du e to the change of th e eruption column. However, they
do not present erosion , cross-bed ding or load structures in the unde rlying layers.
It originates from debris tanks near the chimney (Helvacı and Erkül, 2001).

Flow Deposite
These deposi ts are formed due to the pyroclastic mass with hig h gr ain
concentration flo wing along the surface. Their formation is controlled by gravity,
and the material is ho t and, in some cases, fluid. Th ey generally show
topography- controlled settlement s that fill valleys and depression areas (Helvacı
and Erkül, 2001). When the internal structure of py roclastics is examined, it is
seen th at th ey are generally massive and poor ly sorted . Poor sorting in flo w tanks
is due to high grain con centration and is no t related to tur bulence. The do minant
flow mechanism is generally laminar. Wh en each flow unit overlaps, it appears
as a layer. In pyroclastic fl ow reservoirs, sometimes, after the flow stops, "fossil
fumarole chimneys" or gas ou tlet chimneys are formed due to the separation of
fine ash-sized material by the gas effect. Structures formed as a result of th e
enrichment of heavy crystalline, lithic and larger vesicul ar pieces in vents are one
of the most important data in distinguishing primary py roclastic d eposits from
epiclastic flows fo rmed as a result of the flow of volcanic materi al (Helvacı and
Erkül, 2001).
Pyroclastic flows settle at high temperatures. Pyroclastic flows are also
mechanisms that preserve temperature w ell. Therefore, hot pyroclastic flows may
40

CONCLUSION
✓ The pyroclast is defined as crumbs thrown out of volcanic vents,
regardless of the orig in of the grains and their eruption patterns.
✓ Pyroclastic rocks are fo rmed by the transport, accumulation and
consolidation of pyroclastic material produced by a volcanic eruption by air or
water.
✓ Pyroclastic e ruptions are examined in four sections: Hawaiian - type,
Stromboli-type, Vulcano -type and Plinian-type eruptions, according to magma
density, viscosity, temperature, g as content and chimney height.
✓ Pyroclastic eruptions are deposited as debris, flows and turbulence
deposits.

47

REFERENCES
Chang, L., Cao, L., and Gao, F. (2009). Handbook of Igneou s Rock Identificatio n ,
Geological Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 95 – 115.
Crowe, B.M., Linn, G.W., Heiken, G. and Bevier, M .L. (1978). Stratigraphy of
Bandelier Tuff in the Pajarito Plateau; Applications to waste management.
Los Alamo Sci. Lab., New Mexico, Informal Rpt., LA - 72 25, 1-57.
Gorshkov, G.S. (1959). Gigantic eruption of the volcano Bezym ianny. Bull.
Volcanol., 20, 77 -109.
Hay, R.L. (1959). Formation of the crystal-rich glowing avalanche deposits of St.
Vincent, B. W. I. J. Geol. 67 , 540 -562.
Helvacı ve Erkül, (2001). Volk aniklastik Kayaçların Oluşumu, Genel Özellikleri
ve Sınıflaması, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühen dislik Fakültesi Jeoloji
Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ders Notları.
Hoplitt, R.P. and Kellogg, K.S. (1979). Emplacement temperatures of unsorted
and unstratified deposits of volcanic debris as determin ed by
paleomagnetic techniques. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. Part I, 90, 633 - 642.
Huang, Y., Wang, P., Shao, R. (2010). Porosity and permeabilit y of pyroclastic
rocks of the Ying cheng Formation in Songl iao basin. J. Jilin Univ. (Earth
Sci. Ed.), 40 (2), 227 – 236.
Schmincke, H.-U. (197 3). Magmatic evolution of tectonic regime in Canary,
Madeira and Azores Island Gro ups. Geol.Soc. Amer.Bul l., 84, 633 - 648.
Sparks R.S.J. and Walker, G.P.L. (1977). The significance of vitric-enriched air-
fall ashes associated with crystal-enr iched ignimbrites. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 2, 329 -341.
Sparks R.S.J ., Self, S. and Walker, G.P.L. (1973). Produ cts of igni mbrite
eruption. Geology, 1, 115 - 118.
Sparks R.S.J. (1976). Grain size variations in ignimbrites and implications for the
transport of pyroclastic flows. Sed imentology, 23, 1 47 - 188.
Sun, S., Li, J., Zhu, Q., and Wei, H. (1987). History and present situation of
classification and nomenclature of pyroclastic rocks i n China and abro ad.
Earth Sci. — J. Wuhan Co ll. Geol. 12 (6), 571 – 577.
Sun, S., Liu, Y., Zhong, R., Bai, Z., Li, J., Wei, H., and Zhu, Q. (2001).
Classification of py roclastic rocks and trend of volcanic sedimento logy: a
review. Acta Petrol. Mineral., 2 (3), 313 – 317+328.
Taylor, G.A. (1958). The 1951 eruption of Mo unt Lamington, Papua. Austr. Bur.
Min.Resour. Geol. Geophys. Bu ll., 38, 1 - 117.
Walker, G.P.L. (1971). Grain size characteristics of pyroclastic deposits. J. Geol.
79, 696-714.
48

Walker, G.P.L. (1972). Crystal concentratio ns in ignimbrites. Contr. Mineral.
Petrol. 36, 135- 146.
Wang, Y., Wang , J., Wang, Q., Sui, F., Shi, H., Xu, Y. (2019). Diagenesis of
volcaniclastic rocks and its control over reservoir performance: a case
study of the Carboni ferous system in Chepaizi area, Junggar basin. J.
China Inst. Min. Technol., 48 (2), 40 5 – 414.
Yuan, Y., Rezaee, R., Yu, H., Zou, J., Liu, K., Zhang, Y. (2021). Compositional
controls on nanopore structu re in different shale lith ofacies: a comparison
with pure clays and isolated k erogens. Fuel, 303, 121079.
Zhou, J., Li u, B., Shao, M., Yin, C., Jiang, Y., and Song, Y. (2022). Lithol ogic
classification of pyroclastic rocks: A case study for the third member of
the Huo shiling Fo rmation, Dehui fault depression, Song liao Basin, NE
China. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 2 14,110456.
URL -1 Vikipedi, Piroklastik Kayaçla r
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirokl astik_kaya%C3%A7 adresinden 10
Aralık 2023 tarihinde alınmıştır.
URL - 2 Wikipedia, Types of volcanic eruptions.
htpp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_ of_volcanic_eruptions adresinden 10
Aralık 2023 tarihinde alınmıştır.
49

Chapter 3

Effects of Operating Parameters on NO X Emıssıons in Diesel Engines

Adem TÜYLÜ 1
Kubilay HAN 2
Yasin AKIN 3

INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines are preferred in the automotive sector, particularly in heavy -
duty vehicles, du e to their high torque outp ut and low fuel consumption.
Although electric vehicles are becoming more widespread, internal combustion
engine vehicles continue to be used due to issues such as battery life and
deficiencies in charging station infrastructure. Internal combu s tion engines
release various exhaust gases that have adverse effects on t he environment and
human health. Among these emissions, hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide
(CO) are primary concerns fo r Otto engines, while nitro gen ox ides (NOx) and
particulate m atter are majo r issues for diesel engines. The negative effects of NOx
emissions include respiratory problems and lung diseases in humans, as well as
the formation of acid rain through chemical interac tions with water, oxygen, and
other compounds in the atmosphere. Legal regulations restrict these harmful
emissions, with the upcoming Eu ro VII emission standards, exp ected to be
effective by 2025, aiming for even stricter limits (Demir et al., 2023; Calam et
al., 2022; Syed and Reng anathan, 2022; Mu lholland e t al., 2022; Böğrek et al.,
2021).
In diesel engines, the relatively high levels of NOx emissions stem from the
operational conditions of the engine. Diesel eng ines operate with fu el -lean
mixtures compared to Otto engines and have high er compression ratios.
Consequently, more oxygen is involv ed in the combustion in diesel engines,
leading to higher combu stion temperatures. These two factors contribute to the
high levels of NOx emission s in diesel engines. However, operational parameters
of diesel engines, fuel qu ality, and emission reduction technologies installed in

1 Arş. Gör. Adem TÜYLÜ Sakarya University Of Appli ed Sciences Faculty of Techno logy Mechanical
Engineering, ademtu [email protected] ORCID No: 0000 - 0001 -9828 -1573
2 Arş. Gör. Kubilay HAN Sakarya University Of A pplied Sciences Faculty of Technology Mechanical
Engineering, kubilayhan@subu .edu.tr ORCID No: 0000 - 0003 -1472-2832
3 Arş. Gö r. Yasin AKIN Sakarya University Of Ap plied Sciences Faculty of T echnology Mechanical
Engineering, yasinakin @subu.edu.tr ORCID No: 0000 - 0003 -3201 -379X
50

the exhaust system have significant effects on the amount of NOx emissions
released in the exhaust gases. Impro vements in the fuel, such as th e addition of
various fuel additiv es, the use of alternativ e fuels, and th e utilization of low -
nitrogen diesel fuel can reduce NOx emissions from diesel engines throug h pre -
combustion enhancements. Additionally, post -combustion NOx emissions are
reduced through the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology installed in
the exhaust system before being released into the ambient air (Çelebi et al., 20 21;
Tüylü, 2021; Tü ylü vd., 2019 ; Koebel et al., 2000; Haşimoğlu and İçingür, 2000).
In this study, th e types and formation mechanisms of NOx emissions were
first explained. Subsequently, the effects of operational parameters in fluencing
the combustion process on NOx emissions, particularly focusin g on reducing
effects, were discussed. Studi es in the literature on the reduction of NOx
emissions with operational parameters were co mprehensively evaluated i n
subheadings.

NOx EMISSIONS IN DIESEL EN GINES
The most influential factors in the formation of NO x emissions in diesel
engines are cylinder ox ygen concentration and cylinder temperatures. NO x
emissions begin to form when cylinder temperatu res exceed 1800 K. NO x
includes various nitrogen oxide compo unds such as NO, NO 2 , N 2 O, N 2 O 5 , and
NO 3 . Approximately 95 % of diesel engine NO x emissions consist of ni trogen
monoxide (NO), with the remaining 5% composed of other compounds
(Varatharajan and Ch eralathan, 2012; Chen et al., 2018).

NOx FORMATION REACTIONS
As explained above, the vast majority of NO x emissions consist of NO
emissions. In this section, the mechanisms and reactions fo r the formation of
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) are des cribed.

Thermal NO Formation
This mechanism is the pr imary source of NO x emissions. It occur s when
nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O 2 ) react at cylinder temperatures above 1800 K. These
reactions are kn own as the Zeldovich mechanism (Var atharajan and Cheralathan,
2012).
N 2 + O ↔ NO + N
N + O 2 ↔ NO + O
N + OH ↔ NO + H

51

Prompt NO Formation
It represents the formation of NO in th e combustion process where the mixture
is fuel-rich, and temperatures are r elatively low inside the cylinder. The reactions
for Prompt NO formation are provided below (Varatharajan and Cheralathan ,
2012).

CH + N 2 ↔ HCN + N
C 2 + N 2 ↔ 2CN
CN + O 2 ↔ NO + CO

NO and N 2 O Formation Rea ctions
The reactions belo w take place in conditions where the cylinder pr essure is
high, and the cylinder filling is low, at high air/fuel ratios during the combustion
process. Oxygen atoms react with nitrogen gases (N 2 ) to form N 2 O. Th e N 2 O
formed in the initial reaction can later react with oxygen to produce NO
(Varatharajan and Ch eralathan, 2012).

O + N 2 + M ↔ N 2 O + M
N 2 O + O ↔ NO + NO

REDUCTION METHODS OF NOx EMISSIONS IN DIESEL ENGINES

Exhaust Gas Recirculation ( EGR)
EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirc ulation) is one of the most effective method s for
reducing NO x emissions from diesel engines. It in volves recirculating exh aust
gases containing inert, high heat capa city CO 2 , and H 2 O (water vapor) into the
intake air. This results in a chan ge in the characteristics of the in take air, leading
to a reduction in NO x emissions. Th e addition of these compounds to the intake
air decreases th e O 2 content in the intake air. Additionally, these compounds with
high heat capacity cause a reduction in peak combustion temperatures. The
decrease in c ylinder O 2 concentration and post-combu stion peak temperatures
due to EGR results in th e redu ction of NO x emis sions. However, it should be
noted that the app lication of EGR leads to an increase in particulate matter
emissions and a deterioration in engine performance.
EGR can be implemented th rough internal and external systems. Many
modern diesel eng ines are equipped wit h turbochargers. Internal EGR involves
the inclusion of bu rned exhaust gases in the next cycle by modifying intake and
exhaust timing s, valve opening and closing times, and valv e duration. This is
achieved through the manipulation of valves, employing variable valve activation
52

technology. In cold EGR applications, exhaust gases are subjected to intercoo ling
before being introduced into th e intake air (Figure 1). In hot EGR app lications,
exhaust gases are mixed with the intake air without undergoing any cooling
process. Cold EGR is mor e effective and efficient compared to hot EGR but is
also more costly (Pradeep et al., 2007; Haşimoğlu et al., 2002) .

Figure 1. EGR scheme (L ou et al., 2022)

When implementing EGR, the percentage of EGR can be calculated usin g the
following equation (Pierpont et al., 1995). Since the ambient % CO 2 is relatively
small and is considered as zero in the equation, the EGR ratio is calculated by
dividing the percentage of CO 2 in the intake air by the percentag e of CO 2 in the
exhaust air.

%CO 2(intake) − %CO 2(ambien t)
%CO 2(exhaust) − %CO 2 (ambient)
× 100

In conclusion, Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) reduces NO x emissions by
lowering peak temperatures in the combustion process through the high heat
capacity compounds H 2 O and CO 2 , and by reducing the amount of O 2 introduced
into the cylinder. However, EGR can lead to increases in other emissions,
particularly particulate matter, and a deterioratio n in engine performance.
Therefore, EGR is app lied by op timizing parameters such as eng ine load,
turbocharging, intake air temperature, etc., in a combined and coordinated
manner (Maiboom et al., 200 8; Hountalas et al., 200 8).

NO x Emission Reduction thro ugh Combustion Strategies
Combustion strategies wi th low -temperature comb ustion (LTC) such as
Homogeneous Charge Comp ression Ignition (HCCI), Reactivity Controlled
Compression Ignition (RCCI), and Premixed Charge Compression Ignition
53

(PCCI) result in combustion at lo wer temperatures compared to traditional diesel
engines (Fig ure 2) . Particularly, in the HCCI strategy, combu stion occur s with
fuel-lean mi xtures and at lower temperatures, providing an opportunity to
simultaneously reduce soot and NO x emissions (Kutluata, 2002; Dong et al.,
2018; Krishnam oorthi et al., 2019). Creating a ho mogeneous fu el -air mixture in
combustion s trategies can be achieved by making changes in fuel injection
timings. In addition to the main fuel injection timing in traditional diesel eng ines,
pilot, early, a nd late fuel i njections (Figure 3) are used to create a homogeneous
charge (Zhao, 2007).

Figure 2. Low temperature co mbustion (LTC) strategies op erating ranges
(Duan vd., 2021)

Figure 3. Fuel injection timing types for homogeneous fuel -air mixtur e (Zhao,
2007)
54

Effect of Fuel Injection Stra tegies on NO x Emissions
One of the parameters that significantly influences the reduction of NO x
emissions in diesel engines is fuel injection strategies. Particularly, performing
multiple fuel injections per cycle results in notable reductions in NO x emissions
compared to a single main in jection scenario. Moreover, the multiple injection
strategy has the potential to simultaneously redu ce both NO x and soot emissions
without compromising engine performance (To w et al., 1994; Sindhu et al.,
2018). On the other hand, delaying the fuel injection timing , in other words,
reducing the advance leads to a decrease in ignition delay resulting in a redu ctio n
in NO x emissions (Shundoh et al., 1992; Cheng et al., 2016).
In numerical stud ies, Wang et al. (2007) investigated the effects of fuel
injection advance and multip le injection strategies on engine perfo rmance and
emissions. They found that in single, 3 -stage, and 5-stage injection strategies with
the same start of f uel injection, as the number of stages increased, NO x emissions
decreased. In other word s, multiple injections resulted in lower NO x emissions
compared to a single injection. Additionally, they noted that reducing the
injection advance from -10 CA to 5 C A for fuel spray strategies resulted in NO x
emission reduction . In conclusion, multiple injection s and reducing fuel in jection
advance have a mitigating effect on NOx emissions.

Effect of Fuel Injection Pressur e on NO x Emissions
In diesel engines, as the fuel injection pressure increases the diameter of the
fuel particles sprayed from the injector decreases leading to a reduction in the
penetration area s within the cylinder. As the injection pressure increases, a
relatively homogeneous fuel-air mixture is formed i n in cylinder, resulting in a
decrease in ignition delay. Th erefore, an increase in injection pressure leads to a
reduction in NO x emissions (İçing ür and Altiparmak, 2003). However, studies
using biodiesel as fuel in diesel engin es have shown different trends in NOx
emissions in response to increasing injection pr essure (Jindal et al., 2010 ; Deokar
and Harari, 2021).

Effect of Intake Air Characteristi cs on NO x Emissions
The physical and compositional characteristics of intake air pl ay a crucial role
in diesel engine performance and emissi ons. The effects of intake air temperature,
pressure, and oxygen content on combustion and emissions have been
investigated through expe rimental and numerical studies. Jeevahan et al. (2019)
examined the in fluence of intake air oxygen (O 2 ) con centration on the
performance and emissions of a single-cylin der di esel engine. They adjusted the
intake air O 2 concentration to 21%, 23 %, 25%, and 27% un der no rmal conditio ns.
55

Under full -load condi tions, they ob served NO x formations of 2435 pp m when the
intake air O 2 concentration was 21% and 5599 ppm when it was 27%. Th ey noted
that the improvement in combustion and the increase in post -combustion
temperatures with hig her oxygen concentration led to increased NO x emissions.
Li et al. (1997) conducted experimental studies on a direct-injecti on, water-
cooled diesel engine to i nvestigate the effects of intake air pressure and oxygen
concentration on eng ine performance and emissions. To clearly observe the
effects of these two fa ctors on emissions and performance, they maintained the
engine speed at 1800 rpm, intake air temperature at 300 K, and th e injected fuel
quantity per cycle at 30.2 mg/cycle. They set the intake air pressure to 1.1 bar,
1.5 bar, and 2 bar, and the oxygen concentration in the inhaled air to 21%, 19.5%,
and 18.8%. T hey diluted the oxygen conce ntration in the inhaled air to 19.5% by
adding carbon diox ide to the intake air. Similarly, by add ing argon and nitro gen
gases to the intake air, they reduced the normal 21% oxygen concentration to
18.8%. They fo und that increasing intake air pressure led to a decrease in NO x
emissions, and they associated this decrease with the decrease in ignition delay
due to in creased inhaled air pressure. On the other hand, add ing inert gases to th e
intake air resulted in reduced oxygen concentrations, leading to a decrease in NO x
emissions. Particularly, under operating conditions with an intake air pressure of
2 bar and an oxygen concentration of 18.8%, they achieved significant reductions
in NOx emissions.
Increasing intake air temperatures in diesel engines through various methods
lead to higher peak temperatures at th e e nd of combustion. The increase in peak
temperature values has an enhancing effect on NO x emissions (Haraldsson et al.,
2002; Gowthaman and Sathiyag nanam, 2018).

Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on NO x Emissions
The air-fuel ratio (AFR) is one of the most influential paramet ers affecting
combustion and emissions in internal combustion engines. As indicated by the
equation below (Chatlatanagulchai et al., 2010), excess air coefficient ( 𝜆 ) denotes
whether the mixture in the cylinder is fuel -rich, fu el-lean, or stoichio metric.
There are many publications in the literature that discuss the changes in emissions
according to the excess air coefficient. NO x emissions are observed to be at their
maximum when 𝜆 =1.1, and they decrease when 𝜆 is belo w or abo ve 1.1 (Figure
3). The trends in NO x emissions can be explained by the combustion efficiency
of fuel-rich and fu el-lean mixtures, which leads to a decrease in combustion
temperatures.

56

44. Varatharajan, K., & Cheralathan, M. (2012). Influence of fuel properties
and compo sition on NOx emissions from biodiesel powered diesel
engines: A review. Renewable and sustain able energy reviews, 16(6),
3702 -3710.
45. Wang, D., Zhang , C., & Wang, Y. (2007). A numerical stud y of multiple
fuel in jection strategies for NOx reduction from DI diesel
engines. Internatio nal Journal of Green Energy, 4(4), 453 -470.
46. Zhao, H. (2007) . HCCI and CAI engines for the auto motive industry.
Elsevier
47. Zhu, L., Zhang, W., Liu, W., & Huang, Z. (201 0). Experimental study on
particulate and NOx emi ssions of a diesel engine fueled with ultra low
sulfur diesel, RME -diesel blends and PME-diesel blend s. Science of the
Total Environment, 40 8(5), 1050-1058.
63

Chapter 5

In -Situ Hydrogen Peroxide and Hydrogen Production in Wastewater
Treatment with Fenton-Fenton Like Oxidation

Ayşe Elif ATEŞ 1
Sinan ATEŞ 2

1- I NTR ODUCTI ON
Purifying water and reusing it as both i ndust rial and drinking water i s of
great importance in preventing water scarcity. However, with increasing
industrialization in recent years, efforts to provide clean energy production
during wastewater treatm ent are increasing. Biogas, biodiesel, and hydr ogen
energy can be gi ven as examples of clean energy (Hu, L., 2023 : 177 ). Due to
the rapid increase in population, th e need for energy and water has in creased
globally, and according ly, energy and water res erve s are facing difficulties in
meeting the need (Wang , Y., 2023 : 3 07 ). In addi tion, the fact that polluting
gases due to indu strialization accelerate climate cha nge and that the need for
water and energy will increase in the next 30 years has encouraged researchers
to develop methods that can solve both crises simultaneously (Sun, J., 2022 :
168) (Hu, L., 2023 : 177 ). However, the studies carried out are generally on a
laboratory scale and are in the testing ph ase for use in large -scale industries.
The priority in th e stud ies is generally to provide energy supply from renewable
energy. Here, when choosing a renewable energy supply system, variables such
as th e geological, meteorological, material and social situation of th e region
should be taken into consideration. Researchers ge nerally recommend add ing
en ergy storage syste ms to the process to improve the system (Ch eng, S., 2021:
46 ).
Hydrogen energy has been one of the important fields of study in recent
years, both in terms of its ability to be obtained du ring water treatment and as
renewable en ergy. Th e important advantages of hydrogen energy are that it is
storable, has a high calorific value, and does not create po lluting gases. Despit e
these advantages, the fact th at hydrogen fuel canno t be produced directly is a
significant disadvantage. Generally, gasification , electrolysis, and reformin g o f

1 Res. Asst.. Gör.; İstanb ul Üniversitesi -Cerr ahpa ş a Mühendislik Fakültesi Çevre Mühendi sli ğ i B ölümü,
[email protected] ORCID No: 0000 -0001-5391-7478
2 İstanbul Üniversitesi - Cerrah paşaMühendislik Fakü ltesi Çevre Mühendisliği Bölümü,
[email protected] ORCID No: 0000 -0003-0967-2367
64

fossil fuels are used in the production of hydrogen energy (Chen, Y.,2022: 81 )
(Hoang, A. T., 2022: 47 ) (Zhang, H., 2022:104). Although it is challenging to
use these met hods in the productio n of hydrogen ener gy, they have been tur ned
into an advantage by researchers because they are methods used in water
purification. Hydrogen energy prod uction pr ocesses integrated with water
treatment are advanced oxidation processes and in clude method s usin g
hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), ozone (O 3 ), electrolysis a nd ultraviolet lamps (Liu,
C. , 20 2 3: 52 ). In these advanced oxidation systems, pollutants are oxidized as a
result of electron transfer or chemical interaction. In addition, studies have
shown that electrochemical methods ar e more effecti ve in oxidizing pollutants.
This can be said to be due to the high er number of radicals fo rmed during the
process. Electro-Fent on and Photoelectro -Fenton ox idation methods are
advanced oxidation processes frequently used in wastewater treatme nt because
H 2 O 2 is produced by cathodic reduction (Behrouzeh, M.,2022 : 15 ). In studies
conducted in the literature, Electro -Fenton oxidation's low op erating costs and
high wastewater treat ment efficiencies are among its critical advan tages. It is
also one of the advanced oxidation processes that can be used on an industrial
scale (Campos, S., 20 23:169). However, although wastewater treatment can be
done by Electro -Fenton oxidation , desalin ation cannot be do ne. It is seen that
the electrodialysis method is widely used in the literature for desalination (Jia ,
Y., 203:48).

Fenton Oxidation
It is stated in the literature that the redox po tential of the hy droxyl radical
(•OH) formed as a result of the reaction in adv anced ox idation processes is
2.8V. Compared to other advanced oxi dation processes, Fenton oxidation
provides the formation of more hydroxyl radicals through the decomposition of
H 2 O 2 . In addition, the formation of hydroxyl radicals in this process is rapid and
easy to op erate (Liu, Y., 2021: 404) . In Fenton oxidation, H 2 O 2 is a chemical
us ually added externally. However, transportation and storage of H 2 O 2 is a
costly and risky process, which limits the use of this process on large scales. To
overcome this disadvantage , researchers provide oxygen activation so th at H 2 O 2
can be produced in situ during Fenton oxidation. Thus, the process can be
carried out in a less costly and safe ma nn er with out reducing the hy droxyl
radicals that will be produced during Fenton oxidation (Asghar, A., 20 15: 87 )
(Yang, Z., Zhang, X. , 20 19: 250) (Pi, L., 20 20: 189) (Zhou, W., 2019: 225).
By integrating ox ygen activation into electrochemical, photochemical and
chemical methods, H 2 O 2 can be produced in situ. These processes can operate
homogeneously or heterogeneously . In electroche mical methods, oxygen is
65

reduced to H 2 O 2 by taking electrons from th e cathode. In photocatalytic
oxidation, photoelectons coming from semiconductor materials un der UV light
activate ox ygen. This situation is directly affected by oxygen activ ation and
environmental con ditions in th e on -site production of H 2 O 2 (Pi, L., 2020: 18 9)
(Liu, Y., 2021: 404). Alt hough ir on-containing chemicals are ge nerally used as
catalysts in Fenton and Fenton -like ox idation processes where H 2 O 2 is produced
on -site, different catalysts t hat do not contain iron are also used. However, iron -
containing catalysts are frequently used in studies du e to their low cost and high
growth efficiency ( Bokare, A. D., 2014: 275 ) (Su, P., 2019 . 245) .

H 2 O 2 PRODUCTION IN THE FEN TON OXIDA TION PR OCESS
Iron, a zero -valent metal, is frequ ently preferred in Fenton and Fenton -like
oxidations due to its low cost and ease of applica tion. In Fenton oxid ation,
which is carried out with the on -site productio n of H 2 O 2 , the iron required for
the reaction to occur is provid ed. Other zero-valent metals used in the stud ies
are Al, Zn , Mg and Cu (shown in Figure 1) . In addition, by using iron
electrodes in Electro -Fenton oxidation, the necessary iron is given to the
environment in situ and the reaction tak es place. Fenton and Fenton-like
oxidation occurs under acidic environment (p H=2 -4) condi tions (Liu, Y., 2021:
404) (Liu, Y., 2019: 671).

Figure 1: Reactions of zero -valent metals in in -situ production of H 2 O 2

Studies have shown that the reduction capacity of zero-valent copper is
weaker com pared to iron and aluminum. However, considerin g th e redox
potential, it has been exp lained in these studies that it is thermodynamically
possible to produce H 2 O 2 in situ with the presence of sufficient oxygen in the
en vironment . In addition, when cop per is used, s uper oxide radicals (O 2 .- ) are
66

formed along with hydr oxyl radicals, unlike other zero -valent metals, with th e
activation of oxygen (Wen, G., 2014: 27 5) (Liu, Y., 2021: 404). Ano ther
advantage of using copper in the treatment of wastewater is that it dissolves in
wide pH ranges and hi gh efficiency results can be obtained in neutral pH
conditions . Anot her advantage of using copper in the treatment of wastewater is
its stability and its ability to dissolv e in wide pH ranges, resulting in highly
efficient results in neutral pH con diti ons ( Do ng, G. , 2014: 66).
To enh ance the efficiency of Zero -Valent Metals (ZVMs) in O 2 activation,
bi - met als consisting of two metals with different redo x potentials are
synthesized. This can ex pedite O 2 reduction in aqueous solu tions by establishing
corrosion cells. Incorporating Fe 0 was found to notably enhance the activity of
Al 0 for O 2 activation. Additionally, Fe 0 doped with Cu 0 accelerated the
degradation of or ganic contaminants, e xhibi ting greater reactivity compared to
Fe 0 alon e (Fan, J., 2015: 26 3) (Fan, J., 2016 : 23 ). D eta ile d equations for the
reactions in Fenton and Fenton - like oxidation processes are provided below
(Liu, Y., 2021: 4 04).

Fi gure 2: Production of H 2 O 2 in Electo-Fenton oxidation of Fe 2+ (aq and s)
and its use in the reaction

The Electro-Fenton/Fenton -like process involves activating O 2
electrochemically, generating H 2 O 2 on the cathode surface thr ough the 2 -
electron O 2 reduction pathway. This process employs Fe -based catalysts, both
homogeneous and heterogeneous, for the catalytic breakdown of H 2 O 2 into
hydroxyl radicals (•OH) throu gh the electrode reaction. Th e Fenton process,
rooted in electrochemical O 2 activation, is versatile, with classifications like
electro-catalysis activation of O 2 , fuel cell activatio n of O 2 , and corrosion cell
activation of O 2 . O 2 reduction on the cathode surface can yield H 2 O thro ugh the
direct 4-elect ron path way or H 2 O 2 th rough th e 2 -electron pathway, depending
on the cathode material's ty pe and characteristics (Liu, Y., 2021: 404).

67

The crucial role of cathode ma terial selectivity in facilitating the in-situ
generation of H 2 O 2 on the cathode surface is evident in various advanced
oxidation processes, particula rly in electro-Fent on/Fenton -like systems. To
achieve this, a diverse array of cathode mate rials has been harnessed, including
noble metals, metal alloys, and carbon -based materials. Carbon -based materials ,
with their distinctive attributes such as hi gh stability, low to xicity, cost -
effectiveness, and pronounced selectivity toward the 2-electron pathway of
oxygen (O 2 ) reduction, have emerged as pivotal candidates for in -situ H 2 O 2
generation (Zhuang, S., 2019:253) (Liu , Y., 2021: 404). In electro-
Fenton/Fent on -like processes, O 2 in the solution can be obtained from O 2 gas,
air aeration, or generat ed in-situ on an anode through water electr olysis. Two
main methods supply Fenton catalysts: direct addition of homogeneou s
catalysts (Fe 2+ or Fe 3+ ) or immobilizati on of iro n on el ectrode materials for O 2
reduction and H 2 O 2 generation, actin g as a source fo r catalyti c br eakdown into
hydroxyl radicals (•OH) (Liu , H., 2007 : 41) (Yang, S., 2018 :8). These
processes, offering cost savin gs and reduced risks of H 2 O 2 handling, maintain
Fenton catalyst activity by reducing ferric ions (Fe 3+ ) to ferrou s ions (Fe 2+ ) a t
the cathode. However, ch allenges lik e hi gh energ y consumption and the need
for supporting electrolytes hind er practical implementation (Liu, Y., 2021 : 404).
The production of H 2 O 2 is calc ulated with the faradic current efficiency
formula given in the e quation belo w (Garza-Campos, B., 2018:2 69) (Zhang, C.,
201 5: 160).

C H2O2 = H 2 O 2 concentration, mol/L
F= Faraday constant (96,485 C/mol)
n=Number of electrons transferred during the reduction o f oxygen to H 2 O 2 .
V= Volume (L)
I= current (A)
t = time (s)

H 2 PRODUCTION IN T HE FENTON OX IDATION PROCESS
Water electro lysis, commo nly known as water splitting, is a primary method
for hy drogen (H 2 ) production within the context of a fu turis tic sustainable
energy system. Water electrolysis is a fundam ental process that entails the
decomposition of water into its constituent elements, H 2 and oxygen, and holds
significant promise for a diverse range of energy applications, encompassing
68

electricity ge neration, transportation, heating, and chemical production. This
process hinges on the orchestrated movement of electrons within a closed
circuit. An electrolysis unit comprises key compo nents, including an ano de, a
cathode, an electrolyte, and a pow er suppl y (refer to Fig ur e 1 for a sche matic
representation). The field of electrolyzer technology recognizes three pr imary
types: polymer electrolyte membr ane electrolyzers, alkaline electroly zers, and
solid oxide electrolyzers, each offering dist in ct advantages and applications in
the realm of sustainable energy systems. (Aydin, M. I., 2021: 279 ) (Tak, S. ,
2022:47).
In a con ventional water electroly sis process driven by electricity, the
transformation of water occurs, leading to the generatio n of oxygen g as at the
anode electrode and H 2 at the catho de electrode (Yi, S., 2023 :91). This
fundamental electroche mical proces s serves as a versatile method for H 2
production, playing a crucial ro le in th e realm of sustainable energy.
Alternatively, there exists a no ther method based on the ox idation of iron, which
presents a distinctive app roach with potenti al advantages ov er the traditional
water electrolysis process. This iron oxidation process is characterized by its
reduced energy requirements compared to standard electrolysis. The utilization
of iron oxidation as an alternative pathway for water electrolysis highlights the
diverse strate gies employed to harness H 2 as a clean and renewable energy
source. Ferrous ion may be pr oduced using the iron oxidation proces s
(Nuengmatcha, P., 2023) . When ferrous ion is exposed to anode potential, it can
be converted to ferric ion (Hu, L., 2023:177) .

Contrasted with the energy demand of the oxygen evolution reaction, th e
preceding electrochemical reaction demands a remar kable 69% less energy,
underscoring its energy efficiency and potential as an economically viable
process for H 2 production. This noteworthy reduction in energy consumption
opens avenues for more sustainable and cost -effective approaches to electrolytic
H 2 generation. Delving into the specifics of the chemical reaction occurring o n
the cathode electrode of an elec trol yzer utilizing the iron oxidation process
provides valuable insights into the mechanisms driving this en ergy -efficient
reaction. Th e elucidati on of this electrochemical reaction not only contribut es to
our understandin g of the fundamental pr ocesses involved but also sheds light on
the distinctive features that make the iron oxidation - based electrolysis method a
69

promising contender in the landscap e of H 2 production technologies (Hu, L.,
2023:177).

In contrast to the conventional water electrolysi s method, the chemical
reaction described above boasts a noteworthy 38% redu ction in energy
consumption for H 2 production. Th is substant ial decrease in energy
requirements not on ly positio ns the process as a more enviro nmentally
sustainable alternative bu t also introdu ces the possibility of harnessing
renewable energy sources, such as solar energy systems, to power th is H 2
generation technique. The piv otal role of H 2 O 2 in the formation of a Fent on-type
reagent at the anode add s a layer of comple xity to the electrochemical processes
involved. As long as a suffi cient supply of H 2 O 2 is maintained, the anode
becomes a site for the con tinuous generation of the Fenton -type reagent,
accentuating the self-sustaining nature of the electrochemical system. This
intricate interplay of chemical reactio ns and renewable energy integration
highlights the multifaceted po tential and versatilit y of the described H 2
production method in the realm of sustainable energ y technologies .Iron ions can
be obtained electroche mically. via contrast, H 2 O 2 is created via an electro -
Fenton process by an electrochemical reaction involving t he cathodic reduction
of dissolved oxygen (Brillas , E. , 2020:250) .
The electro-Fenton technique is a highly recommended advanced oxidation
method for wastewater treatment applications. Furthermore, the oxidizing
power of H 2 O 2 can be increased by adding Fe to treated wastewat er (Shok ri, A.,
2023:172 ) (Hu, L., 2023:17 7) .

In the literature, The rate of H 2 production is calcu la ted based on Faraday's
law (Hu, L., 20 23:177) (Shen, Y., 2021: 4 7).

q= electrical charge
M= molar mass of H 2
70

F= Faraday constant (96,485 C/mol)
t cell = overall operation time o f the cell

H 2 production efficiencies in light and dark conditions have been compared
in the literature. In this study, it is see n that H 2 production i ncreases with
increasing voltage. Additionally, H 2 production increases when the syst em
operates in bright conditions . In the stud y, the H 2 production rate increases
approximately 10 times as the voltage in creases from 1.7V to 2.5V ( Aydin, M. ,
2022: 256).

RESULT
In comparison to the tradi tional water electrolysis app roach, the chemical
reaction elucidated above not only manifests a significant 38% reduction in
energy consumption for the production of H 2 but also establishes itself as a
compelling option for environmentally sustainable practices (Navarro- Solís, I.,
201 0:35). This marked decrease in energy requirements not only signifies the
method's potential fo r reduced environmen tal impact but also opens up avenues
for exploring renewable energy sources, with a pa rticular emph asis on solar
energy systems, as viable power in pu ts for this H 2 generation techn ique (Hu, L.,
2023:177 ).
The intricate dynamics of H 2 O 2 in facilitating the formation of a Fenton -type
reagent at the anode introduce a nu anced layer to the un derlying
electrochemical processes. The continuous gen eration of the Fenton -type
reagent at th e anode, contingent upon maintaining an ample sup ply of H 2 O 2 ,
underscores the i nherent self-sustaining natu re of the electrochemical system
(Liu, Y., 2021: 404) (Liu, Y., 20 19: 671). This complex interplay of chemical
reactions and the integr ation of renewabl e energy sources not only showcases
the method's multifaceted potential but also underscores its adaptabili ty and
versatility within the realm of sustainable energy technologies (Fan, J., 2015:
263) (Fan, J. , 2016: 23) (Dong, G., 2014: 66). The synergistic relationship
between energy efficiency, environmental impact, and renewable energy
integration positions this H 2 production method as a promisin g con tributor to
the on going pursuit of sustainable and clean energy solutions. Furthermore, due
to limitatio ns in the environment, the sector is compelled to adequately treat
wastewater for reuse. In the stud ies carried out, if H 2 O 2 is used in the treatment
of wastewater, on-site productio n can be carried out to reduce the cost and
overcome the difficulties in sto ring and transp orting th e chemical ( Wen, G.,
2014: 275 ) (Liu, Y., 2021: 404) (Liu, Y., 2019 : 671). One of the important
reasons why advan ced oxidation methods usin g H 2 O 2 are widel y used is tha t
71

high treatment efficiencies can be achieved in the treatment o f resistant
industrial wastewater (Hu, L., 20 23:177). New studies enable the pr oductio n of
H 2 energ y, which is a renewable e nergy, while producing H 2 O 2 on site.
Although H 2 production seems possible in studies, studies on its use as energ y
in the industry are quite new and stor age and usage technologies are being
developed (Ayd in, M. I., 2021:279 ) ( Lu , Y. , 2011: 36 ).
72

Parameter

Unit

Value

COD

mg /L

189.600

BOD 5

mg /L

993

TN

mg /L

215

TP

mg /L

0,45

Oil Grease

mg /L

31

TSS

mg /L

118

pH

-

6,5

Since the DMSO content causes intense foam after the chemicals to be
added for the Fent on reaction, the wastewater was aerated for 2 hours before the
Photo-Fenton oxidation. For Photo-Fenton oxidation, the wastewater pH wa s
adjusted to approximately 3 usin g 0.1 N H 2 SO 4 . For the process, 250 ml sample
was us ed and FeSO 4 an d H 2 O 2 were added at variable concentrations
determined in respo nse surface model ling. The variables used for response
surface modeling are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Actual values and coded values used in response surface modeling
Variable

Unit

Actual Value

Co ded Value

Low

High

-Alpha

+Alpha

Low

High

-Alpha

+Alpha

Time (A)

M in .

45

75

30

90

-1

1

-2

2

FeSO 4 (B)

g/L

1.5

2 .5

1

3

-1

1

-2

2

H 2 O 2 (C)

g/L

3

5

2

6

-1

1

-2

2

A schematic representation of the process setup is g iven in Figure 1. It was
stirred under UV light for 1 hour to ensure th at the Fenton oxidation reaction
occurred at high yi elds. A 40W UV-A lamp was use d as UV light. At the end of
1 ho ur, the pH was adjusted to>7. 5 using 0.1 N NaOH to terminate the rea ction.
The chemicals used in the stud y are Merck b rand. After the study, the samples
were centrifuged at 2000 rpm fo r 4 minutes and the COD removal efficienc y
was calculated by taking the upper phase.

Figure 1: Scheme of treat ment of DMSO-containi ng pharmaceutical industry
wastewater by Photo -Fenton oxidation

79

RESULT AND DIS CUSSI ON
FeSO 4 and H 2 O 2 concentrations and time were determined as variables. The
ranges of these variables were chosen according to studies in the literature. In
th e study, the FeSO 4 concentration is between 1-3 g/L and the H 2 O 2
con ce ntration is between 3-6 g/L. Th e duration was 90 minutes and samples
were taken at di fferent times. Additionally, a 40w UV -A lamp was used for
P hot o-Fenton. Studies were carried out at constant pH value (pH = 3).
Modeling of COD removal from raw pharmaceutical industry wastewater was
done with RSM. The exp erimental design and COD removal efficiencies
required for RSM in the stud y are given in T able 3.

Figure 2: Normal Plot o f residuals and Predicted vs Actual

Table 3: Actual values and coded value s used in the experimental study for
response surface modelling
Run

Actual Value

Codded
Value

COD removal
ef ficiency (%)

A:Time
(min)

B:FeSO 4
(g/L)

C:H 2 O 2
(g/L)

A

B

C

1

45

1,5

5

-1

-1

+1

25

2

60

1

4

0

-2

0

23

3

45

2,5

5

-1

+1

+1

36

4

60

2

4

0

0

0

45

5

75

1,5

5

+1

-1

+1

28

6

60

2

4

0

0

0

46

7

60

2

4

0

0

0

45

8

45

1,5

3

-1

-1

-1

18

9

75

1,5

3

+1

-1

-1

21

10

60

2

4

0

0

0

46

11

75

2,5

5

+1

+1

+1

38

12

45

2,5

3

-1

+1

-1

26

13

60

2

4

0

0

0

45

14

60

2

6

0

0

+2

34

80

15

90

2

4

+2

0

0

57

16

60

2

2

0

0

-2

19

17

60

3

4

0

+2

0

41

18

30

2

4

-2

0

0

21

19

75

2,5

3

+1

+1

-1

23

20

60

2

4

0

0

0

46

The model formulation obtained in the surfac e respo nse modeling probe is
given in equ ation 1. The equation expresse d in coded factors allows us to make
predictions about the response b ased on specific levels of each factor.
COD removal =+6,61 +0,4017A+0,3848B+0,4 175C-0,3528 B² -0,4789 C²
Eq ( 1)

Table 4: Adequacy of the model tested
Source

Sequential p-
value

R 2

Lack of Fit
p-value

Adjusted
R²

Predicted
R²

Linear

0,0428

0,3908

<0.0001

0,2765

0,0994

Suggested

2FI

0,9778

0,3997

<0.0001

0,1226

-0,8757

Quadratic

0,0133

0,7850

<0.0001

0,5915

-0,7371

Suggested

Cubic

0,3865

0,8824

<0.0001

0,6275

-23,0793

Aliased

Source

Sum of
Squares

df

Mean
Square

F-value

p-value

Mean vs
Total

663,19

1

663,19

Linear vs
Mean

7,74

3

2,58

3,42

0,0428

Suggested

2FI vs Linear

0,1768

3

0,0589

0,0644

0,9778

Quadratic
vs 2FI

7,63

3

2,54

5,97

0,0133

Suggest ed

Cubic vs
Quadratic

1,93

4

0,4820

1,24

0,3865

Aliased

Residual

2,33

6

0,3884

Total

683,00

20

34,15

Table 5: ANOVA results o f the study according to the quadratic m odel
Source

Coefficient
estimate

Sum of
Squares

df

Mean
Square

F-
value

p-value

Model

15,55

9

1,73

4,06

0,0198

S

Intercept

6,61

A- Time

0,4017

2,58

1

2,58

6,06

0,0335

S

B-FeSO 4

0,3848

2,37

1

2,37

5,56

0,0400

S

C-H 2 O 2

0,4175

2,79

1

2,79

6,55

0,0284

S

AB

-0,0963

0,0742

1

0,0742

0,1741

0,6853

NS

AC

0,0524

0,0220

1

0,0220

0,0516

0,8249

NS

BC

0,1004

0,0807

1

0,0807

0,1894

0,6726

NS

A²

-0,2361

1,40

1

1,40

3,29

0,0997

NS

B²

-0,3528

3,13

1

3,13

7,35

0,0219

S

C²

-0,4789

5,77

1

5,77

13,54

0,0042

S

81

Residual

4,26

10

0,4258

Lack of
Fit

4,25

5

0,8500

515,65

<0.0001

S

Pure Error

0,0082

5

0,0016

Cor Total

19,81

19

In ANOVA analysis, a P-valu e less than 0.05 indicates that th e valu e is
significant (S), while a P-value greater than 0.1 indicates that it is not
significant (NS). Accordi ngly, wh en table 5 is examined, it is seen that A, B, C,
B², C² are significant.

Figure 3: Graphical repres entation of the quadratic m odel and th e coefficient of
determination (R 2 ) for model terms associated with Chemical Oxygen Demand
removal.

a.

82

b.

c.

Figure 4: Graphs o f COD removal efficiency from raw ph armaceutical indu stry
wastewater of H 2 O 2 and FeSO 4 concentrations and time variables , a.)
FeSO 4 (mg/L)- Time (min.), b .) H 2 O 2 (mg/L)- Time(min .), c.) H 2 O 2 (mg/L)-
FeSO 4 (mg/L)

The use of UV lamps with Fenton oxidant increases the optical reduction of
ferric io n. It is a lso an agent that increases the photolysis of hydrogen peroxide.
Photo-Fenton oxidation is on e of the widely used meth ods for the degradation
of different organic pollutants in wastewater . This is due to the formation of
hydroxyl radicals resultin g from both the photolysis of hydrogen peroxide and
the reduction of iron ions in acidic environments (p H2 -4). In literature studies,
it was stated t hat the amount of iro n ions wa s recovered under UV light and did
not decrease durin g the reaction (Eq 2 - 6) .

Eq (2)
Eq (3)
Eq (4)
83

Eq (5)
Eq ( 6)

When gr aph 4 a,b is examined, COD removal efficiency increases with
increasing time, regardles s of the FeSO4 and H 2 O 2 concentration. However,
increasing the time fro m 30 to 90 did no t cause a significant increase in the
yield. In addition, the low FeSO 4 concentratio n reduced the treatment
efficiency. Th is is because the concentration required for th e reaction with H 2 O 2
cannot be achieved. Alth ough high concentration increa se s the purification
efficiency, bein g above the optimum H 2 O 2 /FeSO 4 ratio causes coagul ation. In
the H 2 O 2 - FeSO 4 graph in figure 4 c , it can be seen that the efficiency decreases
at concentrations other than the optimum ratio. The optimum H 2 O 2 / FeSO 4
concentration was det ermined as 2. In addition, the high est purification
efficiency, 46 %, was r eached after 60 minutes, and running the proces s for 90
minutes for the reaction i ncreases the cost. Th e inert of the chemicals in the
wastewater r educed the treatment efficiency. How ever, in the study where
Photo-Fenton oxidation was used for DMSO degra dation, it was observed that
although the To tal organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency was low, the
degradation of DMSO was at high efficien cy (Behrou zeh, M. , 20 22:15) (de
Luna, M. D. G., 20 13: 232).
As seen in Figur e 5, after adding FeSO 4 and H 2 O 2 for photo-Fenton
oxidation, an in tense amount of foam was formed. In addition, figure 5c sho ws
that the foam decreases after the process but do es not disappear completely.
When Figures 5 a and 5 c are compared, color appeared in the wastewater after
Photo-Fenton oxidation. In this case, a different treatment process must be
applied for color removal after the process. Th e Photo -Fenton oxidation process
alone was not found suitable because the low pu rification e fficiency and the
color caused after the process were du e to the high amount of solvent.

84

a.

b.

c.

Figure 5: Wastewater images before and after Fenton oxidation a.) raw
wastewater, b.) Before Pho to-Fenton oxidation, c.) After Photo-Fent on
oxidation

CO NCLUSION
In the study, COD removal by Photo -Fenton ox idation in crude
pharmaceutical industry wastewater containing DMSO was modeled with RSM.
In the stud y, wastewater was aerated for 2 hours before Photo -Fenton ox idation.
This is because aeration-fr ee Photo-Fenton oxidation causes dense foam when
chemicals are added. At the end of the study, the optimum H 2 O 2 /FeSO 4 ratio
was foun d to be 2 at pH 3. In addition, the highest treatment efficiency, 46%
COD r emoval, was achieved after 6 0 minutes. Although the increase in
efficiency does not contradict the literature, ox idation should be tried after at
least 5 hours of ventilation to increase the efficiency. In addition to the UV
process applied as a hybrid with Fenton o xi dation, it is recommended to add an
electro process and try it in future studies as Photo -Electrofento n oxidation will
increase hydroxyl radicals. Since t he increase in th e power of the UV lamp is
another factor that increases hy droxyl radicals, a lamp w ith a higher power
should be used in stead of a 40w lam p.
85

REFERENCES
1. Behrouzeh, M., Parivazh, M. M., Dan esh, E., Dianat, M. J., Ab basi, M.,
Osfouri, S., ... & Akrami, M. (2022). Application of Photo -F enton,
Electro-Fenton, and Photo -Electro-Fenton proc esses for the treatment of
DMSO and DMAC w astewaters. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 15 (11),
104229.
2. Dalrymple, O. K., Yeh, D. H., & Trotz, M. A. (200 7). Removing
pharmaceuticals and endocrin e‐disrupt ing compounds from wastewater
by photocatalysis. Jou rnal of Chemical Techn ology & Biotechnolog y:
International Research in Process, En vironmental & Clean Tec hnology,
82(2), 121 -134.
3. de Luna, M. D. G., Colades, J. I., Su, C. C., & Lu, M. C. (2013).
Comparison of dimethy l sulfoxi de degradation by different Fenton
processes. Chemical engineering journal, 232, 418 -424.
4. Gadipelly, C., Pérez - González, A., Yadav, G. D., Ortiz, I., Ibáñez, R.,
Rathod, V. K., & Marathe, K. V. (2014) . Pharmaceutical i ndustry
wastewater: review of the technol ogies for water treatment and re use.
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Re search, 53(29), 11 571 -11592.
5. Guillette Jr, L. J., Crain, D. A., Gunderson, M. P., Kools, S. A., Milnes,
M. R., Orlando, E. F., ... & Woodward, A. R. (2000). Alligators and
endocrine disrupting contaminants: a curre nt perspective. American
Zoologist, 40(3), 438 -452.
6. Goossens, H., Ferech, M., Coenen, S., Stephens, P., & European
Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumpt ion Project Group. (2007) .
Comparison of outp atient systemic antibacterial use in 2004 in the United
St ates and 27 European countries. Clinical infectious diseases, 44(8),
1091 -1095.
7. Kessler, R. (20 10). INDUSTRY ISSUES: pharmaceutical factories as a
source of drugs in water.
8. Khetan, S. K., & Collins, T. J. (2007). Human pharmaceuticals in the
aquatic environment: a challeng e to green chemistr y. Chemical reviews,
107(6), 2319 -2364.
9. Kümmerer, K. (2009). Antibiotics in the aquatic environment – a review –
part I. Chemosphere, 75(4), 417 -434.
10. Klavarioti, M., Mantzavinos, D., & Kassinos, D. (2009) . Removal of
residual pharmaceuticals from aqu eous systems by advanced oxidation
processes. Environment in ternational, 3 5(2), 402-417.
86

11. Larsson, D. J., de Pedro, C., & Paxeus, N. (2007). Efflu ent from drug
manufactures contains extremely high levels of pharmaceuticals. Journal
of hazardous materials, 148 (3), 751 -755.
12. Mompelat, S., Le Bot, B., & Thomas, O. (200 9). Occurrence and fate of
pharmaceutical products and by -products, from resource to drinking
water. Environment internatio nal, 35(5), 803 -814.
13. Rice, E. W., Bridgewater, L ., & American Public Health A ssociation
(Eds.). (2012). Stan dard methods for the examinatio n of water and
wastewater (Vol . 10 ). Washington, DC: American public health
association.
14. Orlando, E. F., Kolok, A. S., Binzcik, G. A., Gates, J. L., Horton, M. K.,
Lambright, C. S., ... & Guillette Jr, L. J. (2004) . Endocrine -disrupting
effects of cattle feedlot effluen t on an aqu atic sentinel species, th e fathead
minnow. Environmental health p erspectives, 112(3), 353 -358.
15. Van der Aa, N. G. F. M., Kommer, G. J., Van Montfoort, J. E., &
Versteegh, J. F. M. (2011). Demographic projections of futu re
pharmaceutical consumpt ion in the Netherland s. Water Science and
Technology, 63(4), 825 -831.
16. Vieno, N., Tuhkanen, T., & Kron berg, L. (2007). Elimin ation of
pharmaceuticals in sewag e treatment plants in Finland. Water research,
41(5), 1001-1012 .
87

Chapter 6

Energy Management Strategies and Techniques in Hybrid and
Electri c V eh icles

Bayram KILIÇ 1
Emre ARABACI 2

INTRODUCTION
Energy policies of developing countries aim at economic growth, energy
security and climate acti on together. Energy, which is the most fundamental
in put of production, is a necessary condition f or societies to surviv e. Th e use of
energy occurs in the direct manufacture of a product or in supporting the
production process. While these processes occur, some problems arise, such as
the decrease in natural resources, environmental pollution, climate chang e and
high energy costs.
However, considering the cur rent state of existing energy resources, it is a
fact that the increasing ene rgy demand in the world cannot be met forever. In
addition to the decrease in conv entional energy resources, the problem of glob al
warming, which is one of the most impo rtant environmental problems,
necessitates the efficient and effective use of renewable energy sou rces and
currently prod uced energy. To increase energy efficiency, currently
implemented regulations include measures such as burning fuels efficiently in
combustion processes, perfor ming thermal insulation in facilities a nd systems,
using applications that will in crease heat transfer efficiency, using heat recovery
systems, and automatic control applications. In addition to these applications,
especially in newly installed systems, it is required t hat the machines have high
technologies, have thermal insulation, create energy efficiency mon ito ring
systems, keep emission values to a minimum and pay attention to combined
heat and power production.
The decrease in available energy resources day by day has increased the
tendency towards altern ative energy sou rces in energy production and use.
Today, energy saving is seen as an alternative energy source. Energy savings in
production an d use are extremely important for environmental problems as well

1 Assoc.Prof. ; Burd ur Mehmet Akif Ersoy Univ ersity, Technical Sciences Vo cational School, Department of
Electricity and Energy , Burdur, Turkey, bay [email protected] ORCID No: 0000 - 0002 -8577-1845
2 Assoc. Prof. ; Pamuk kale University, Faculty of Technolog y, Automotive Engineering Department, Denizli,
Turkey, [email protected] .tr ORCID No: 0000 -0002 -6219-7246
88

Figure 4. Illustrate the road network

CONCLUSI ON
Energy management in electric vehicles plays a critical role in terms of
sustainability and vehicle efficiency. Technological advances and the
development of energy management strategies will s hape the future of electric
vehicles. Energy management not only increases the perfo rmance and
efficiency of vehicles, but also contributes to an environmentally friend ly
transportation future.
95

REFERENCES
1. Altındemir, E. (2008). Hibrid elektrikli taşıtlarda r ejeneratif frenl eme.
Yüksek lisans tezi, İstanbul Tekn ik Üniversitesi Fen Biliml e ri Enstitü sü.
2. Denton, T. (2020). Electric and hybrid vehicles . Rout ledge.
3. Erjavec, J. (2012). Hybrid, electric, an d fuel-cell vehicles . Cengage
Learning.
4. Halderman J., and Martin, T. (2011). Hybrid and Alternative fuel
vehicles . Pearson Prentice Hall.
5. Husain, I. (2011). Electric and hybrid vehicles: design fundamentals .
CRC press. Scientific Studi es on the Edge of Global Warm ing
6. Khajepour, A., Fallah, M. S., and Goodarzi, A. (2014). Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles: Technolog ies, Modeling and Control -A Mechatronic
Approach . John Wiley & Sons.
7. Kural, E. (2015). Hibrid Elektrikli Araçlar İç in Enerji Yönetim
Sistemleri. Dok tora Tezi , İsta nbul Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri
Enstitüsü.
8. Mariem , S., Lilia, R., Mohamed, A . D., Yasmine, A ., Lasaad, B. ,
Lamjed, B . S. (2022). Optimal Electric Vehicle s Route Planning with
Traffic Flow Prediction and Real -TimeTraffic Incidents, Journal o f
Electrical and Computer En gineering Research , 2 (1), 1- 12.
9. Mi, C., and Masrur, M.A. (2 017). Hybrid electric ve hicles: principles and
applications with practical perspect ives . Jo hn Wiley & Sons.
10. Yuzheng, Z., Xueyuan, Li ., Qi, Liu ., Songhao , Li ., and Yao, Xu . (2022).
Review article: A comprehensive review of energy management
strategies for hybrid electric vehicles, Mechanical Sciences, 13, 147 - 188 .
96

Chapter 7

ENV IRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY PROCESSES IN THE
TREATMENT OF LIVESTOCK WASTES

Büşra YAYLI 1
İlker KILIÇ 2

1. Introduction
Organic wastes generated from various activities are thrown in to the
environment, stored, incinerated, or used inefficiently with out an effective
transformation process. As a result, waste cannot be thorough ly degraded and
threatens the environment, ecosystem, and hu man health, although it has an
essential place in national economies. Unco ntrolled storage and decomposition
of waste lead to th e formation of gases such as CH 4 and CO 2 , which are harmful
to human health; odor, flies, and pathogen s are formed, and the hygi ene
conditions of the environment deteriorate. Nitrate accumulation resultin g from
decomposition can cause deterio ration of soil struct ure and micr obiology and
pose a threat to humans and other li ving things through vegetable and fruit
consumption and drinking water as a re sult of nitrate mixing with surface and
groundwater [1, 2 ].
Due to the increase in the world population, the livestock sector has grown
and caused the accumulation and formation of animal waste that caus es
environmental pollution in developed and developing countries. These wastes
are very harmful to the e nvironment and difficult to dispose of. In recent years,
environmental waste caused by livestock and animal waste has become on e of
the most critical env ironmental problems. Manure, wet organic, and animal
wastes are non-resident pollution sources from the lives tock in dustry. It reaches
surface waters or groundwater, deteriorating the water quality and making it
unusable [3].
Livestock industry waste can also be used in fertilizer and feed production
areas. Thus, the evaluation of wastes in th e livestock industry both reduces
environmental pollution and ensures econo mic recov ery of these wastes.
However, applying waste directly to agricultural fields or streams without any

1 Research A ssi stant.; Bursa Uluda g University Faculty of Agriculture Depa rtment of Biosystems
Engineering . bu [email protected] ORC ID No: 0000 -0002-0198-35 50
2 Prof. Dr.; Bursa Ulu dag University Faculty of Agriculture Departmen t of Biosystems Engineering .
[email protected] .tr ORCID No: 0000 - 0003 -0087-6718
97

fermentation process negatively affects the product productivity of the soil as
well as environmental pollution [3].
Nitrate accumulation resulting from decomposition can cause deterioration
of soil structure and microbiology and threaten humans and other liv ing things
through veg etable and fruit consumption and drinking water due to nitrate
mixing with surface and gr oundwater. Biotechn ological methods find an
essential area of use in the evaluation a nd elimination of wastes at the point of
environmental protection .
Biotechnology has recently enabled modern tools and approaches in various
fields such as agriculture, food, healthcare, and environmental protection.
Suppose there is not a very serious po llution burden in treating hazardous
wastes and controlling pollution. In that case, applying environmental
biotechnology techniques using living organisms can offer solutio ns. This paper
examines en vironmental biot echnological application s that can be applied in
evaluating, removing, and treating farm animal manure.

2. Uses Area s of Environmental Biotechnol ogy in Livestock Wastes
Treatment

2.1. Treatment of wastes
Excessive nutrient accumulation occurs in soils where unreasonable or
excessive fertilizer is applied. Thi s situation causes heavy metal pollution in the
ground, creating a toxic effect on living things in the ecosystem. At the same
time, it disru pts th e soil's flora and affects the soil's biological and biochemical
reactions. Thanks to bioremediation methods, highly toxic pollutants are
transformed into less harmful forms thanks to the metabolic activities of
microbes (such as transformation, mineralizatio n, and immobilization) [4].
Bioremediation is a process that includes the capacity to clean th e environmen t
by removing pollutants in water and soil through degradation, detoxification ,
and retention by macro and microorganisms such as plants, bacteria,
earthworms, and fung i [5]. Bioremediation is a more per manent method
because pollutants do not transform fro m one phase to another but are changed
into harmless end products such as carbo n dioxide and water through biological
activities.
In bior emediation methods, two app roaches, in -situ and ex-situ , are based on
transporting or removing wastes to a different lo cation for pollu tant removal. In
in -situ application, the contaminated materi al is cleaned on -site. Bioventing,
biostimulation, biodegradation, biosparging, and bio -augmentation are in-situ
methods. In the ex -situ process, pollu tant removal is carried ou t by physically
98

removing the contaminated material from its location. Land farming,
composting, bioreactors, and soil biopiles are exa mples of ex -situ
bioremediation methods. The ex -situ bioremediation method, the remediation
technologies that canno t be appl ied in the soil environment, gives faster and
more effective results than the in -situ method [6].
The bior emediation method is called phytoremediation if plants are used to
remove pollutants in soil and water. If plants are used to remove heavy metals
from the soil with the phytoremediation method , the plants must be removed
from the soil. Plants and macro and micro creatures are used in biorem ediation
applications. In the studies conducted, it is thought to be a valu able alternative
for the treatment of he avy metal pollution in the soil, with its features such as
accumulating heavy metals in the tissue s of earthworms, contrib uting to the
development of plants by increasing plant nutrition al elements in the soil ,
providing aeration of the soil and supporting microbial activity [7 ]. However,
there needs to be more information on how and by which methods the heavy
metals in earthworms can be removed fro m the soil since heavy metals in their
bodies can be mixed back into th e soil after they die. There is a need for fu rther
research on this subject.
Microorganisms are also used i n the biore mediation method.
Microorganisms are trans ferred to the soil, and conditions are controlled to
optimize their metabolic activity and gr owth. Environmental fa ctors such as
temperature, pH, and inorganic nutrien ts such as ni trogen and phosphorus are
modified for op timization. With another method, by looking at the
microorganismic structure of the soil, microorganisms transf er nutrients to the
area wh ere w aste is in the soil. Thus, microorganisms existing in the soil ar e
activated. Creatures such as fungi and bacteria are also microorganisms used in
bioremediation. Thank s to mycelial str ucture and fung al enzymatic systems,
fungi are more suitable for the bioremediation method. Thanks to their
biochemical capacities and morphologies, fung i play an essential role as
decomposers, including o rganisms in soil and water [8].
In cases of excessive pollutant loads, natural microorganisms may be unable
to clean pollutants. In such cases, stud ies are bein g conducted on genetically
modified microorganisms (GEMs).

2.2 . Biyoenergy Products From Li vestock Wastes

2.2.1. Biomass
The world's most important energ y source is oil, but as oil reserves gradually
decrease, alternative energy sources have become even more critical. Biomass
99

is all organic materials of plant and animal origin that are not fossils. Biomass
energy is ob tained from all natural materials of animal and plant origin, th e
main compo nents of which are carbohydrate compounds. Biomass production
from animal waste can be converted into liquid and gaseous fu els due to
biotransformation pr ocesses, and it can also be used fo r heating and electricity
generation. An economic study of the energy that can be obtained should be
conducted when ag ricultural biomass resources are characterized to determine
their chemical and ph ysical pr operties. If the feasibility and operation of the
process a re economical, biofuel can be produced by app lying thermochemical
methods to agricultu ral biomass. If the techno -economic evaluation is not
applicable due to the examinatio n, it can be use d in applications such as
compost, animal feed, soil impr over, and natural fertili zer [9 ].
In addition, minimizing gas emissions from animal waste, pathogens,
microorganisms associated with waste, and odor suppo rts its conversion in to
useful energy sources and helps reduce environmental impacts. It will be
achieved by increasing the energy prod uction from biomass by applying
advanced technologies to convert electricity, liquid, gas, or unprocessed solid
fuels from raw biomass into suitable en ergy carriers [10].
As the nu mber and weight of animals increase, th e amou nt of waste
generated also increases, which is related to the biomass energy po tential. Since
biomass resources of a nimal origin are generally rich in CH 4 and CO 2 , biogas
production involving anaerobic digestion is prioritized. The pr oducts resulting
from biogas prod uction are also converted and used for electricity and heat
generation, as valuable fertilizer, and even as bio fuel.
Physical, biochemical, and thermochemical processes c an be used in
biomass conversion processes. Physical methods such as grinding, dr ying,
pelletizing, and accumulation can be applied in bioconversion [11]. Applying
physical tech niques before thermochemical or biochemical proce sses increase s
the applicability of biomass.
Thermochemical conversion processes to convert biomass into products are
gasification, pyrolysis, and combustion. The most commonl y used chemical
processes in biomass conversio n ar e combustio n, gasification, pyrolysis,
fermentation, and transeste rification [12].
The combustion process is applied to convert the chemical e nergy in
biomass into mechanical, electrical, or heat energy. Materials with more than
50% moisture content are not preferred because they must be dried before
combustion. Especially since the moisture content of animal man ure is usu ally
more than 50%, the comb ustion process is not app lied. It is also undesirabl e
because it creates problems in terms of lo w energy efficiency and air p ollution.
100

The gasification process is applied to obtain gas from carbon -containing
materials to produce fuel. It is carried out by heating the biomass in the
an aerobic en vironment at 700 -1000 ºC. With the gasification techniq ue from
biomass, a gaseous fuel can be obtained with a high efficiency to be used in oil -
fired turbines that provide power and heat. Using gas fuel obtained by
gasification of biomass can be expanded by making sm all arrangements in
places where natural gas is used [13 ].
Pyrolysis of biomass is a thermochemical process carried out in the absence
of oxygen and at hi gh tem peratures to break down organic molecules to ob tain
gas. The clas sical working rang e of pyrolysis is between 300 - 600ºC. It can be
realized in 3 ways according to the change of these temperatures and heating
rates: slow, fast, and flash . Th e most well -known pyrolysis process is biochar
production, which is realized by slow pyro lysis. The main ob jective of fast
pyrolysis is to obtain a high amount of liquid fr om biomass. Flash pyro lysis
occurs at very high temperatures within milliseconds compared to other
pyrolysis types.
Bioethanol and biogas are prod uced as a result of the fermentation of
biomass in an oxygen -free environment. Since the transesterificatio n process
produces biodiesel from biomass, this p rocess is examined under b iofuel.

2.2.2. Bioga s
Biogas, a clean energy source, is obtained du e to the anaerobic tr eatment of
some speciall y grown plants, agricu ltural, and or ganic wastes, espe cially animal
manure, with suitable bacteria [2]. I n parallel with the interest in energy
recovery fro m waste, interest in anaerobic biotechnolo gy has also increased.
Biogas production is the breakdown of organic substances containing
biodegradable substances under anaerobic condi tions by successive multistag e
reactions [14] . Biogas applications, which have sign ificant advantages,
especially in regions with intensive agricultu ral production, attract considerable
interest in agriculture waste management worldwide due to their env ironmental
and econo mic benefits. After biog as prod uction in biogas plants, the remaining
organic wastes can be used in agriculture as high -quality fertilizer by
composting [15].
Biogas production is based on the formation of methane gas (CH 4 ) and
carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) as th e end product as a result of the breakdown of organic
matter [16]. One m 3 of bi ogas provides a heat value in the range of 4700 -5700
kcal and has the equiv alent of 0.62 liters of kerosene , 1.46 kg of charcoal, 3. 47
kg of wood, 0.43 kg of butane gas, 12 .3 kg of dung and 4.70 kWh of electrical
energy [17].
101

Biogas production factors include temperature, pH, or ganic matter loading
rate, MRS (m icroorganism retention time), C/N, toxicity, and hydra ulic feeding
time [18] . Depend ing on the operating temperatur e in biogas plants, the
hydraulic waiting time varies between 20 and 120 day s. Th e C/N ratio in wastes
producing bi ogas from animal manure varies between 15/1 and 30/1. If the C/N
ratio provid es 15 /1 to 30/1, there is no need to adjust the livestock manure
separately. C/N calculations are alw ays based on dry matter. The optimum C/N
ratio can be achieved by mixing different organic substances. Min eral ions,
heavy metals, and deterg ents have a toxic effect by inhibiting the growth of
microorganisms in anaero bic treatment. While small amount s of mineral ions
(sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, a mmonium, and sulfur) improve the
growth of bacteria, heavy metals create a toxic effect [18] .
Biogas production occurs in 3 stages: Fermentation and hydrolysis, acetic
acid formation, and methane formation (Figure 1). During the fermentation and
hydrolysis phase, th e fir st phase of bi ogas production, bacterial g roups called
fermentation and hydroly sis bacteria break down carbohydr ates, proteins, an d
fats, the three essential elements of or ganic matter. Organic substances
transform into CO 2 , acetic acid, and soluble volatile organic substances. Since
most volatile organic substances in the last group are volatile fatty acids, this
stage is called the formation phase of vo latile fatty acids. In the acetic acid
formation stage, ace togenic (acid -forming) bacterial groups, which are released
as a result of the first stage and convert volatile fatty acids into acetic acid, are
activated, and some aceto genic bacteria convert volatile fatty acids into acetic
acid and hydrogen. Another group of acetogenic bacteria uses the released
carbon diox ide and hydrogen to form acetic acid. However, the acetic acid
formed this way is less than the first pathway. In the m ethane formation stage,
methane-forming bacteria use CO 2 and H 2 to pr oduce methane (CH 4 ) and water
(H 2 O). In contrast, another gr oup of methane-formi ng bacteria uses the aceti c
acid released from the second stage to produce CH 4 and CO 2 . Of all the
methane pr oduced, 30 percent is made in th e first pathway and 70 percent in the
second.
102

I. phase II. Phase III. phase

Fermentative Bacteria Acetogen ic Bacteria
Methanogenic
Bacteria
Figure 1. Biogas produ ction stages [3]

Qi et al. [19], examined a biogas sys tem in Northern Chi na where pig
manure and veg etable waste wer e used together and found that th ere was a
decrease in the emissions of air pollutants such as H 2 S, SO 2 , NO 2 , NH 3 , CO,
and C 2 H 4 released into the atmosphere with the use of the system, and also that
manure and vegetable waste were released into the atmosphere. It has been
determined that harmoniou s service provides a 32 .4% increase in efficiency.
White et al. [20], conducted a study on a small -scale biogas system in cattle
farms in Ontario. Th ey foun d th at the syste m cou ld produce 120 MW of
electricity and that changes in the feeds tock used in biog as production affected
the biogas yield between 10 -80%.
In the study condu cted by Kurt [15], the animal ferti lizer production results
of Düzce province were examined, and the annual animal manur e production
amount was 369,421.18 8 tons, the biomass calorifi c value was 10,266 .95 TEP
(ton equivalent oi l), the biogas amou nt was 10,323,786 m 3 , and the bi omass an d
bioenergy potential. It has been determined that research and develop ment
studies on energy production from biomass shoul d be disseminated, and
technological desig ns should be made.

2.2.3. Composting
The composting process is the biological decomposition of organic ma terials
under aerobic or anaerobic conditions into CO 2 and H 2 O togeth er with a humus -
Bacterial
mass

H 2 , CO 2 ,
acetic acid

Organic waste,
carbohydrates,
fat, protein

Propionic acid,
butyric acid,
various alcohols
and other
compounds

Bacterial
mass

Bacterial
mass

H 2 ,
CO 2 ,
acetic
acid

CH 4 ,
CO 2

103

like substance that is harmless to health [21, 22]. The compost material should
have high biod egradability and or ganic matter content, con tain ideal
concentrations of trace nutrients that plants can benefit fro m, and be free from
harmful substances. The moisture content of the compost produced should be
65 %, nitrogen content should be 1.8 -2%, and pH value sho uld be around 7.
Since the organ ic matter i n the compo st increases t he soil's max imum water -
holding capacity, it prevents soil erosion by ensuring that the earth abso rbs
water in high amounts of rainfal l [22]. The composting process aims to con vert
biodegradable organic m aterials in to stable end products and reduce waste
volume, eliminating undesirable organisms such as pathog ens and fly eggs that
may be present in soli d waste, eliminating existing or po tential odor problems,
maintaining maximum macronutrient (N, P, K) and micronutrient (Zn ) content,
obtain products that have fertilizer val ue and can be used as soil con ditioners
[23].
Different methods are applied in composting, windrow composting,
passively aer ated piles, aerated static piles, and compostin g in reactors.
Composting is faster than mixing the heap because the composting process is
faster when plenty of air reaches the microorganisms. During composting in
reactors, it shoul d be ensured that th e raw material con tinues to be in contact
with oxygen. The most essential di fference betwe en open field and bioreactor
composting is th e use of enzymes in bioreactors. The most import ant advantage
of this method, known as enzymatic co mposting, is that it saves time.
Aerobic composting is an odorless process and is widely preferred in
compost productio n. It ha s advantages such as short fermentation time and
elimination of pathogenic microorganisms and disadvantages such as the need
for continuous oxygen supply and moisture control. There must be enough
oxygen to provide aerobic conditions for decomposition without creating an
odor problem. Anaerobic compo sting is a process that takes a long time to
complete and may requ ire extern al heat in some cases. Bad o do r fo rmation is
observed. Biogas can be obtained as a by-prod uct during anaerobic conversion
[24].
Common factors affecting composting in all forms are grain structure, C/N
ratio, pH, temperature, aeration, and water content [25]. Moistu re is essential
fo r the growth and reproduction of microorganisms in the compost. The
moisture content is approximately 40 -45% in the lower rang e. The upper range
is determined by keeping the pores open so oxyg en can reach the
microorganisms. Th e optimal pH of the bacteria used in composting is 6 -8.
When the environment starts to warm up during the process, the pH dr ops t o 4 -
104

biomass. In Adv ances in eco-fuels for a sustainable env ironment (pp.
187 -210). Woodhead Publishing.
27. Pereira, C. O., Portilho, M. F., Henriques, C. A., & Zotin, F. M. (2014).
SnSO 4 as catalyst for simultaneous transesterificati on and esterification
of acid soybean oil. J ournal of t he Brazilian Chemical Society , 25, 2409-
2416.
28. Dunford, N. T. (2007). Biodiesel product ion techniques. Oklahoma
Cooperative Extension Service.
29. Malhotra, S., Verma, A., Tyagi, N., & Kumar, V. (2017). Biosensors:
principle, types and applications. Internationa l Journal of Advance
Research and Innovative Ideas In Education , 3(2), 3639-3644.
30. Tüylek, Z., (2021). Biosensor and Biochip App lications in
Biotechnology. International Journal of Life Sciences an d Biotechnology ,
4(3), 468-490.
31. Boz, B., Paylan , İ . C., Kizmaz, M. Z., & Erkan, S. (201 7). Biosensors and
Their Using Areas in Agricultu re. Agricultural Machinery Science, 13(3),
141 -148.
32. Balasubramanian, S., Panigrahi, S., Loug e, C. M., Marchello, M.,
Doetkott, C., Gu, H., Sherwood, J., & Nolan, L. (2005). Spoilage
identification of beef using an electronic nose system. Transactions of the
ASAE , 47(5), 1625 -1633.
33. Zhang, H., & Wang, J. (2008). Identification of stored -grain age using
electronic nose by ANN. America n Society of Agricultural a nd
Biological Engineers , 24(2), 2 27- 231.
34. K ızıl, Ü., Genç, L., Genç, T. T., Rahman, S., & Khaitsa, M. L. (2015). E -
nose identification of Salmonella enterica in po ultry manure . British
Poultry science , 56(2), 149 - 156.
35. Gupta N., Renugopalakrishnan V., Liepmann D., Paulmurugan R., &
Malhotra, B.D. (2019) . Cell-based biosensors: recen t trend s, challenges
and future perspectives. Bi osensors and Bioelectronic s , 141 (1), 111435.
36. Kırkıncı, S . F., Maraklı, S., Aksoy, H . M. , Özçimen, D., & Kaya, Y.,
(2021). Antarctica: A r eview of Life Sciences and Biotechnol ogy
Researches . International Journal of Life Scien ces an d Bio technology ,
4(1) , 158-177.
111

Chapter 8

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF LAYING HEN
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS THROUGH LIFE CYCLE
ASSESSMENT

Büşra YAYLI 1
İlker KILIÇ 2

1. Introduction
Egg production is easy and economical, the protein con tent is high, and the
fat content is low despite b eing an animal protein. The vast consumption are a
can be consu med quickly and is offered to the consumer at a mo re affordable
price than other animal-derived prot eins in retail sales. For these reasons, the
increasing demand for eggs has played an active role in developing th e egg
poultry sector. Developments such as the widespr ead use of i nd ustrial egg
poultry and auto mation in the poultry house have also sign ificantly accelerated
the realized production potential.
China is the largest producer of chick en eggs in the world, pr oviding 36 . 4%
alone in 2021. In the same year, 6.8% was supplied by America, 7.5% by India
and 7% by Indonesia. Turkey supplies approx.1 .2% of the world's egg
production with 1 243 633 tons of eggs, ranking it 10 th . In the world of egg
export, after the Netherlan ds (3 51 224 tons), Tu rkey ranks second with 221 215
tons [1] . In the first ten month s of 2023, 16 million 975 thousand eggs were
produced. In the January -Octob er peri od, chick en egg production increased b y
4.0% compared to the same period of the previous year [2]. According to 2021
data, 121 302 869 laying hens and 4975 commercial laying hen houses in
Turkey. In the same perio d, 19 billion 788 millio n eggs were produced in the
commercial e gg sector, and 23 9 eggs were prod uced per person [3]. Turk ey is a
significant producer and exporter with its egg po tential. Today , the technical
and technological developments in the egg indu stry have prog ressed at the same
level as in Eu ropean countries. As th e egg is one of the essential export

1 Research Assistant.; Bu rsa Uludag University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Biosystems
Engineering . bu [email protected] ORC ID No: 0000 -0002-0198-3550
2 Prof. Dr.; Bursa Ulu dag University Faculty of Agriculture Departmen t of Biosystems Engineering .
[email protected] .tr ORCID No: 0000- 0003 -0087 -6718
112

products and its consumption in creases, the productio n potential mostly made
by intensive enterprises also increases the amount of waste to be generated.
Along with the increase in egg production, waste and emissions such as
manure, urine, and gas outputs app ear in addition to the product obtained. In
cases where these cannot be contro lled w ithin the enterprise, they affect th e
employees' efficiency, animal welfare, and health . At the same time, if th ey
reach the env ironment, they cause various environmental problems. To develop
prevention and control strategies against ecological effects, it is essential first to
determine which effects th ey cause and their effect si zes. Lif e cycl e assessm ent,
a holistic system to assess the environmental perfo rmance of pr oducts or
services, is a reliable analysis used fo r multip le purposes. Life cyc le assess ment
evaluates ecological impacts by qualitatively and quantitatively defining t he use
of raw mater ials, energy requirements, emissions, and wastes released to the
environment throughout the life cycle of a produ ct, process, or activity [4].

2. Environmental Effects of Laying Hens Productions
Consumption of resou rces and raw materials such as feed production, water,
and land use throughout the egg production process (cradle - to -grave); The coal,
fuel, and electricity consumptions used in the operating proc ess; and the manure
and urine from chickens a re the main factors causing environmental problems.
The overall environmental impacts caused by pollutants from laying poultry can
be described as follows:
Climate change: It causes climate change with the emiss ions of greenhouse
gases that cause gl obal warming (especially CO 2 , CH 4 , and N2O, which are the
most critical greenhouse gases) to the atmosphere. I t is expressed in kg CO 2 ,
which is the equiv alent of CH 4 and N 2 O gases, according to the emission factor s
de termined by the IPP C. For a 100 -year timeline, methane (CH 4 ) has an
estimated global warming potenti al of 27 - 30 times CO 2 , and nitrous ox ide
(N 2 O) has 273 times that of CO 2 [5 ]. The concept of carbo n footprint is also an
effective method to determine the impact of a product or service on climate
change and uses these equivalences in c alculations.
Energy u se : In egg farming, energ y use in cludes a si gnificant share before
production, during the productio n period, and in the stages after production.
Diesel fue l use, coal us e, and electricity consumption of machinery, tools, and
equipment used during production in the po ultry house are evalu ated in energy
use. Energy uses are usually exp ressed in MJ.
Water use: In th e rearing of layer hen s, the amount of water u sed to gr ow the
product is the stage of feed production that causes the most water consumption.
In addition, th e water consumed by chickens in the poultry house and the water
113

used for clean ing are evalu ated within the water use. Th e water con sumed is
calculated as m 3 , ton, or liter. The concept of water footprint has emerged to
determine the water consumption and the extent of pollution in the water in the
formation of production or pro duct.
Acidification and eutrophication: The most crucial gas emission in poultry
farming originates fro m ammonia (N H 3 ). NH 3 gas emission causes acidification
and eutrophication [6, 7]. Acidifi cation is the emission of gases that harm the
environment by reacting with other compoun ds such as sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ),
nitrogen ox ides (NO x ), and ammonia (NH 3 ) arising from various sources in the
air and return ing to th e surfaces as acid rain [8 , 9, 10] . In acidification, the
reference gas is expressed in term s of SO 2 The primary sou rces of
eutrophication are emissions of NO 3 - (nitrate) and PO 4 -3 (phosphate) in water
and NH 3 (ammonia) in air. Eutrophication can measures be measured by
reference gases NO 3 - or PO 4 -3 equivalents.
Nitrification and denitr ification: N gas in nitrogenous compounds in the air
is first converted to NH 4 by bacteri a and released into the soil. Bacteria in the
soil first convert NH 4 (ammonium) to NO 2 (nitrite) and then to NO 3 (nitrate),
and this is called nitrification. NO 3 leaks from the soil, leaching with surface
waters and underground drinking water, causing NO 3 accumulation. The
process of reducing NO 3 to N gas by microorg anisms is called denitrification .
NO 3 , gaseous by denitrification, causes environ mental effects such as the
greenhouse effect, global warming, acid rain, and ozone degradatio n.
Land u se: In general, as in all aqu aculture, while most land use is realized in
feed production in laying hen farming, the op eration structure establish ed on a
specific land also cause s land use. The m 2 equivalence is used as the reference
unit.

3. Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA)
The rapid increase in consumption and the increasing population over time,
the decrease in resources, the concern of bein g unable to me et future needs, and
the potential environmental effects it creates hav e re vealed the concept of life
cycle analysis in which ecological sustainability is evaluated. Life cycle
analysis is an all-pu rpose analysis that enables the calculation, evaluation, and
reporting of the effects, risks, and their in teractions throughout the entir e life
cycle of an activity or product. In various studies, the definition of life cycle
analysis has been made:
Guinee [11] , stated that lif e cycle assessment is a gen erally accepte d method
for evaluating the environmental impacts of a product throughout its life cycle.
114

According to Baumann and Arvidsson [12], life cycle assessment is a
systematic methodology that deals with th e material and energy flo ws used in
processes su ch as raw material inpu t, pr oduction, use, and waste gen eration
related to a product or process and their env ironmental impacts.
According to Gulli [ 13] , Life cycle asses sment is a quantitative analysis that
can be used with other models to identify and evaluate potential environmental
impacts duri ng the life cycle of a process or pr oduct, to improve production
methods, and to predict the behavior of various production cycles, including
agricultural production.
According to th e In ternational Organization for Standardization (ISO), life
cycle assessment is the collection of inputs and outputs throughout the life cycle
of a product system and th e assessment of its potential environmental impacts.
The life cycle assessment methodology has been standardized with ISO
14040:2006 and ISO 1404 4:2006, a series of environmental managemen t
standards created by th e International Organizatio n for Standardization [14].
The phases within which a product, service, or process's life cycle analysis
will be presented with four different approaches: 'cradle to grave,' 'cradle to
gate,' 'cradle to cradle,' and 'gate to gate.'
According to ISO standard s, life cycle an alysis consists of four stages.
These;
- Definition of aim and scope
- Inventory analysis
- Impact assessment
- Interpretation

3.1. Definition of Aim and Scope
The first stage of life cycle analysis is definin g the aim and scope. The aim
and scope of th e product, service, or process to be analy zed should be clearly
stated. While LCA analysis can be applied for short -term studies, it can also be
used for long -term studies. The target public to which the research results will
be pr esented may vary . Factors such as working time, target audience, and
databases suitable for the study influence choosing the LCA type. The available
database is selected for the data and s tandards used in the study. The database
chosen may chang e depending on the geographical region where the study is
conducted, the content, and th e purpose of the study.
The defined functional unit is taken as a basis in the life cycle assessmen t
while limiting the scop e. A refer ence is an op erating unit that reveals th e
environmental effects of a productio n system or a service. Wiedemann and
McGahan [15] stated th at the definition of an available unit is "a reference unit
115

that enables the comparison of in puts and outputs in productio n and different
system op erations in a similar structu re." The functional unit is determined by
considering the enviro nmental impact categories and the aim of the research.
[16, 17].
The production or process must be limited while estimating in the life cycle
assessment. I n determini ng th e system bound aries, which stages and processes
of the life cycle of the pr oduct or service will be included, which will be
excluded, and their justification s are taken into account [18].

3.2. Life Cycle Inventory
In the inventory analysis phase, which is the third par t of the life cycle
analysis, the limits and product system of the work who se purpose and scop e
are determine d are defined. Th e life cycle Inventory step includes data on raw
material inputs, resource use, energy requirements, liquid and solid waste,
atmospheric emissions, and leakage to aquatic environments. A dditionally, it
aims to collect qualitative and quantitative data, to express the product outputs
as a r esult of production numerically, to obtai n and evaluate all the data-related
data, and to determine the calculation procedures. Th e inventory phase of the
life cycle is th e primary phase for analyzing the method . The data's details,
accuracy, and consistency directly affect the accu racy of th e results in
determining the impact cat egories and th e resu lts for the future stages. In th e
ISO-14044:2006 stand ard, the formation steps of inven tory analy sis are
specified as ob taining th e data, calculatin g the data, and distributing the data
(allocation) (Figur e 1).

3.2.1. Obtaining Data
Data collection is th e most challeng ing and long -time phase of life cycle
analysis. Qualitative or quantitative data collected, measured, calculated, or
estimated for each pr ocess of inpu ts and ou tputs at the w orking system
boundaries are obtained. Lo cal or glob al sources are used if da ta cannot be
accepted or reached. The main headings in which the data can be classified can
be listed as follows:
- energy inputs, raw material inputs, auxiliary in puts, and other ph ysical
inputs
- products, by-prod ucts and wastes
- air, water, and so il emissions
- other environmental degradation s

116

Figure 2. Flow chart of li fe cycle inventory assessment

3.2.2. Calculation of Da ta
At this stage of th e inventory analysis, the calculation methods should be
clearly stated, and the same c alculation procedures should be applied
consistently throughout the study. Data needs to b e valid ated t o ensu re data
quality in computation. Validation of data is relate d to being consistent with
each other and making comparative analysis. Cal culatio ns of inputs and ou tputs
should be made by creating flow charts in unit processes, considering the
study's un it function . Based on its purpose, syste m bo unda ries can be revised
according to the sensitivity analysis of essentia l inpu ts and ou tputs in
processing data obtained in life cy cle analysis.

3. 2.3. Allocation
This stage includ es data distribution to the relevant processes. Di stribution
should be avoided if the unit process is split into two or more sub -stages, by-
products are prod uced, and th e production process is expanding. Supp ose data
allocation cannot be avoided in the production process. In that case, it must be
distributed in a way that reflects the fund amental physical relationship between
different products or functions. If the physic al con nection between the
development or processes canno t be established in the distribution, it is done by
Aim and
scope

Preparatio
n to obtain
data

Data
collection

Confirma
tion of
data

Associating
the unit
process
with data

Associating
the
functional
unit with
d at a

Data
assessmen
t

Completio
n of
inventory

Refining
the system
boundary

Allocation includes
reuse and recycling

Additional data or
unit processes
required

Revision of
collected data

117

decoupling it with other relationship s. For example, the econo mic value of the
products is allocated among th e by -products in proportion.

3.3. Life Cycle Impact A ssessment
As stated in ISO [ 14] , since life cycle assessment is a relative app roach
based on unit function, it differs from other techniques such as env ironmental
performance assessment, environmental impact assessment, and risk assessment
in th is respect. At this stage of the life cy cle analysi s, t he po tential effects of the
inventory data collected for system inputs (raw material, energ y, water, and
resource uses) and system outputs (product, was te, by -products) on humans and
ecology are ev aluated. Th ere are som e compulsory and optional elements to
carry out an impact assessment . Required factors includ e defining impact
categories and category i ndicators, impact classification (classification), and
characterization.

3.3.1. Identification o f impact categories and indi cators
In the life cycle assessment, impact catego ries indicate environmental
problems (climate chang e, acidification, eutrophication) related to the
production system or process examined to reflect the purpose and scope of the
work done (Table 1). Each impact category has a specific env ironmental
mechanism, and impact indicators vary according to the types defined within
these ecological mechanisms.

Table 1. Environ mental Impact Categories and Units
Impact Category

Uni t

Climate Change

kg CO 2 eq

Ozone Depletion

kg CFC-11 eq

Terrestrial Acidification

kg SO 2 eq

Freshwater Eutrophication

kg P eq

Marine Eutrophication

kg N eq

Human Toxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

Photochemical Oxidation Formation

kg NMVOC

Particulate Matter Formation

kg PM10 eq

Terrestrial Ecotoxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

Freshwater Ecotoxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

Marine Ecotoxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

Ionizing Radiation

kBq U235 eq

Agricultural Land Use

m 2 a

Urban Area Use

m 2 a

118

3.3.2. Impact classification
Classifications are grouped by associating the determined impact categories
and indicators with the da ta collected durin g the life cycle inventor y analysis.
For example, SO 2 (sulfur dioxide) gas emissions cause acidification. Therefore,
SO 2 is classified in the acidification effect category.

3.3.3. Characterization
Whichever data obtained in the inven tory analysis contributes to the same
impact category, these data are multiplied by specific coefficients and converted
into a standard unit, revealing the total impact of that impact category. The
characterization stage enables compari son between inventories within the same
impact categ ory. E.g., CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O are the most impo rtant greenhouse
gases that cause climate change. Calculatin g the effects of th ese gases on
climate chang e in kg CO 2 equ ivalents ov er the standard unit characterizes th eir
impact on climate change.
After the compulsory stages in the life cycle impact assessment are carried
out, optional steps can also be carried out within the scope of the study on the
inventory data. These stag es are no rmalization, grouping, weighting, and data
quality analysis [14] .

3.3.4. Normalization
An in ventory analy sis tool eliminates the un its by dividing the impact
indicators by a selected r eference value and comparing them between different
impact categories [ 19] . For the reference to be determined, reference values
such as the sum of inputs and outputs for a specif ic area globally, regionally ,
nationally, or locally, the sum of inputs and ou tputs per capita for on e particular
area, and the information and ou tcomes of the alternativ e scenario presented to
the product system can be selected.

3.3.5. Grouping
Impact categories within the defined purpose and scope of the work are
assigned to one or more predefined groups. The grouping stage pr ovides ease of
interpretation and evaluation of impact categories fo r studies to be carried out in
certain areas. For example, w hen examining the chemicals of a service that
Natural Area Transformation

m 2

Water Consumption

m 3

Metal Consumption

kg FE eq

Fossil Consumption

kg oil eq

119

cause env ironmental pollutio n in the aquatic env ironment, grouping them as
water emissi ons pr ovides ease of mon itoring and evaluating th e impact
category.

3.3.6. Weighting
At this stage of the life cycle analy sis, different impact categories are graded
according to their valu es using numerical values. Weighting the impact
categories with the weigh ting process reveals which class has a more sign ificant
impact. The same indicators or normalized indicator results can differ
depending on the country, region, organization, or society where the weighting
process is performed.

3.3.7. Data quality anal ysis
Additional information and techniques may be needed to understand better
and demonstrate the importance, un certainty , and sensitiv ity of inventory
analysis results. Different analy ses are used to reveal the accuracy of the data to
carry out the purpose and scope of life cycle analysis. Gravity Analysis is
applied to identify the data that contributes the most to the r esult. Uncertaint y
Analysis is applied to reveal un certainties in data and calculations. Sensitivity
Analysis is used to decide how changes in data and methodological choices
affect the inventory results.

3.4. Life Cycle Interpreta tion
Interpretation is the final stage of life cycle analysis. The data, findings, and
results obtained in the inventory analysis and impact assessment step are
evaluated by the purpose and scope of the study and suggestions pr esented.
Regarding the purpose of the study, interpre tations should be made using the
definitions of system functions, functional un its, and system boundaries, usin g
the data obtained and within the limitations determined by sensitivity analysis.
There are some po ints to be considered in t he interpretation p hase of an LCA
study [14]:
• According to the fin dings obtained from the in ventory analysis and impact
assessment phase, it is ne cessary to determine and e mphasize the critical issues
that affect the study.
• The evaluation should involve the subject and e nsure the results are
sensitive and consistent.
• In the interpretation phase, the final work should be concluded, and the
precautions and limitations that can be taken for the current situation should be
put forward.
120

close this gap, there will be an increase in industrial enterp rises that pr oduce
more eggs per un it area. This change in cultivation system s also brings
environmental effects. In order to achieve sustainable production,
environmental impacts must be pr edicted, and necessary precautio ns must be
taken. When the studies in the literature are examine d, it has been seen that the
environmental effects of egg poultry production systems can be predicted
successfully. Therefore, as a result of the stud y, it was conc luded that the life
cycle assessment method is beneficial in determining th e environmental impacts
of egg poultry production systems.
127

References
1. FAO, (2021). Fo od and Agriculture Organization of the Unit ed Nations,
Crops and livestock products . Retrieved Octob er 13 , 2023, from
https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/
2. TUIK, (2023). Turkish Statistical Institute, Livestock Statistics . Retrieved
October 13, 2023, from https://d ata.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Kume s-
Hayvanciligi-Uretimi-Eki m- 2023 -49416
3. YUM - BİR, (2021). Yumurta Üreticileri Merkez Birliği, Yumurta
Tavukçuluğu Verileri . Retrieved November, 14, 2023, from
https://www.yum-bir.o rg/UserFiles/File/Veri-2021 .pdf
4. Berlin, J. (2002) . Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of Swedish
semi-hard cheese. Internat ional Dairy Journa l , 12, 939- 953.
5. EPA, (2023). Unit ed States Enviro nmental Protection Agency,
Greenhouse ga s emissions: understandi ng global warming po tentials.
Retrived November 16, 2023, from
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/un derstanding -global-warmin g-
potentials#:%7E:text=Methan e%20(CH4)%20is%20es timated,uses%20a
%20different%20value
6. Cowling, E. B., Erisman, J. W., Smeulders, S. M., Holman, S. C., &
Nicholson, B.M. (1 998). Optimizing air quality management in Europe
and North America: justification for integrated management of both
oxidized and reduced forms of nitrogen. En vironmental Po llution, 10 2,
599 – 608.
7. Mollenhorst, H., & De Boer, I. J. M. (2004). Identifying sustainability
issues using participatory SWOT analysis: A case study of egg
production in the Netherland s. Outloo k on Agriculture , 33, 267-276.
8. Audsley, A., Alber, S., Clift, R., Cowell, S., Crettaz, R., Gaillard, G.,
Hausheer, J., Jolliet, O., Kleijin, R., Mortensen, B., Pearce, D., Roger, E.,
Teulon, H., Weidema, B. , & Van Zeijts, H. (1997). Harmonisation of
environmental life cycle assessment for agriculture . Fin al Report,
Concerted Action AIR3-CT94 -2028. European Commission, DG VI
Agriculture, 139(1).
9. Basset-Mens, & C., Werf, VDHMG. ( 2003). Environmental assessment
of contrasting pig farming systems in France. Life Cycle Assessment in
the Agri-food Sector Proceedings from the 4th International Conference,
6-8 October, 2003, Bygholm, Denmark .
10. Kilic, I., & Amet, B. (2017). Estimation of Carbon Footprint of a Dairy
Cattle Oper ation: Bursa Case Stud y. Journal of Agricultural Faculty of
Gaziosmanpasa University, 34( Supplementary Issue), 134 -142.
128

11. Guinée, J. B. (2002). Handbook on Life Cycle As sessment: Operational
Guide to the ISO Standa rds . In stitute for Environmental Sciences, Th e
Netherlands.
12. Baumann, H., & Arvidsson, R. (201 5). Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA):
Encyclopedia of Polymeric Berlin, Germany .
13. [13] Gulli, A. (2017). A Comparative An alysis of Feed and
Environmental Factors on Broiler Growth in the United States . Master's
Thesis, University of Ark ansas, Bachelor of Science in Chemistry, USA.
14. ISO, (2006). International Organizat ion for Standardization, ISO -
14044:2006, Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment -
Reguirement and Guidelines . Retrieved October 10, 2023, from
https://www.iso.org/ standard/38498.html#:~:text=ISO%2014044%3A20
06%20specifies%20requirements,and%2 0critical%20review%20of %20th
e
15. Wiedemann, S., & McGahan, E., (2011). Environ mental Assessment of
an Egg Productio n Supply Chain Using Life Cycle As sessment .
Australian Egg Corporation Limited, Sydn ey. Retrieved from December
1, 2023, from
http://www.freeranger.com.au/up loads/7/4/2/0/7420102/aecl_carbon_foot
print.pdf
16. De Boer, I. J. M. (2003). Environmental impact assessment of
conventional and organic milk production. Livestock Production Science ,
80, 69 – 77.
17. Thomassen, M. (2003). Life cycle as sessment at commercial organic
dairy farms. Comparison of three m ethodologies: LCA, ecological
footprint-analysis an d an adjusted nutrient balance , Mast er's Thesis,
Animal Pro duction Systems Group, Wagen ingen University, The
Netherlands.
18. Tillman, A. M., Ekvall, T., Baumann, H., & Rydberg, T. (1993). Choice
of system boundaries in life cycle assessment. Journal of Clean
Production , 2, 21-29.
19. Demirer, G. N., (2011). Yaşam Döngüsü Analizi , Sürdürülebilir Üretim
ve Tüketim Yayınları -I. Retrieve d Octob er 14, 2023, fro m
https://rec.org.tr/wp-con tent/uploads/2017/02/y da.pdf
20. Hunt, R. G., & Franklin, W. E. (1996). LCA - How it came about -
Personal reflections on the origin and the development of LCA in the
USA. The Internatio nal Journal of Life Cycle Asse ssment, 1(1), 4- 7.
129

21. Russell, A., Ek vall, T., & Baumann , H. (2005). Life cycle assessment -
introduction and overview. Jou rnal of Cleaner Production, 13 (13), 1207-
1210.
22. Metsims, (2005). Retrieved Nov ember 18, 2023, from
https://www.metsims.com/tr/
23. Simapro, (2021). About SimaPro. Retrieved November 18, 2023, from
https://simapro.com/about/
24. Sphera, (2 021). Retrieved November 18, 2023, from http ://www.gabi -
software.com/turkey/index /
25. iPoint, (2021). Umberto-know the flow . Retrieved October 19, 2023, from
https://www.ifu.com/en/
26. openLCA, (202 1). Why we started the development of openLCA .
Retrieved November 19, 2023, from http://www.openlca.org /
27. Li, Y., Allacker, K., Feng, H., Heidari, M. D., & Pelletier, N. (2021). Net
zero energy b arns for industrial egg production: An effective sustain able
intensification strategy?. Journal of Cleaner Production , 316, 128014.
28. Pelletier, N., Ibarburu, M., & Xin, H. (2013). A carbon footprin t a nalysis
of egg production and processing suppl y chains in th e Midwestern United
States. Journal of Cleaner P roduction, 54, 108 -114.
29. Xin, H., Gates, R. S., Green , A. R., Mitlo ehner, F. M., Moore, P. A., &
Wathes, C. M. (2 011). Environmental impacts and sustainabili ty of egg
production systems. Po ultry Science, 90 (1), 263 – 277.
30. Xin, H., Gates, R. S., Green, A. R., Mitloehner, F. M., Moore, P. A.,
Wathes, C. M., Moore Jr., P. A., & Wathes, C. M. (2011). Environmental
impacts and s ustainability of egg pr oduction systems. Poultry Science , 90
(1), 263 – 277.
31. Ghasempour, A., & Ahmadi, E. (201 6). Assessmen t of environment
impacts of egg production chain using life cycl e a ssessment. Journal of
Environmental Management, 1 83, 980 – 987.
32. De Vri es, M ., & De Boer, I. J. M. (2010 ). Comparing environmental
impacts for livestock prod ucts: A revi ew of life cycle asses sment.
Livestock Science , 128, 1- 11.
33. Dekker, S. E. M., De Bo er, I. J. M., Vermeij, I., A arnik, A. J. A., & Groot
Koerkamp, P. W. G. (2011). Ecological and economic evaluat ion of
Dutch egg production systems. Livestock Science , 139, 109 -121.
34. Leinonen, I., Will iams, A . G., Wiseman, J., Guy, J., & Kyriazakis I.
(2012). Predicting the environmental impact of chicken systems in th e
United Kingdom th rough a life cycl e assessment: Eg g production
systems. Poultry Science, 9 1, 26- 40.
130

35. Kilic, I., & Karaman, S. (201 4). Life cycle assess ment of a laying hen
farm. Mediterranean Ag ricultural Sciences, 27(2 ), 107- 112.
36. Pelletier, N. (2017). Life cycle assessment of Canadian egg products,
with di fferentiation by hen housing system type. Jou rnal of Cl eaner
Production , 152, 167-180.
37. Abín, R., Laca, A., Laca, A., & Díaz, M. (2018). Environmental
assesment of intensive egg production: A Spanish case study. Journal of
Cleaner Production, 179, 160-168.
38. Estrada-Gonzalez, I. E., Taboada - González, P. A., Guerrero -G arcia-
Rojas, H., & Marquez- Benavides, L. (2 020). Decreasing the
Environmental Impact in an Egg -Producing Farm thro ugh the
Application of LCA and Lean Too ls. Applied Scien ces , 10(4), 1352.
131

Chapter 9

Material strength tests with electrical approach

Emrah Kaplan 1
Dursun Ekmekci 2

Abstract – This review article di scusses the important con nections between
mechanical analysis meth ods and electrical measurement me thods in materials.
In particular, it focuses on how condu ctivity, resistance and capacitance
measurement method s can be used to determine the mechanical properties of
materials. The role of these methods in evaluating material durability and elastic
properties is considered. Additionally, electrical investigation of mechanical
tests is exa mined as an important approach that allows ma terial testing
processes to obtain more detailed and precise result s. This stud y also high lights
the advantages and potential con tributions of using electrical met hods in bullet
proofness analysis. This review aims to make a sig nificant contribution to the
existing literature by emphasizing the importance of the electrical approach in
material durability tests. It demonstrates the potential of how the electrical
approach can be used to evaluate mechanical properties of materials quickly
and precisely .

Keywords – Electrical measurements, mechanical properties, ballistic
resistance, material testing metho ds

I. I NTRODUCTION
Material str ength and durability are one of the main properties that
determine the perfo rmance of a material. Accurate evaluatio n of the mechanical
properties of materials is of critical importance in many industries such as
industrial design, constru ction, automotive, aerospace and defence [1].
Properties of materials such as electrical conductivity, resistance and
capacitance can provide important information about their mechanical
durability. Electrical measurement methods are important tools widely used in
materials science and engineerin g in the charact erization and perfo rmance

1 Department of Electrical an d Electronics Engineering, Gümü şhane University, Turkey
2 Department Departmen t of Mechanical Engineerin g, Gümüşhane University, Turkey
* (dursunekmekci@gumushan e.edu.tr) Email of the correspo nding author
132

improvement of materials. Electrical measurement methods can also be used
without applying impact or load to examine material strength and durability.
This potential is important for predicting the long -term performance of
materials and assessing their suitability fo r specific applications [2].
Additionally, it should be noted that electrical approaches enable fast,
economical and repeatable measurements.
This article specifically examines the relationship between electrical
measurement methods and th e mechani cal du rability of materials. The role,
advantages a nd limitations of electrical me thods in the process of evaluating the
mechanical properties of materials will be discussed and their potential impact
in industrial applications will be discussed. Th e abili ty of electrical approaches
to provide greater insight in to material strength and durability highlights th e
importance of research in this area. This review article aims to provid e a guide
for researchers and industry professionals in the field of materials science and
engineering on how mechanical testing as well as el ectrical measurement
methods can be used in materials charact erization.

II. M ECHANICAL A NALYSIS M ETHODS IN M ATERIALS
They are common meth ods used to study different mechanical prop erties
and behaviors of materials in both commercial and military fi elds. Which
method to choose depends on the properties and material type you want to
measure. Commonly used destru ctive and non -destru ctive analysis methods are
given in Fig 1.

Fig. 1 Commonly used material testing methods

This review focuses on mechanical and electrical m ethods. In these tests, the
stress (lo ad) value applied to the material is associated with deformation (shape
133

change). The data ob tained as a result of these tests is used to determine
important mechanical properties of the material, suc h as elastic modulus, yield
strength, and tensile streng th. It is used to measure stress, strain rate and
elastic/plastic zone in th e plastic defor mation of the material [3 ]. The tensile te st
shown in Fig. 2 is the most common test used to measure mechanical
properties. It is a widely used test to examine the mechanical behavior of a
material. This curve shows the elastic beh avior o f th e material, its plastic
deformation and the moment o f final fracture.

Fig. 2 Tensile stress-strain curv e. Reprinted from [4]

Hardness tests are used to evalu ate the material's properties such as
resistivity, durability and wear resistance. There are different methods such as
Rockwell, Brinell and Vickers hardness tests. In these tests, the tensile fo rce
applied to a material sample is used to determine the properties of the material
such as br eaking strength, modulus of elasticity and tensile strength.
Compression tests are used to determin e the compressive force applied to a
material sample and its prop erties such as compressive strength, mod ulus of
elasticity and tensile strength. Impact tests are used to measure the impact
resistance of a material. In these tests, a standard impact is applied to the
material and the energy absorption abili ty, crack resistance and fracture
behavior of the material are evaluated. There are different methods such as
Charpy and I zod impact tests. Fatigue tests are used to evaluate how a material
behaves when subjected to repetitive loading. In these tests, repetitive stresses
are applied to the materi al sample and the prop erties of the material, such as
134

fatigue strength and fracture behavio r, are determined. Th e thermal behavior of
the material can affect its mechanic al properties. Therefore, th ermal analysis
methods are used to study the thermal beh avior of the material. Add itionally,
changes in the temperature of the material may occur during plastic
deformation. The temperat ure profile of the materia l can be examined using
thermal cameras or temperature sensors [5], [6]. When the materi al undergoes
plastic deformation, changes in its magnetic properties may occur . Magnetic
field measurements can be used to detect these chang es and monitor the
intensity of plastic deformation. Acoustic emission tests capture sound waves
emitted by micro -cracks or ot her signs of plastic deformation occurring in the
material. These audio signals can be used to evaluate th e presence and intensity
of plastic deformation on the material [7 ].
III. E LECTRICAL M EASUREMENT M ETHODS
Electrical method s are an effective to ol used in material characterization and
these method s are used to monitor electrical chang es due to mechanical effects
on th e material [8]. In this way, it is possible to determine and analyze th e
plastic deformation, crack formation and similar mechanical changes of the
material. Add itionally, these methods offer the possibility of testing before and
after impact, thus providing comprehensi ve information about the durability and
changing pr operties of the materi al. These electrical tests allow analysis without
applying a bullet or other impact, which is a great advantage fo r evaluating the
material’s potential applications such as armor steels. However, specific
mechanical tests that require direct measurem ent of mechanic al properties ar e
also used a nd generally provide more accurate results. Th erefore, while
electrical methods play an important role in material characterization ,
combining them with mechanical testing for a complete evaluation is of ten the
preferred approach.

A. Electrical Resistance Mea surement
Resistivity is a physical property that measures the electrical resistance of a
material. Resistance ( ρ ), on the other hand, is a characteristic feature of a
material independent of geometry and size, and is an important parameter
expressed acco rding to the electrical resistance ( R ) and volume ( V ) of th e
material. Resistance is calculated by the formula given below and is a
fundamental tool in both electrical and mechanical charact erization of the
material. In this context, the prod uct of the paramete rs W ( width) and L (length)
expresses the volume of an object. In addition to evalu ating the electrica l
behavior of the material, this property also pl ays a critical role in understand ing
135

the structu ral and mechanical properties of the material. Using current ( I ) ,
voltage pr obe range and cross - sectional area of the sample, th e ρ value
(resistance) of the sample is determined (Fig . 3). Material cross -section and
resistance values are calculated with the help of Eq. (1) and Eq. (2).

Fig. 3 Diagram and formula about resistiv ity: This diagram, which shows the
definition of material resistivity , visualizes the resistivity fo rmula. A: Cross -
sectional area, t: Material thickn ess

𝐴 = 𝑊 ∗ 𝑡 (1)

𝑅 = 𝜌 ∗ (𝐿 𝐴
⁄ ) (2)

Electrical re sistivity can provide information about the material's
conductivity, density, and internal structural pr operties. In their research,
Miyajima et al. reported the changes in the resistan ce of commercially pure
aluminum and discussed the relationship between resistance and crystal defects
[9]. Again, in di fferent studies and rese arches important results have been
obtained to understand th e complex electrical behaviour of various materials
which occur after physical effects ap plied on them such as, shape memory
alloys [10], [11], metals [12], concrete parts [13], [14], carbon fiber reinforced
plastics [15], [16], ceramic matrix composites [ 17], uniaxial ro ck [18],
nanocomposites [19], conductive fabrics [20], wearable electronics [21] and
even carbon nanotub e threads [22], [23].
Each of the four different basic methods described below offers a different
approach to the process of measuring the electrical properties of materials and
includes different measurement techniques. The aim of these methods is to
precisely and reliably evaluate the elect rical properties of the material, such as
resistance, conductiv ity and contact resistance. Different analysis approaches
136

corrosion. This ensures long -term stability of the electrical properties. Such
materials are resistant to impact and mechanical stress and keep electrical
connections stron g. This again ensures the stability of the electrical properties .
Shockproof materials are not generally used for insulation purposes becaus e
they are good conductors of electricity. However, electrical insulation can be
achieved by combining it with some s pecial coatings or insulating materials.
Fig. 8 shows the measured characteristi c p oints of the 12 -layer composite at 24
J on the impact fo rce-displacement curve and the high -speed camera images of
the characteristic po ints. The electrical prop erties of such materials may vary
depending on the design objectives and the specific prop erties of the material
used. Particu larly in electronic or military application s, determining electrical
properties is an important part of the material selection and design process. It is
therefore important to consider the electrical requirements when choosin g the
most suitable material for a particular appl ication.

Fig. 8 Impact force-di splacement performance graph obtained as a result of
impact tests performed on a 12 -layer composite and high -speed camera images
of these measured points [5 7]

C. Non-destructive Evalua tion of Mechanical Properties of Materials
Electrical measurements are an important tool for damage detection, for
example in fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) materials [7]. In carbon fiber
reinforced polymers such as CFRP, carbon fibers provide electrical
conductivity, so it is possible to monitor the state of the material under load.
When a matrix filli ng material such as carbon black is used in m aterials such as
GRP, vo ltage and damage monitoring can be performed using the direct current
143

method. Direct current electrical resistance, alternating current capacitance and
loss characteristics change as a resul t of applied load or voltage. These
measurements can be use d to evaluate the condition of composite parts even
when the componen ts are in use, and these methods are considered a non -
destructive evaluation technique. However, more fund amental studies are
required to better understand the effect of alter nating curren t electrica l
properties on the material [58 ].

D. Intensity Measurement of Mechanical Impact
It may be possible to indi rectly measure the effect of mechanical action on a
material by using electrical methods, especially th rough pi ezoelectric sensors .
In fact, the data obtained here is in tended to measure the magni tude of the
impact applied to that material rather th an the change in the mat erial caused by
the impact. At this po int, piezoelectric materials produce an electrical charg e in
response to mechanical stress or deformation. This feature makes them suitable
for pu rposes of sensing and measuring mechanical effects or vi brations in a
variety of application s. These sensors are made of piezoelectric materials (e.g. ,
quartz crystal s, piezoceramics) that prod uce an el ectrical charge wh en subjected
to mechanical stress [ 59 ]. The amount of charge produced is proportional to the
force or impact applied to the material.
In some case s, mechanical effects can lead to pr essure changes. Electrical
pressure sen sors can detect these pr essure chang es and con vert th em into
electrical signals [60]. This information can be used to extract the force or
intensity of mechanical action. These electrical metho ds indirectly measure the
effects of mechanical effects by detecting changes in electrical properties or
signals caus ed by th e impact. Data obtained from t hese s ensors can prov ide
valuable information abo ut th e mechanical behavior o f materials, especially to
external forces or vibratio ns.

E. Armor Material Testing Process
The results of bullet resistance tests determine the performance and
durability of the tested material. The following analyzes are performed on the
material after the bullet impact. If the bullet has penetrated the material, this is
called "penetratio n" and the bullet proof level is considered as failed. If the
bullet has no t penetrated the materi al, the speed at which the bullet remains in
the material is determined. This data shows how much energy the material
absorbs. It is also evaluated whether the bul let damages the material. Holes ,
cracks or deformations on th e material are observed and recorded. The results
show how much protection the material provides against whi ch types of
144

projectiles and according to which standards [6 1]. Ev aluation results can be
used in performance enhancing processes such as changing material structure or
components. These results are critical for the develop ment of military
equipment, ballistic vests or armor, and civilian security applications. In Fig. 9,
the Euro pean EN 1522/1523 standard is taken into consideration fo r the target
plate used in ballistic tests, th e distance betwe en the accelerometers and the
gun, and the bullet speed. Before the tests, the bullet speed was adjusted by the
amount of gunpowder in the cartridge cas e and it was tried to be kep t at 820 ±
10 m/s for the 7.62 Ball type bullet and 8 30 ± 10 m/s for the 7. 62 AP type b ullet
[6 2 ].

Fig. 9 The mechanism where ballistic t ests applied to armor steels are
performed

In bullet proof tests, various mechanical measurement methods are used to
evaluate the material's resistance to bullet or ballistic threats. Mechanical
measurement methods commonly used in these test s. They form the basis of
bullet proof tests. In these tests, impacts are simulated in which the material is
struck at a c ertain speed and angle. The beh avior of the material under the
influence of impact is observed an d recorded.

V. CONCLUSION
Electrical measurements can often be made quickly. Especially when
automatic data collection systems are u sed, processes can be acc elerated and
more data can be obtained. These devices are suitabl e for real -time monito ring,
which can increase the abili ty to understand rapidly changing properties of the
material. Particularly for simple devices, invest ment costs are low and
maintenance requirements are usually limited. This can redu ce long -term costs.
Bullet proof tests perfor med by electrical method s offer a versatile and effective
way to measure the material's resistance to ballistic threats and impacts. These
tests provide valuable information about the material' s mechanical strength and
structure by precisely monitoring changes in th e material's electrical pr operties.
145

Additionally, these electrical tests can be perfo rmed without damaging the
structure of the material, allowing tests to be perfo rmed while maintainin g the
inviolability of the material. Therefore, electrical tests offer the opportunity to
perform analysis without applyin g a bullet or other impact and can make a
positive contribution to the evaluation of potential materials for armor
construction. As a result, electrical methods gen erally have the adv antage of
making rapid measurements and obtaining data at low cost, but it is always
necessary to evaluate the c ost, especially for a specific application, and to verify
measurements made by electrical measurement by common mechanica l
measurements.

146

R EFERENCES
1. Dobrzański LA. Sig nificance of materials scien ce fo r th e future
development of societies. J M ater Process Technol 2006; 175:133 -148.
2. Bjørheim F, Siriwardane SC, Pavlou D. A review of fatigue damage
detection and measurement techniques. Int J Fatigue 2022;154 :106556.
3. Vargas ALM, Blando E, Hüb ler R. Elasto – Plastic materials behavior
evaluation according to different models applied in indentation hard ness
tests. Measurement 2019;139: 134-139.
4. Gray GTR, Maudlin PJ, Hull LM, Zuo QK, Chen SR. Predicting material
strength, damage, and fracture The synergy between experiment and
modeling. J Fail Anal Prev 200 5;5:7- 17.
5. Yildiz RA. Evaluation of fracture toughness and Charpy V -notch test
correlations for selected Al alloys. Eur Mech Sci 2022;6:1 - 8.
6. Marar K, Eren Ö, Çelik T. Relationship between impact energy and
compression toughness energy of hi gh -strength fib er-reinforced concrete.
Mater Lett 2001;47:297 -304.
7. Walther F, Eifler D. Cyclic deformatio n beh avior of steels and light -
metal alloys. Mater Sci Eng A 2007;468 – 47 0:259-266.
8. Cross JO, Opila RL, Boyd IW, Kaufmann EN. Materials characterization
and the evolution o f materials. MRS Bull 2015;40 :1019 -1034.
9. Miyajima Y, Komatsu S, Mitsuhara M, Hata S, Nakashima H, Tsuj i N.
Change in electrical r esistivity of commercial purity aluminium severely
plastic deformed. Philos Mag 2 010;90:4475 – 4488.
10. Ferčec J, Anžel I, Rud olf R. Stress dependent electrical resisti vity of
orthodontic wire from t he shape memory alloy NiTi. Mater Des
2014;55:699 – 706.
11. Gonzalez CH, Quad ros NF, Araújo CJ, Morin M, Guénin G. Coupled
stress-strain and electrical resistivity measurements on copper based
shape memory sing le crystals. Mater Res 200 4;7:305 - 311.
12. Kuczynski GC. Effect of elastic strain on the elec trical resistance of
metals. Phys Rev 1954;94 :61- 64.
13. Azarsa P, Gupta R. Electrical resistivi ty of concrete for durability
evaluation: A review. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2017;2017:84 53095.
14. Taylor MA, Arul anandan K. Relationships between electrical and
physical properties of cement pastes. Ce m Concr Res 1974 ;4:881 -897.
15. Todoroki A, Suzuki K, Mizutani Y, Matsuzaki R. Electrical resistance
change of CFRP un der a compression load. J Solid Mech Mater Eng
2010;4:864-874.
147

16. Todoroki A, Yoshida J. Electrical resistance change of unidirectional
CFRP due to applied load. JSME In t J A-So lid M 2004;47:357 -364.
17. Morscher GN, Baker C, Smith C. Electrical resistance of SiC fiber
reinforced SiC/Si matrix composites at ro om temperature du ring tensile
testing. Int J Appl Ceram 2014 ;11:263 - 272.
18. Chen G, Lin Y. Stress – str ain – electrical resistance ef fects and associated
state equations for uniaxial rock compression. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci
2004;41:223- 236.
19. Khodabakhshi F, Simchi A. The role of microstructural features on the
electrical resistivity and m echanical prop erties of powder metallurgy Al-
SiC -Al2O3 nanocomposites. Mater De s 2017;130:26 - 36.
20. Bera TK, Mohamadou Y, Lee K, Wi H , Oh TI, Woo EJ, Soleimani M,
Seo JK. Electrical imp edance spectroscopy for electro-mechan ical
characterization of conductive fabrics. Senso rs 2014;14:9738 - 9754.
21. Han Y, Lu WF. Structural design of wearable electronics suitable for
highly-stretched joint areas. Smart Mater Struct 2018;27:10504 2.
22. Abot JL, Alosh T, Belay K. Strain dependence of electrical resistance in
carbon nanotube yarns. Carbon 2014;70:95 -102.
23. Starkova O, Mannov E, Schulte K, Aniskevich A. Strain -dependent
electrical resistance of epoxy/MW CNT composite after hy drothermal
aging. Compos Sci Technol 2 015;117:107 -113.
24. Minagawa H, Miyamoto S, Kurashige I, Hisada M. Appropriate
geometrical factors for four-prob e method to evaluate electrical
resistivity of concrete specimens. Constr Build Mater 2023;374:130784.
25. Kahraman S, Yeken T. Electrical resistivity measurement to predict
uniaxial compressive and tensile strength of igneous ro cks. Bull Mater
Sci 2010;33:731 -735.
26. Tan S, Long S, Yao X, Zhang X. An improved material model for
loading-path and strain -rate dependent strength of impacted soda -lime
glass plate. J Mater Res Te chnol 2021;15:905 -1919.
27. Bodyakova A, Tk achev M, Pili penko A, Belyakov A, Kaibyshev R.
Effect of deformation methods on microstructure, texture, and prop erties
of a Cu – Mg alloy. Mater Sci Eng A 2 023;876:145126.
28. Mishnev R, Shakhova I, Belyakov A, Kaibyshev R. Deformation
microstructures, strengthenin g mechanisms, and electrical condu ctivity in
a Cu – Cr – Zr alloy. Mater Sci Eng A 2 015;629:29 -40.
29. Salazar-Guapuriche MA, Zh ao YY, Pitman A, Greene A. Correlation of
strength with hardness and electrical conductivity for aluminium alloy
7010. Mater Sci Forum 2006; 519 – 521:853 – 858.
148

30. Vandersluis E, Ravindran C, Bamberger M. Mechanisms affecting
hardness and electrical con ductivity in artificially -aged B319 aluminum
alloy. J Alloys Compd 2021;86 7:159121.
31. Zhang P, Li Y, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Liu J. Analysis of the microhardness,
mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of 7055 aluminum
alloy. Vacuum 2020 ;171:109005.
32. Payakaniti P, Pinitsoontorn S, Thongbai P, Amornkitb amrung V,
Chindaprasirt P. Electrical con ductivity and compressive strength of
carbon fiber reinforced fly ash geopolymeric composites. Constr Build
Mater 2017;135:164 -176.
33. Kopera L, Kováč P, Melišek T. Electromechanical characterization of
selected superconductors. Superco nd Sci Technol 2008;21:115001.
34. Altuntas O, Ozer M, Altuntas G, Ozer A. Inv estigation of the
microstructure, hard ness and electrical condu ctivity properties of
Fe/Graphene compacts. M ater Sci Technol 202 3;39:2670 -2679.
35. Wieczorek L, Howes VR, Goldsmid HJ. Electrical con tact resistance and
its relationship to hardness. J Mater Sci 1 986;21:1423.
36. Yamaguchi K, Busfield JJC, Thomas AG. Electrical and mechanical
behavior of filled elastomers I Th e effect of strain. J Polym Sci B Polym
Phys 2003;41:2079 -2089.
37. Cho E, Chiu LLY, Lee M, Naila D, Sadanand S, Waldman SD, Sussman
D. Characterization of mechanical and dielectric properties of silicone
rubber. Polymers 2021;13:1831.
38. Haddour L, Mesrati N, Goeu riot D, Tréheux D. Relationships between
microstructure, mech anical and dielectric properties of different alumina
materials. J Eur Ceram Soc 2 009;29:2747 -2756.
39. Li X, Yin X, Zhang L, Cheng L, Qi Y. Mechani cal and dielectri c
properties of poro us Si3N4 – SiO2 composite ceramics. Mater Sci Eng A
2009;500:63 - 69.
40. Zhao Q, Zhang K, Zhu S, Xu H, Cao D, Zh ao L, Zhang R, Yin W.
Review on the electrical resistance/conductivity of carbon fiber
reinforced polymer. Appl Sci 201 9;9:2390.
41. Horstmann M, Grego ry JK, Schwalbe KH. Th e ac p otential drop method :
measuring the growth of small surface cracks during fatigue. Mater Test
1993;35:212 - 217.
42. McCullough KYG, Fleck NA, Ashby MF. Uniaxial stres s – strain
behaviour of aluminium alloy foams. Acta Mater 1 999;47:232 3 – 2330.
43. Danoglidis PA, Konsta-G doutos MS, Shah SP. Relationship between the
carbon nanotube dispersion state, electrochemical impedan ce and
149

capacitance and mechanical properties of percolative nan oreinforced
OPC mortars. Carbon 2019;145 :218-228.
44. Rao SM, Zhu K, Wang CH, Sundaresan S. Electrical capacitance
tomography measurem ents on the pneumatic convey ing of solids. Ind
Eng Chem Res 2001;40:421 6-4226.
45. Chaniecki Z, Dyakowski T, Niedo statkiewicz M, Sank owski D.
Application of electrical capacitanc e t omography for bulk solids flow
analysis in silos. Part Part Syst Ch aract 2006;23:306 - 312.
46. Asencio K, Bramer- Escamilla W, Gutiérrez G, Sánchez I. Electrical
capacitance sensor array to measure density profiles of a vibrated
granular bed. Powder Technol 2015;270:10 -19.
47. Chen D, Yang W, Deng X. Comparison of three electrical capacitance
tomography systems. IEEE Int Co nf Imaging Syst Tech 2010;11476349 .
48. Karhunen K, Seppänen A, Lehikoin en A, Mont eiro PJM, Kaipio JP.
Electrical resistance to mography imaging of concrete. Cem Concr Res
2010;40:137- 145.
49. Cultrera A, Serazio D, Zurutuza A, Centeno A, Txoperena O, Etay o D,
Cordon A, Redo -Sanchez A, Arnedo I, Ortolano M, Callegaro L.
Mapping the conductivity of graphene with electrical resistance
tomography. Sci Rep 2019;9:1 0655.
50. Bukhary T, Huisman JA, Wang H, Zimmermann E, Vereecken H,
Lazarovitch N. Electrical resistivity tomography ( ERT) measurements
during water flow in a dat e palm stem segment. Compu t Electron Agric
2023;212:108084.
51. Wu X, Jia H, Fan J, Cao J, Su C. Study on the effect of cold deformation
and heat treatment on th e properties of Cu -Ag alloy wire. Micro machines
2023;14:1635.
52. Glushko O, Cordill, MJ. Electrical resistance dec rease du e to grain
coarsening under cyclic deformation. JOM 2014;66:598 -601.
53. Kwok SW, Goh KHH, T an ZD, Tan STM, Tjiu WW, Soh JY, Ng ZJG,
Chan YZ, Hui HK, Goh KEJ. Electric ally conductive filament for 3D -
printed circuits and sensors. Appl Mater To day 2017;9:167 -175.
54. Swain A, Abdellatif E, Mo usa A, Po ng PWT. Senso r technologies for
transmission and distribution systems: A review of th e latest
developments. Energies 2022;15 :7339.
55. Cabrini M, Carrozza A, Lo renzi S, Pastore T, Testa C, Man fredi D, Fino
P, Scenini F. Influence of surface finishing and heat treatments on the
corrosion resistance of LPBF- produced Ti-6Al -4V alloy for biomedical
applications. J Mater Process Techno l 2022;308:117730.
150

56. Stadler F, Antrekowitsch H, Fragner W, Kaufmann H, Pin atel ER,
Uggowitzer PJ. The effect of main alloying elements on the physical
properties of Al – Si foundry allo ys. Mater Sci Eng A 2013;560:481 - 491.
57. Du Z, Chen C, Wang X. The mechanism of stab resistance of carbon
fiber reinforced polymer. Eng Fail An al 2022;142:106817.
58. Kupke M, Schulte K, Schüler R. Non -destructive testing of FRP by d.c.
and a.c. electrical methods. Compo s Sci Technol 2001;61:837 -847.
59. Safaei M, So dano HA, Anton SR. A review of energy harvesting using
piezoelectric materials: state- of -the-art a decade later (200 8 – 2018). Smart
Mater Struct 2019;28:113001.
60. Kalsoom T, Ramzan N, Ahmed S, Ur-Rehman M. Advances in sensor
technologies in the era of smart factory and industry 4. 0. Senso rs
2020;20:6783.
61. Alwan FHA, Prabowo AR, Muttaqie T, Muttaqie T, Mu hayat N, Ridwan
R, Laksono F B. Assessment of ballistic impact damage on aluminum and
magnesium alloys against high velocity bullets by dynamic FE
simulations. J Mech Behav Mater 20 22;31:595 -616.
62. Bekci ML, Canpolat BH, Usta E, Güler MS , Cora Ö N. Ballistic
performances of Ramor 500 and Ramor 550 armor steels at mono and
bilayered pl ate config urations. Eng Sci Technol an In t J 2021;24:9 90 -
995.
151

Chapter 10

Effects of the Use of Nanofluids in Solar Collectors on Thermal-
Hydraulic Performance

Dr. Fatma OFLAZ 1

Abstract
The use of nanofluids in solar collectors includes a technology that aims
to increase the efficiency of collectors. Nanofluids consist of liquid
particles at the nan ometer sca le, and the ir pr operties enable more efficient
heat condu ction. Th e high thermal conductivity, low viscosity, and
chemical stability prop erties of nanofluids allow for increased heat transfer
in solar collectors, improving temperature control, and, as a result,
increasing efficiency. These features, w hen ut ilized in the liquid cooling
systems of solar collectors, effectively cool the pan el and optimize
performance by controlling temperature increase s. The implementation of
these technologies can contrib ute to making solar collectors more effective,
efficient, and du rable, thereby encouraging the wider adoption of solar
energy systems. However, it is crucial to keep in mind that each technology
has its advantages and disadv antages. Therefore, factors such as the
features, cost implications, and enviro nmental impacts of the chosen
technology shoul d be considered. This study includes detaile d
examinations of th e use of nanofluids in solar collectors. Th e research aims
to prov ide valuable insights for future studies in the field of solar energy by
thoroughly explo ring these app lications. The characteristics, cost
implications, and environmental impacts of these technol ogies have been
examined to consider both their advantages and di sadvantages. The
comprehensive analysis of nanofluids in solar collectors may pave the way
for advancements and innovations in the future, encouragin g the
development of more effective, efficient, and durable solar energy systems.
Keywords
Solar collectors, Nanofluids, Thermal an d hydraulic performances

1. Introduction
The use of fossil fuels, greenhou se gas emission s, and environmental
issues such as climate ch ange hav e led many countries to review their

1 Firat University, Automotiv e Engineering
Email: [email protected] , ORCID NO: 000 0-0002-9636- 5746
152

et al., 2022) . Nevertheless, the inadequate management of waste, particularly in
developing nations, hinders ef ficient treatment measures. Consequently , the
duration required for waste disposal is substan tial, and the inadequately regulated
disposal of waste presents a significant peril to both the marine ecosystem and
populous urban areas worldwide (Ferronato & T orretta, 201 9).
The main purpose of SWM is to efficiently han dle the collection, separation ,
treatment, and dumpin g of solid waste produced by vario us metropolitan
populations. This purpose aims to ensure that these activities are c onducted in a
sustainable manner , taking into consideration env ironmental and social
considerations, while ut ilizing th e most econo mically feasible resources available
(Khatiwada et al., 2021). The utilization of waste as both main and secondary raw
materials for the manufactur ing of consumer products within urban areas needs
to be prioritized (OECD, 2 021) .
The issue of SWM in developi ng nations is further compo unded by the
indiscriminate dispo sal of waste, r endering it a sign ificant env ironmental
contaminant (A. H. Khan et al., 2022). The most po pular methods of processin g
and managing waste in developing nations are landfilling, incineration, open
dumping, and composting (Hajam et al., 2023a) .
Open burning and dumping are still often used fo r wast e dispo sal, desp ite their
many negative effects on the environment (Barbhai & Sh arma, 2023) . Inadequate
waste manag ement practices can lead to significant environmental issues. Th e
accumulation of waste in op en landfills has deleterious effects on soil
contamination and poses a threat to the in tegrity of the adjacent gr oundwater
(Hasthi et al., 2023). The implementation of ef fective solid waste management
practices has the potenti al to mitigate or eradicate adv erse ef fects on both the
environment and the health of hu mans. Additionally , it can serve as a catalyst fo r
growth in the economy and enhance ove rall living standards (Das et al., 2019;
Singh Rawat et al., 2020 ).
This study focuses on the following objectives: assessing the effects of soli d
waste disposal in open dumps and investigating rehabilitation strategies fo r open
dumping sites in order to mitigate enviro nmental and economic consequ ences.

2. Global W ast e Production
Global production of waste is defin ed as th e cumulative quantity of waste
generated via human activities on a global scale within a designated timeframe.
This waste might originate from several sources, encompassing municipal,
industries, farming, medical centres, and other sectors (Höglund-Isaksson et al.,
2020) . The prod uction of waste is a significant concern fro m both an
environmental and social standpoint due to its potential to result in a range of
255

adverse effects, includ ing contamination, th e destruction of habitats, and threats
to the health of people (Marín-Beltrán et al., 2 022).
The gen eration of waste on a glob al scale exhibits a con sistent up ward trend,
encompassing dev eloped nations as well as dev eloping nations. Notab ly , a
substantial volume of waste is generated annually in cou ntries belongi ng to the
Or ganisation for Economic Co -operation and Development (OECD) (Parfitt et
al., 2021). The issue of glob al waste production is of great significance, as
evidenced by estimates suggesting that the col lective worldwide wast e
production reached ov er 20 billion tons in the year 2017. Th is equates to an
average of 2. 63 tonnes of waste prod uced per person annually (Maalouf &
Mavropoulos, 2023) . MSW prod uction, expressed in kilograms per capita, is
illustrated in Figure 1 (URL 1).

Figure 1. MSW generated per year (in kilog rams per capita) (URL 1)

According to projections based on the st atus quo, it is anticipated that global
waste prod uction will reach 46 billion tons in the year 2050 (Mendoza et al.,
2022) . The quantity of municipal solid waste (MSW) constitutes a relatively
smaller part, estimated to be between 2.3 and 3.1 billion tons in the year 2019,
and is projected to rise to a range of 2.89 to 4.54 billion tons un til 2050 (He et al.,
2022) . Similarly , based on a report published by the W orld Bank, it is projected
that th e yearly production of municipal solid waste cou ld reach a staggering 3.4
billion tons by 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018) .
256

On the other hand, the challenge of accumulating unmanaged plastic waste
has become increasingly worrisome. According to estimations, the global
production of unmanaged plastic waste rang ed from 60 to 99 million tons in 2015.
Furthermore, projection s indic ate that the qu antity might potentially trip le to
reach 155 -265 millio n metric tons annually in 2060 (Lebreton & Andrady , 2019).
In developing natio ns, the majority of waste is primarily derived fr om household
activities and predominantly consists of organic matter derived from plants. The
escalating urbanization of communities is a promin ent component that is
progressively implicated in the generation of trash stemming from industrial and
agricultural activities, residual chemicals, and the discharge of hazardous metals
(F . F . Robert et al., 2023).

3. W aste Manag ement
The field of solid waste management encompasses the effective management
and app ropriate disposal of waste materials, with the aim of mitigating adverse
ef fects on both human health and the natural enviro nment (S. Kh an et al., 2022) .
For the purpose of maximizing practical advantage, the waste management
hierarchy presents the preferred sequence of steps fo r waste r eduction and
management. Land fills are the fin al resort in waste management; prevention,
reduction, recycling, and ener gy recovery are prio ritized in t he was te hierarchy
(Kabirifar et al., 2020 ; URL 2) (Fig ure 2).

Figure 2. W aste hierarchy (URL 2)

Before being processed, MSW must be separated into recyclable,
biodegradable, combustible, and non -recyclable categ ories in order to lessen the
257

negative ef fects (Ugwu et al., 2021). Th e waste materials, including paper , glass,
and metals, have the po tential to be repurposed in order to reduce the demand for
primary resources (David et al., 2019). Furthermore, the process of remediating
biodegradable waste involves the conversion of such waste into stable organic
molecules, which can serve as an e nvironmentally benign source of ener gy , such
as biogas (Srivastava et al., 2020).
The present condition of waste management in both developed and dev eloping
countries is cause for concern, particularly in develop ing countries, because there
is a lack of waste management methods , necessitating the implementation of
environmentally sustainable and cost-effective approaches for its management
and disposal (Arenib afo, 2023; Debrah et al., 20 21; ULUSOY et al., 20 23) .
Several strategies and technological approaches are employed in the field of solid
waste management, encompassing incineration, recycling, landfilli ng,
composting, and reduction (Istrate et al., 2020; Karimi, 20 23). Nevertheless, the
implementation of efficient waste management metho ds encounters various
problems, includin g insufficient financial resources, inefficient collecting
methodologies and equipment, irresponsible dispo sal procedures, and a lack of
educated pr ofessionals in managing waste (Kurniawan et al., 2022; Li et al.,
2021; Shi et al., 2021) .
The current emphasis is on prioritizing reducing waste as th e primary
approach to address this issue, as opposed to the former emphasis on recovering,
recycling, and disposing objectives (Parfitt et al., 2021). In addition to the
traditional solid waste management techniques such as vo lume reduction and
landfilling, high-income countries (HICs) ar e also implem enting alternativ e
methods includ ing vermicompo sting, sustainable development strategies, and
waste- to -energy systems (Alshehrei & Ameen, 2021; Hajam et al., 2023b;
Usmani et al., 2020) . These waste- to -energy systems encompass various
processes such as incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic digestion,
as well as the production of biodiesel, biohydrogen, biomethane, bioethanol, and
butanol (Barua & Hossain, 2021; S. Y . Lee et al., 2019; Manikandan et al., 2023) .
One potential strategy involves th e utilization of waste biorefineries, which
have the capability to trans form municipal solid waste (MSW) into sustainable
ener gy sources, as well as value-add ed commodities and chemical compoun ds
(Molina-Peñate et al., 2 022; Pérez et al., 2020 ).

4. Open Dumping for W aste Manag ement
Open du mping and landfilling are often employed method s for the
management of MSW according to their cost -effectiveness and minimal
treatment requirements (A l-W abel et al., 2022) . The utilization of landfills is
258

suitable for waste that cann ot be recycled or incinerated. Nevertheless, it requires
vast expanses of land. Th e leachate generated from the anaerobic and aerobic
decomposition of th ese waste materials contains componen ts that are detrimental
to the environment (El -Saadony et al., 2023; Pazoki & Ghasemzad eh, 20 20) .
Accordingly , landfilling becomes the worst op tion when its negative ef fects on
the environment, human health, the qu ality of the land, and the ground water are
all taken into account (Blair & Mataraarachchi, 202 1; Pires & Martinho, 2019) .
Landfilling has witnes sed significant expansion in low- and middle-income
countries (LMICs) during the past decade. One of the outcomes resulting from
this expansion is the emergence of open land fills as a means of soli d waste
management in various regions across the glob e (Idowu et al., 2019). In LMICs,
landfilling is a prominent repository for a substantial portion of waste, posing a
potential threat to biogas releases caused by the anaerobic decomposition of
waste (Chisholm et al., 2021). Additionally , the movement of leachate in these
landfills may pollute all surface and groundwater sources. The scenario becomes
increasingly concerning in nations that lack protective measures and have
landfills situated in close proximity to lakes (Parvin & T areq, 20 21; Zhang et al.,
2021) . Fortunately , developed countries have started disabling solid waste
dumping by stringent regulations, waste reduction, and reuse. In these countries
the waste manag ement pri nciple known as "R educe, Reuse, and R ecycle" (ofte n
referred to as the '3 R') is widely adopted and implemented, making it less
probable for this scenario to o ccur (Batista et al., 2021; Nanda & Berruti, 2021) .

5. Composition of MSW
W aste is the byproduct of any human action, be it the routine tasks of daily
living or the more involved activities of industries like manu facturing and
farming. W as te encompasses a diverse range of components, which exhibit
variations am ong nations and areas, contingent upon t he prevailing cultura l
practices and lifestyles (Ela min Abbass et al., 2023).
The MSW is comprised of several types of waste, including recyclable,
organic, combustible, and materials that aren't recyclable. In LMICs, th e
proportion of substances that decompose in MSW ranged from 46 % to 53%.
Similarly , the quantity of reusable waste in LMICs was fo und to be comparatively
smaller than that in HICs (UNEP , 2015). MSW , with a high concentration of
organic materials, is a major contributor to atmos pheric pollution because it
releases gree nhouse gases (GHG) and leachate, which contaminate grou ndwater
(Cheng et al., 2020; Mor & Ravindra, 2023) . Figure 3 shows th e compositio n of
MSW on a global scale (S harma & Jain, 2020 ).

259

Figure 3. Global MS W Composition (Sharma & Jain, 20 20)

6. Envir onmental Impacts of M SW Open Dumping
The phenomenon of urbanization has led to environmental degradation,
posing a significant issue that warrants careful examinatio n (S. Robert et al.,
2023) . Potential factors contributing to environmental degradation encomp ass the
release of wastewater and effluents, runoff from agriculture, as well as
unregulated disposal of solid waste in close pr oximity to water bodies (Jurado
Zavaleta et al., 2021) . The impacts on the ecosystem from du mping waste in the
open are serio us. It causes contamination in a wide vari ety of env ironments, from
the ocean to the air to the groundwater (Sid diqua et al., 2022) .
The practice of open disposal of MSW results in the generation of hazardous
compounds that pose risks to both human health and th e environment. These
compounds, including dioxins and dioxin -like substances (specific ally
polychlorinated dibenzo-para-diox ins and polychlo rinated di benzofurans), in
addition to harmful heavy metals such as nickel and cadmium, are transported
into t he water , soil, and atmosphere (Roy & T arafda r , 2022). The con tamination
of water and soil resources on a worl dwide scale is a consequ ence of various
factors, including the transfer of leachates containing toxins, the relea se of GHG,
and the productio n of odou r and dust thro ugh open dumping and landfilling
practices (Al-W abel et al. , 2022) .
This section will cov er the neg ative effects of open dumps for MS W on soil,
air , water , and the health of h umans.

6.1 W ater an d Soil Contamination
According to several research, open dumps con tinue to be the leading cause
of water and soil pollution ( Alao, 2023; Mekonnen et al., 2020). Additionally , the
260

unregulated accumulation of MSW at landfills has detrimental con sequences for
soil quality , leading to a predominance of acidic and sandy conditions, as well as
impacting microbial populations (Mouhoun -Chouaki et al., 2019).
An issue arising from the dumping of solid waste is the deg radation of organic
content inside the waste, resulting in the production of leachate. The very
dissolved leachate has the ability to infiltrate into the soil and into water (de
Cassia Silva Bacha et al., 2021) . Over and above, the process of leaching,
whereby or ganic, inorganic, and other deleterious compounds are released from
solid waste and infiltrate the sub terranean water , has the potential to result in the
contamination of sources of water (Abdel-Sh afy et al., 2023) .
Moreover , metals including cobalt (Co), cadmium ( Cr), cop per ( Cu), lead
(Pb), and zinc (Zn) may contaminate soi l at landfills, which can subsequen tly be
taken up by plants and earthworms and pose a threat to bo th human and
environmental health (Aendo et al., 2022; Morita et al., 2021) . At the same time,
Contamination of surface water sources by heavy element accumulation in soil ,
such as Cd, Zn, and Pb, may result in biomagnification in the food chain (Gupta
et al., 2019).
Another research showed that the dispo sal of solid waste r esulted in a
substantial rise in many water para meters, including conductivity , T otal
Dissolved Solids, hardness, and alkalinity . Additional concerns include
malodorous odor , microbiological pollution, and water discol oration. Th e
abundance of ni trogen and ph osphorus led to the occurrence of elevated algal
blooms in rivers and streams (Mohan & Joseph, 2 021) .

6.2 Air Pollution
The presence of airborne particulate matter and the accumulation of solid
waste from ur ban areas may lead to the occurrence of contaminants in the air and
the generation of smells that are unpleasa nt (Al-W a bel et al., 2022). As well as
the practice of open dumping MSW results in the unregulated generation of
landfill gases, predominantly composed of methane and carbon dioxide (Chandra
& Ganguly , 2023). Moreover , current numbers imply that over 20 years methane
has a gl obal warm ing potential of 81.2 , while carbo n dioxide only has a po tential
of 27.9 du ring 10 0 years (IPCC, 2019). The International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has also noted in its most recent reports, that th e level of methane
has risen to above 1000 ppb during a period of the last twenty years (IPCC, 2019).
In light of a substantial rise in methane emissions from MSW , comprehensive
investigations have been conducted to analyse the possibility of production from
MSW and explore ef fective methods for converting it into ener gy fo rms. Thes e
ef forts aim to mitigate its release into the environment (Hai et al., 20 23;
261

Naveenkumar et al., 2023; Y ang et al., 2023) . Increased gr eenhouse gas emissions
are directly attribut able to the widespread practice of open waste du mping in
developing countries (Ferronato & T orretta, 2019) .
Specifically , landfill gases are released when biological waste is decomposed
by bacteria in anaerobic environments (US EP A, 2023 ; Mey er -Dombard et al.,
2020) . On the other han d, several varia bles influence how much methane gas is
released from an open dumpsite, like the overall am ount of garbage dumped, the
weather , and the way the waste is collected (Pu jara et al., 2023) . In a recent report
conducted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEP A), it is
emphasized that landfill methane emissions in the Unit ed States con tribute to
around 17% of the overall methane productio n (US EP A, 20 22). By 2030 and
2050, developing countries are projected to account for 64 and 76% of glob al
greenhouse gas emissions, up fro m their 29% share in 2000 (Rafiq et al., 2018).

6.3 Impacts on Human Health
Moreover , the in discriminate disposal of MSW through open du mping
practices has the potential to engender adverse health con sequences for
individuals residin g in close pr oximity to th ese dumping sites. Such health risks
encompass diseases such as skin and ocular irritatio n, elevated body temperature ,
respiratory distress, gastrointestinal disturbances, and a range of other ailments
(Dixit et al., 2023) .
Open dumping additionally exposes people's health at risk since it can
contaminate subterranean water supplies and release gases that can af fect nearby
populations in ways that can cause canc er .
Moreover , this type of illegal landfill has the potential to trap various creatures
and establish favo urable conditions fo r the proliferation of pests, notably
mosquitoes, so exacerbating both health and environmental risks (Chireshe et al.,
2023) .

7. Open Dumping Rehabilitation: A W ay to Reduce Env ironme ntal and
Financial Impacts
Extensive environmental degradation on Earth has prompted significant stud y
ef forts toward contamination mitigation and rehabilitation. The rehab ilitation
procedure encompasses the transformation of pollu ted areas into gardens and the
establishment of nurseries for ornamental plants. The economic benefits of
collecting biogas and leachate from the MSW treatmen t process can be
significant for governments. In addition to the econo mic advantages, the
implementation of suitable method s for the extraction of haz ardo us compounds
from MS W has th e potential to yield societal benefits. In contrast, the
262

implementation of suitable waste removal solu tions necessitates a larger
investment and incurs higher costs for m aintenance and op eration.
The implemen tation of rehabilitation solutions for open dumping areas i s
crucial in addressing th e risks to health and the env ironment that are inherent to
these unregulated and filthy waste disposal regions. These sites have the potential
to contribute to the contamination of soil and water , t he devastation of habitats,
and the di ssemination of illnesses. Below are a f ew commonl y employed
techniques for rehabilitating open du mping sites: landfill mining, soil capping
process, lan dfill gas collection system, bior emediation, revegetation, and
phytoremediation.

7.1 Landfill Mining (LFM)
Landfill mining is a method that involves extracting valuable materials fro m
dumping sites. This method has the potential to be a viable alternative for
promoting environmental development and managing waste ef fectively
(Zoungrana et al., 2022) . LFM entails the removal of waste from a landfill site
that has bee n closed for a lengthy time, typically span ning many years .
Throughout this time, the dump has ceased to receive waste and the natural
breakdown of waste has significantly decreased (Somani et al., 20 20; Zari et al.,
2022) .
In the current world situation, with its expand ing demands for resources,
increasing prices of raw materials, dwindlin g natural reserves for critic al
commodities, and worseni ng env ironmental issues, LFM presents an opportunity
for obtaining resources fr om alternative sou rces (Jain et al., 2023) . Extracting
resources from bo th current and upcoming landfills can result in the utilization
of secondary materials and energy , hence minimizing its spatial footprin t (Singh
& Chandel, 2020). The afo rementioned demonstrates that LFM aligns with the
EU Roadmap for a Resource-Efficient Europe, which aims to minimize the need
to acquire new lands by 2050 (Pitak et al., 2023).
Although there has been growing attention towards LFM and its progress over
the past twenty years, the release of dust from mining and la ndfill mining
activities into the environment continues to be a significant problem for public
health (Article Author et al., 2019; Capp ucci et al., 2020 ; Qarahasanlou et al.,
2022) . This is particularly important in cases where old landfills possess the
ability to create pollution (H. Lee et al., 2023). The qualities of the mining waste
components are influenced by the level of deterioration, kind, and age of the
waste. The waste that has been retri eved primari ly comprises of soil -like
substances, pl astic, metal, glass, textile, cera mics, and stones. The predominant
263

constituent of the extracted waste is a substance resembling soil (Cheela et al.,
2023; Han et al., 2024) .

7.2 Soil Capping Process
This step would occur as the initial corrective measure that s hould be
implemented while the landfills are finally decommissioned. A landfill cap is a
complex structure consisting of multiple layers that are desig ned to limit the
amount of water that seeps into the waste dumped in the landfill. It also helps to
minimize th e generation of leaches and prevent the unrestricted dischar ge of
landfill gas through the enviro nment. In addition, physically separating waste
from organisms such as animals and plants (Ahmed S. et al., 2022) .
The choice of cappi ng form fo r a site is contingent upon various aspects, such
as th e nature and levels of pollutants, the site's dimensions, the precipitation
levels in the lo cation, and the exp ected later utilization of the land. The hydr aulic
conductivity (k-value) of components utilized in the building of a hydrodynamic
border in waste retentio n infrastructure is a crucial criterion fo r assessing the
ef fectiveness of landfill topping layers.
The pr ocess of constructing a cover may range from the simplest method of
covering mildly polluted soil with one layer of materials to the most complex
approach including multiple layers of various materials to separate highly
polluted wastes (as shown in Figure 4) (US EP A 2012) .

Figure 4. Different layers in landfill capping (US EP A 2012).

264

Confer ence of Contemporary Affairs in Ar chitectur e and Urbanism
(ICCAUA- 2023) , 383–398. https://doi.org/10.38027/iccaua2023en0108
10. Article Auth or , J., Acker , V ., Passel, V ., Carlos Hernández Parrodi, J.,
Lucas, H., Gigantino, M., Sauve, G., Laurence Esguerra, J., Einhäupl, P .,
V ollprecht, D., Pomberger , R., Friedrich, B., V an Acker , K., Krook, J.,
Svensson, N., & V an Pass el, S. (2019) . Integration of resource recovery
into current waste manag ement thro ugh (Enhanced) landfill mining.
Detritus , 8 . https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-b-000426919
11. Barbhai, S., & Sharma, P . (2023). Repercussion of Open Dumping Ground
in the V icinity at Mantarwadi, Pune. IOP Confer ence Series: Earth and
Envir onmental Science , 1 1 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755 -
1315/1 1 10 /1/012044
12. Barua, P ., & Hossain, N. (2021). W aste to energy: an overview by global
perspective. In Advanced T echno logy for the Con version of W aste into
Fuels an d Chemicals: V ol ume 1: Bio logical Pr ocesses (pp. 1–49). Elsevier .
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0- 12 - 823139-5.0001 1 -3
13. Basic Information about Landfill Gas | US EP A . (2023).
https://www .epa.gov /lmop/basic-informat ion-about -landfill-gas
14. Batista, M. , Goyannes Gusmão Caiado, R., Gon çalves Quelhas, O. L.,
Brito Alves Lima, G., Leal Filho, W ., & Rocha Y parraguirre, I. T . (2021).
A framewo rk for sustainable and integrated municipal solid waste
management: Barriers and critical factors to dev elop ing countries. Journal
of Cleaner Pr oductio n , 312 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127516
15. Blair , J., & Mataraarachchi, S. (2021). A review of landfills, waste and the
nearly forgotten nexus with climate change. In Envir onments - MDPI (V ol .
8, Issue 8). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8080073
16. Borisova, D., Kostadinova, G., Petkov , G., Dospatliev , L., Ivanova, M.,
Dermendzhieva, D., & Beev , G. (2023). Assessment of CH4 and CO2
Emissions from a Gas Co llection Sy stem of a Regional Non -Hazardous
W aste Landfi ll, Harmanli, Bulgaria, Using the Interru pted T ime Series
ARMA Model. Atmospher e , 14 (7).
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14071089
17. Cappucci, G. M., A vo lio, R., Carfagna, C., Cocc a, M., Gentile, G.,
Scarpellini, S., Spina, F ., T ealdo, G., Errico, M. E., & Ferrari, A. M. (202 0).
Environmental life cycle assessment of the recycling processes of waste
plastics recovered by landfill mining . W aste Management , 1 18 , 68–78.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.048
18. Chandra, S., & Ganguly , R. (2023). Assessment of landfill gases by
LandGEM and energy recovery potential from municipal solid waste of
271

Kanpur city , India. Heliyon , 9 (4).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15187
19. Cheela, V . R. S., John, M., Biswas, W ., & Dubey , B. (2 023). Environmental
impact evaluation of landfill mining of legacy waste with on -site sorting
using life cycle assessment. Envir onmental Science and Pollution
Resear ch , 30 (1 1), 30033–30047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1 1356-022-
24210-2
20. Cheng, K., Hao, W ., W ang, Y ., Y i, P ., Zh ang, J., & Ji, W . (2020 ).
Understanding the emission pattern and source contribution of hazardous
air po llutants from open burning of municipal solid waste in China.
Envir onmental Pollution , 263 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.1 14417
21. Chireshe, A., Shabani, T ., & Sh abani, T . (2023). Safety and health risks
associated with illegal municipal solid waste dispo sal in urban Zimbabwe.
“A case of Masvingo City .” Safety in Extr eme Envir onments , 5 (3), 243–
252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42797-023-00 080-w
22. Chisholm, J. M. , Zamani, R., Negm, A. M., Said, N., Abdel daiem, M. M.,
Dibaj, M., & Akrami, M. (2021). Sustainable waste management of
medical waste in African developing countries: A narrative review . W aste
Management and Resear ch , 39 (9), 1 149–1 163.
https://doi.org/10.1 177/0734242X21 1029175
23. Cuciureanu, A., Stanescu, B. A., Cerni ca, G., & Dinca, S. ( 2020).
ENVIRONMENT AL ASSESSMENT IN THE AREAS OF NON -
COMPLIANCE W ASTE LANDFILLS IN THE POST C LOSURE
PERIOD. Internatio nal Symposium “Th e Envir onmenta l and The
Industry ,” E-SIMI 2020 , 57–58. http s://doi.or g/10.21698/simi.2020.ab2 3
24. Das, S., Lee, S. H., Kumar , P ., Kim, K. H., Lee, S. S., & Bhattacharya, S.
S. (2019). So lid waste management: Scope and the challenge of
sustainability . Journal of Cleaner Pr oduction , 228 , 658– 678.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.323
25. David, A., Thangavel, Y . D., & Sankriti, R. (2019) . Recover , recycle and
reuse: An ef ficient way to reduce the waste. Internatio nal Journal of
Mechanical and Pr oduction Engineering Resear ch an d Development , 9 (3),
31 –42. https://doi.org/10.24247/ijmperdjun20194
26. de Cassia Silva Bacha, D., Santos, S., de Alcantara Mendes, R., da Silva
Rocha, C. C., Corrêa, J. A., Cruz, J. C. R., Abrunhosa, F . A., & Oliva, P . A.
C. (2021). Evaluation of the contamination of the soil and water of an open
dump in the Amazon Region, Brazil. En vir onmental Earth Sciences , 80 (3).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665- 021 -09401-3
272

27. Debrah, J. K., V idal, D. G., & Dinis, M. A. P . (2021). Raising awareness
on solid waste ma nagement through formal education for sustainability: A
developing countries evidence review . Recyclin g , 6 (1), 1–21.
https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6010006
28. Dixit, A., Singh, D., & Shukla, S. K. (2023). Assessment of hu man health
risk due to leachate contaminated soil at solid waste
dumpsite,Kanpur(India). Inte rnational Journal of E nvir onmental Science
and T echno logy . https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762 - 023 -04868-y
29. DWER. (2018). A Guide to Pr eparing Revegetation Plans for Clearing
Permits . www .dwer .wa.gov .au
30. Elamin Abbass, O. A., Elhassan, A. M., Abdelgadir , A. E., & Mohamed,
M. H. (2023). Detection of Microbiological Activity in Some Collected
W ater Samples near Dumping Site of Solid W aste, Khartoum Nort h,
Sudan. T r opical Aquatic and Soil Pollution , 3 (1), 69–75.
https://doi.org/10.53623/tasp.v3i1.193
31. El -Saadony , M. T ., Saad, A. M., El -W afai, N. A., Abou-Aly , H. E., Salem,
H. M., Soliman, S. M. , Abd El -Mageed, T . A., Elrys, A. S., Selim, S., Abd
El -Hack, M. E., Kappachery , S., El -T arabily , K. A., & AbuQamar , S. F .
(2023). Hazardo us wastes and management strategies of land fill leachates:
A comprehensive review . In En vir onmental T echnology and Innovation
(V ol. 31). E lsevier B.V . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2023.103150
32. Ferronato, N., & T orretta, V . (2019). W aste mismanagement in developing
countries: A review of global issues. In International Journal of
Envir onmental Resear ch and Public Health (V ol. 16, Issue 6). MD PI AG.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060
33. Grossule, V . (2020) . Final quality of a sustainable land fill and po stclosure
management. Detritus , 13 , 148–159. https://doi.org/10.31025/261 1 -
4135/2020.13999
34. Gupta, N., Y adav , K. K., Kumar , V ., Kumar , S., Chadd, R. P ., & Kumar , A.
(2019). T race elements in soil-vegetables interface: T ranslocation,
bioaccumulation, toxicity and amelioration - A review . In Science of the
T otal Envir on ment (V ol. 651, pp. 2927 –2942). Elsevier B.V .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv .2 018.10.047
35. Hai, T ., Aleni zi, F . A., Alshahri, A. H., Chau han, B. S., Metwally , A. S. M.,
& Almujib ah, H. R. (2023). Energy and environmental analyses of a
sustainable multi- generation municipal soli d waste - to -energy integrated
system for hydr ogen production. Pr ocess Sa fety and Envir onmental
Pr otection , 177 , 307 –321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2023.06.030
273

36. Hajam, Y . A., Kumar , R., & Kumar , A. (2023a). En vironmental waste
management strategies and vermi transformation for sustainable
development. In Envir onmental Challenges (V ol . 13 ). Elsevier B.V .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100747
37. Hajam, Y . A., Kumar , R., & Kumar , A. (2023b). Environmental waste
management strategies and vermi transformation for sustainable
development. In Envir onmental Challenges (V ol . 13 ). Elsevier B.V .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100747
38. Han, M., W u, Y ., Sun, J., Geng , X., Gao, X., Zhou, T ., & Lu, J. (2024).
Carbon feasibility of terminatin g plastic waste leakage by landfill mining:
A case study based on practical projects in China. Science of the T otal
Envir onment , 906 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv .2023.167461
39. Hassan, A., Pariatamby , A., Ahmed, A., Auta, H. S., & Hamid, F . S. (2019).
Enhanced Bioremediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Landfill Soil
Using Filamentous Fungi Consortia: a Demonstration of Bioaugmentation
Potential. W ater , Air , and Soil Pollution , 230 (9).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s1 1270 - 019 -4227-5
40. Hassan, A., Pariatamby , A., Ossai, I. C., Ahmed, A., Muda, M. A., W en, T .
Z., & Hamid, F . S. (202 2). Bioaugmentation -assisted bioremediation and
kinetics modelling of heavy metal-pollu ted landfill soil. International
Journal of Envir onmenta l Science and T echnology , 19 (7), 6729–67 54.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762- 021 -03626-2
41. Hasthi, S., B udiati, L., & Setiadi, R. (2023). Study of W aste Management
at the Jatibarang Landfill, Semarang City (pp. 102–1 1 1).
https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476 -072-5_1 1
42. He, R., Sandov al-Reyes, M., Scott, I., Semeano, R., Ferrão, P ., Matthews,
S., & Small, M. J. (2022). Global knowledge base for municipal solid
waste management: Fra mework develop ment and application in waste
generation predictio n. Journal of Cleaner Pr oduction , 377 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134501
43. Hogland, W ., Katrantsiotis, C., & Sachpazidou, V . (2020). Baltic
Phytoremediation - Soil remediation with plants. IOP Confer ence Series:
Earth and Envir onmenta l Science , 578 (1). https://d oi.org/10.1088/1755-
1315/578/1/012003
44. Höglund-Isaksson, L., Gómez-Sanabr ia, A., Klimont, Z., Rafaj, P ., &
Schöpp, W . (2020). T echnical potentials and costs for reducing global
anthropogenic methane emissions in the 20 50 timeframe –results from the
gains model. Envir onmental Res ear ch Communicati ons , 2 (2).
https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ab7457
274

45. Idowu, I. A., Atherton, W ., Hashim, K., Kot, P ., Alkhaddar , R., Alo, B. I.,
& Shaw , A. (2 019). An analyses of the status of la ndfill classification
systems in developing countries: Sub S aharan Africa landfill ex periences.
W aste Management , 87 , 761–771.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.03.01 1
46. Inventory of U.S. Gr eenhouse Gas Emi ssions an d Sinks | US EP A . (n.d.).
Retrieved September 29 , 2023, from
https://www .epa.gov /ghgemissions/inventory - us -greenhouse-gas-
emissions-and-sink s
47. IPCC. (2019). 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National
Gr eenhouse Gas Inventories . https://www .ipcc.ch/re port/2019 -
refinement- to -the- 2006 -ipcc-guid elines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-
inventories/
48. Istrate, I. R., Iribarren, D., Gálvez-Marto s, J. L., & Dufour , J. (2020).
Review of life-cycle enviro nmental con sequences of waste- to -energy
solutions on the municipal solid waste management system. In Resour ces,
Conservation an d Recycling (V ol. 157). Elsevier B.V .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104778
49. Jain, M., Kumar , A., & Kumar , A. (2023). Landfill mining: A review on
material recov ery and its utilization challenges. Pr ocess Safety and
Envir onmental Pr otection , 169 , 948–958.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.1 1.049
50. Jurado Zavaleta, M. A., Alcaraz, M. R., Peñaloza, L. G., Boemo, A.,
Cardozo, A., T arcaya, G., Azcarate, S. M., & Goicoechea, H. C. (2021).
Chemometric modeling for spatiotemporal characterization and self -
depuration monitoring of surface water assessing th e pollu tion sources
impact of northern Ar gentina rivers. Micr och emical Journal , 162 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2020.105841
51. Kabirifar , K., Mojtahedi, M., W ang , C., & T am, V . W . Y . (2020) .
Construction and demolition waste management contributing factors
coupled with redu ce, reuse, and recycl e strategies for ef fective waste
management: A review . In Journal of Cleaner Pr oductio n (V ol. 263).
Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121265
52. Kanwar , P ., Mina, U., Thak ur , I. S., & Sriv astava, S. (2023). Heavy metal
phytoremediation by the novel prospect of microbes, nanotechnology , and
genetic engineering for recovery and rehab ilitation of landfill site. In
Bior esour ce T echno logy Reports (V ol. 23). Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101518
275

53. Karimi, N. (2023). Assessing Global W aste Management: Alternatives to
Landfilling in Different W a ste Streams—A Scopin g Review .
Sustainability , 15 (18), 13290. h ttps://doi.org/10.3390/su151813290
54. Kaza, S., Y ao , L., Bhada-T ata, P ., & V an W oerden, F . (2018 ). What a waste
2.0: a global snapshot of soli d waste mana gement to 2050 .
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1329 -0_ch6
55. Khan, A. H., López-Maldonado, E. A., Khan, N. A., V illarreal- Gómez, L.
J., Munshi, F . M., Alsabhan, A. H., & Perv een, K. (2022) . Current solid
waste management strategies and ener g y recovery in developing countries
- State of art review . In Chemosph er e (V ol. 291) . Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133088
56. Khan, S., Anjum, R., Raza, S. T ., Ahmed Bazai, N., & Ihtisham, M. (2022).
T echno logies for municipal solid waste management: Current status,
challenges, and future perspectives. Chemospher e , 288 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132403
57. Khapre, A., Khan, S. A., & Kumar , S. (2022). A laboratory -scale
phytocover system for municipal solid waste landfills. Envir on mental
T echnology (United Kingdom) , 43 (2 4), 3670–3681.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2021.1931470
58. Khatiwada, D., Golzar , F ., Mainali, B., & Devendran, A. A. (2021) .
Circularity in the Management of Municipal So lid W aste - A Systematic
Review . In Envir on mental an d Clima te T echno logies (V ol. 25, Issue 1).
Sciendo. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect- 2021 -0036
59. Kumar T yagi, V inay ., & Ojha, C. S. P . (2023). Land fill Leachate
Management . IW A Publishi ng.
60. Kurniawan, T . A., Liang, X., O’ca llaghan, E., Goh, H., Othman, M. H. D.,
A vtar , R., & Kusworo, T . D. (2022). T ransformation of Solid W aste
Management in China: Moving towards Sustainab ility through
Digitalization‐Based Circular Economy . In Sustainability (Switzerland)
(V ol. 14, Issue 4). M DPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042374
61. Lebreton, L., & Andrady , A. (201 9). Future scenari os of global plastic
waste gen eration and disposal. Palgrave Communicati ons , 5 (1).
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599- 018 -0212-7
62. Lee, H., Coulon, F ., & W agland, S. T . (2023). The influence of humic acid
on metal(loid)s leaching in landfill leachate for enhancing landfill mining.
Science of the T otal Envir onment , 896 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv .2 023.165250
63. Lee, S. Y ., Sankaran, R., Chew , K. W ., T an, C. H., Krishnamoorthy , R.,
Chu, D. -T ., & Show , P .- L. (2019). W aste to bioen er gy: a review on the
276

recent conversio n technol ogies. BMC Ener gy , 1 (1 ).
https://doi.org/10.1 186/s42500 - 019 -0004-7
64. Li, X., W ang, L., & Ding, X. (2021). T extil e sup ply chain waste
management in China. Journal of Cleaner Pr oductio n , 289 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125147
65. Maalouf, A., & Mavro poulos, A. (202 3). Re -assessi ng gl obal municipal
solid waste generation. W aste Management and Resear ch , 41 (4), 936–947.
https://doi.org/10.1 177/0734242X2210741 16
66. Malik, J. A. (2022). Advances in Bior emediatio n and Phytor emediation for
Sustainable Soil Management . Springer .
67. Manikandan, S., V ickram, S., Sirohi, R., Subbaiya, R., Krishnan, R. Y .,
Karmegam, N., Su mathijones, C., Rajagopal, R., Chang, S. W ., Ravindran,
B., & A wasthi, M. K. (2023). Critical review of bi ochemical pathways to
transformation of waste and biomass into bioenergy . In Bior esour ce
T echnology (V ol. 372). Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2023.128679
68. Marín-Beltrán, I., Demaria, F ., Ofelio, C., Serra, L. M., T uriel, A., Ripple,
W . J., Muku l, S. A., & Costa, M. C. (202 2). Scientists’ warning against the
society of waste. In Science of the T otal Envir onment (V ol. 81 1). Elsevier
B.V . http s://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv .2021.151359
69. Mekonnen, B., Haddis, A., & Zeine, W . (2020). Assessment of the Effect
of Solid W aste Dump Site on Surrounding Soil and River W ater Quality in
T epi T own , Southwest Ethiopia. Journal of Envir onmental and Public
Health , 2020 . https://doi. or g/10.1 155/2020/5157046
70. Mendoza, R. R., Menguin s Da Lima, A. M. , Aparecida, M. , Pimentel, S.,
& Paulino Da Roch a, E. J. (202 2). W orld Development and Generatio n of
W aste . h ttps://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1413201/v1
71. Meyer -Dombard, D. R., Bogner , J. E., & Malas, J. (2020) . A Review of
Landfill Microbiology and Ecology: A Call for Modernizatio n W ith ‘Next
Generation’ T echno logy . In Fr ontiers in Micr obiology (V ol. 1 1). Frontiers
Media S.A. https://doi .or g/10.3389/fmicb.2020.01 127
72. Mohan, S., & Joseph, C. P . (2021). Potential Hazards due to Municipal
Solid W aste Open Dumping in India. In Journal of the Indian Institute of
Science (V ol. 101, Issue 4, pp . 52 3 –536). Springer .
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41745- 021 -00242-4
73. Molina-Peñate, E., Artola, A., & Sánchez, A. (2022) . Or ganic municipal
waste as feedstock for biorefineries: bioconversion technologies
integration and challenges. In Reviews in Envir onmenta l Science and
277

Biotechnology (V ol. 21, Issue 1, pp. 247–267). Springer Science and
Business Media B.V . https://doi.org/10.1007/s1 1 157 - 021 -09605-w
74. Mor , S., & Ravindra, K. (2023). Municip al solid waste landfills in lower-
and middle-income count ries: En vironmental impacts, challenges and
sustainable management practices. In Pr ocess Safety and Envir onmental
Pr otection (V ol . 174, pp. 510–530). Institution of Chemical Engineers.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2023.04.014
75. Morita, A. K. M., Ibelli-Bianco, C., Anache, J. A. A., Cou tinho, J. V .,
Pelinson, N. S., Nobrega, J., Rosalem, L. M. P ., Leite, C. M. C.,
Niviadonski, L. M., Manastella, C., & W end land, E. (2021). Pollution
threat to water and soil quality by dumpsites and non-sanitary land fills in
Brazil: A review . In W aste Management (V ol. 131, pp. 16 3–17 6). Elsevier
Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.06.004
76. Mouhoun-Chouaki, S., Derridj, A., T azdaït, D., & Salah -T azd aït, R.
(2019). A Study of the Impact of Municipal Solid W aste on Some Soil
Physicochemical Properties: The Case of the Landfill of Ain - El -Hammam
Municipality , Algeria. Applied and Envir onmental Soil Science , 2019 .
https://doi.org/10.1 155/2019/3560456
77. Muksy , R., & Kolo , K. (2023). Experimental Observations and Assessment
of Landfill Leachate Bioremediation by Autochthonous Fungi Species and
their Effective Geoactivities. Jou rnal of Ecological Engineering , 24 (1 ),
312 –327. https://doi.or g/10.1291 1/22998993/156 080
78. Nanda, S., & Berruti , F . ( 2021). Municipal solid waste management and
landfilling technologies: a review . In Envir onmental Chemistry Letters
(V ol. 19, Issue 2, pp. 1433–14 56). Springer Science and Business Media
Deutschland GmbH. https://d oi.org/10.1007/s1031 1-020-01 100-y
79. Naveenkumar , R., Iyyappan, J., Pravin, R., Kadry , S., Han, J., Sindhu, R.,
A wasthi, M. K., Rokhum, S. L., & Baskar , G. (2023). A strategic review
on sustainable appro aches in municipal solid waste management and
ener gy recovery: Role of a rtificial intelligence, economic stability and life
cycle assessment. In Bior esour ce T ech nology (V ol. 379). Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2023.129044
80. OECD. (2021). T owa r ds a mor e r esou r ce- efficient and cir cula r economy
The r ole of the G20 .
81. Pang, C. C., Lo, W . F ., Y an, R. W . M., & Hau, B. C. H. (2020) . Plant
community composition on landfill sites after multiple years of ecological
restoration. Landscape Resear ch , 45 (4), 458 –469.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2019.1674266
278

82. Parfitt, J., Croker , T ., & Brockhaus, A. (2021). Global food loss and waste
in primary production: A reassessment of its scal e and significance.
Sustainability (Switzerland) , 13 (21). https://doi.org/10.3390/su1321 12087
83. Parvin, F ., & T areq, S. M. (2021). Impact of landfill leachate contamination
on surface and grou ndwater of Bangladesh: a systematic review and
possible public health risks assess ment. In Applied W ater Science (V ol. 1 1,
Issue 6). Sp ringer Science and Business Media Deutschlan d GmbH.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201- 021 -01431-3
84. Pasternak, G. , Zaczek-Pepl inska, J., Pasternak, K., Jóźwiak, J., Pasik, M.,
Koda, E., & V averková, M. D. (2023). Surface Monitoring of an MSW
Landfill Based on Linear and Angular Measurements, TLS, and LIDAR
UA V . Sensors , 23 (4). https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041847
85. Pazoki, M., & Gha semzadeh, R. (2020). Municipal Landfill Le achate
Management . http ://www .springer .com/series/3234
86. Pérez, V ., Pérez, V ., Pascual, A., R odrigo, A., García T orreiro, M., Latorre -
Sánchez, M., Coll Lozano, C., David -Moreno, A., Oliva-Domin guez, J.
M., Serna-Maza, A., Herrero García, N., González Granados, I., Roldan-
Aguayo, R., Ovejero -Roncero, D., Mo lto Marin, J. L., Smith, M. ,
Musinovic, H., Raingué, A., Belard, L., … Muñoz, R. (2020). Integrated
innovative biorefinery for the transformation of municipal solid waste into
biobased products. In W aste Bior efinery: Integrating Bior efineries for
W aste V alorisation (pp. 41–80). Elsevier . https://doi.org/10.1016/B978 -0-
12 -818228-4.00002-2
87. Pires, A., & Martinho, G. (2019). W aste hierarchy index for circular
economy in waste management. W aste Management , 95 , 298– 305.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.06.014
88. Pitak, I., Denafas, G., Baltušnikas, A., Praspaliauskas, M., & Lukošiūtė, S.
I. (2 023). Proposal for Implementation of Extraction Mechanism of Ra w
Materials during Landfill Mining and Its Application in Alternative Fu el
Production. Sustainability (Switzerland) , 15 (5).
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054538
89. Pujara, Y ., Govani, J., Patel, H. T ., Pathak, P ., Mashru, D., & Ganesh, P . S.
(2023). Quantification of environmental impacts associated with
municipal solid waste management in Rajkot city , India using Life Cycle
Assessment. Envir onmental Advances , 12 .
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv .2023.100364
90. Qarahasanlou, A. N., Khanzadeh, D., Shahabi, R. S., & Basiri, M. H.
(2022). Introducing sustainable development and reviewin g environmental
279

sustainability in the mining industry . Rudarsko Geolosko Naftni Zbornik ,
37 (4), 91–108. https://doi.org/10.17794/r gn.2022.4.8
91. Rafiq, A., Rasheed, A., Arslan, C., T allat, U., & Siddique, M. (2018).
Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from Muhammad wala open
dumping site of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Geology , Ecology , and Landscapes ,
2 (1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1452463
92. Ramos-Arcos, S. A., López-Martínez, S ., Lagunas Rivera, S., González -
Mondragón, E. G., de la Cruz Leyv a, M. C., & V elázquez -Martínez, J. R.
(2019). Phytoremediation of landfill leachate using vetiv er (Chrysopogon
zizanioides) and cattail (T yp ha latifolia). Applied Ecology and
Envir onmental Resear ch , 17 (2), 2619–2630.
https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_26192630
93. Robert, F . F ., El Hadj Malick, K., Fatoumata, B., Absa, L., Cheikh, D.,
Mamadou, F ., Aminata, T ., & Math ilde, C. (2023). E nvironmental Impacts
and Health Risks of Open Land fills in W est African Cou ntries: A
Systematic Review of the Literature. Jou rnal of T oxico logy and Risk
Assessment , 9 (1). https://doi.org/10.23937/2572- 4061.1510053
94. Robert, S., Luckins, N., & Menon, R. (2023 ). Quality deterioration of an
Indian urban water source near an open dumping site. W ater Practice and
T echnology , 18 (5), 1284– 1299. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2023.056
95. Roy , D., & T arafdar , A. (2022). Solid W aste Management and Landfill in
High-Income Countries. In Cir cula r Economy in Municipal Solid W aste
Landfilling: Biomining & Leachate T r eatment (pp. 1–23 ).
96. Saljnikov , E., Mu eller , L., Lavrishchev , A., & Eulenstein, F . (2022).
Advances in Understanding Soil Degrad ation Innovatio ns in Landscape
Resear ch . https://link. springer .com/boo kseries/161 18
97. Scheutz, C., & Kjeldsen, P . (2019) . Guidelines for landfill gas emission
monitoring using the tracer gas dispersion method. W aste Management ,
85 , 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.12.048
98. Sekhohola‐dlamini, L. M., Keshinro, O. M., Masudi, W . L., & Cowan, A.
K. (2022). Elaboration of a Ph ytoremediation Strategy for Su ccessful and
Sustainable Rehabilitation of Disturbed and Degraded Land . Minerals ,
12 (2). https://doi.org/10.3390/min120201 1 1
99. Selvarajan, R., Ogola, H., Kalu, C. M., Sibanda, T ., & Obize, C. (2 022).
Bacterial Communities in Informal Dump Sites: A Rich Source of Uniq ue
Diversity and Functional Potential for Bioremediation Applications.
Applied Sciences (Switzerland) , 12 (24).
https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412862
280

structures were ob served to chang e into flakes and spheroids. Fig ure 3 show s
the structural changes in powders with the change of gas pressu re. When the
powders taken from Bakelite were ex amined, it was seen that the high est
hardness was 73 HV0.0 25 in pr oduction at 35 bar. Th is hardness value was
found to be high er than the hard n ess of the AM60 alloy in ingot fo rm (67
HV0.025) ( Çetin, et al, 2020).

Figure 3: Production s made with a)5, b)15, c)25, d)35 b ar pressure (Çetin, et
al., 2020)

In the study carried out by Urtekin, Ünal and Özer, bronze and c op per
powder were pr oduced us ing water and gas atomization. These bron ze and
copper powders are intended to be used in self -lu bricating bearing pressing.
CuSn10 was produced by water atomization metho d. Cu powder was also
produced by gas atomizatio n. The s ize of the Cu Sn 10 powder pr oduced by
water atomization was determined as 41.5 μm, and the powder size of the Cu
powder produced by the gas atomization method was deter mined as 41.9 μm.
Figure 4 shows the copper powder ob tained by gas atomization, and Fig ur e 5
shows the bronze image obtained by water atomization. A self -lubricating
bearing was produced by pressing the resulting powders. This product was
subjected to sinterin g at 780 ºC in a pro tective atmosphere mixed with hydrogen
and nitrogen (Urtekin, et al., 2020).

Comlicated

Flaky

Sp herical

Droplet

Flaky

Spherical

Spherical

Droplet

Complicated

Droplet

Spherical

Spherical

Droplet

Droplet

287

Figure 4: Cop per powder produced by gas atomization method (Urtekin, et al. ,
2020)

Figure 5: Image of bro nze powder produced by water atomization method
(Urtekin, et al., 2020)

In the study conducted by Akkaş, Akra, Çetin a n d Boz, AZ31M g alloy
powder was pr oduced by the gas atomization method. In these productions, th e
effect of changing the gas pressure parameter on the po wder shape and size was
examined. In the exp eriments, the alloy was melted at 790 ºC. 5, 15, 25 and 35
bar gas pressu re was used. The nozzle diameter is determined as 2mm. XR D
and XRF analysis were p erformed using a scanning elec tron microscope to see
the shape of the powders and the states of the phases occurri ng in the internal
structure. A laser measuring device was also used to determine powder sizes.
As a result of production by gas atomization, ligamentous, rod -like, droplet-
like, flaky and spherical powder shapes were det ected. As the gas pressure
increased, an increase in flake and spherical struct ures was observed. SEM
images of po wders produced under different gas parameters are shown in
Figure 6. The finest powder was ob tained at 35 bar, which is the highest
pressure. As a result of this study, it was o bserv ed that with the increase in gas
pressure, the powder size decreased and the powder structu res began to take a
spherical shape (Akk aş, et al ., 2018).

288

Figure 6: Powder images o btained with a)5, b)15, c)25 , d)35 bar gas pressure
(Akkaş, et al., 2018)

In the study conducted by Akkaş, Çetin and Boz, Al12Si alloy powder was
produced by the gas atomization method. The aim of the study was to examine
the effects of chang es in temperature, dif ferent no zzle diamet ers and different
gas pressure parameters on powder sha pe and size. As a result of the study, by
reducing the no zzle diameter and increasing the gas pr essure, the powder size
decreased an d the powder structures generally had lig amentous , droplet-lik e,
rod-like and complex shapes. The finest powder was obtained at the hi ghest
pressure of 35 bar (Akkaş, et al ., 20 18).

Droplet

Spherical

Droplet

Droplet

Spherical

Spherical

Ligament

Ligame nt

Ligament

Ligament

Ligament

Ligament

Comlicated

Flakly

289

Figure 7: Production images with a)5, b) 10, c )15, d) 20, e)30, f)3 5 bar gas
pressure (Akkaş, et al ., 2018)

In the study conducted by Küçü k, Öztürk and Kılıçarslan, th e recycling of
lead, which is among the heavi est met als in na ture, was stud ied. In th is study,
waste lead was cooled wit h a cold no zzl e gas ato mization tower and turned into
powder. Powdered lead is con sidered to be used a s a fastener to be used in pipe
connections. At the s ame time, it is ai med to improve the me cha nical p roperties,
corrosion and wear resistance of this product and susta inability. A do uble-sided
press was used to pr ess the powders. The pressing process was do ne with 100
bar pressure. Fig ure 8 shows the optical microscope image aft er pressing. Th e
pro duct, shaped by pressing, was subjected to sintering at 240 ºC for 15
minutes. Figure 9 shows the optical microscop e examinatio n image after
sintering. ( Küçük , et al., 2018)

290

Figure 8: Optical microsc ope image after press ing (Küçük. , et al., 2018)

Fig ure 9: Optical microscop e image after sintering (Küçük, et al., 2018)

In the study con ducted by Li u et al., Fe - Si -B-C-P powders were prod uced by
water atomization method. The morphological structures, chemical
compositions, phases and magnetic properties of the obtained powders are
discussed. Powder structures wer e generally detected as dendritic and spherical,
as shown in Figure 10. Compared to gas atomization, high amounts of oxygen
were ob served in th e powders. It is thought that the Fe content in the m aterial
may increas e magnetization. It has been stated that water atomi za tion is suitable
for industrial applications due to its low cost. (Liu , et al., 2011)

291

Figure 10: App earance of Fe-based powders a) General app earance,
b)Dendritic powders, c) Sp herical powders, d ) Microstructure (Liu, et al., 2011)

In the stud y conduct ed by Aydın and Ünal, nozzle structure, which is one of
the factors affecting the powder structure in powder production by gas
atomization, was emphasi zed. Within th e scope of the stu dy, a supersonic
nozzle with a circular slot was designed. In the study where tin was used as the
metal, exc essive heating was applied up to 430 ºC and production was carried
out with gas pr essures of 0.54, 0.9, 1.23, 1.31 and 1.47 MPa. When the po wder
structures are examined, the powders have a smoo th surface and sphe rical
shape, and the average powder size d 50 is measured to be 11.39μm. As seen in
Figure 11, there are also satellites in th e dust. ( Aydın and Ünal , 2 007)

Figure 11: Tin po wders produced by gas atomization . ( Aydın and Ünal , 2007)

292

In the research conducted by Ak kaş, Çetin and Boz, powders obtaine d with
AM60 metal were examined using the gas atomization method. In this study,
nozzles with diameters of 2, 3, 4, and 5 mm w ere used. In the study where
argon gas was used, it was work ed at 770 ºC and 35 bar gas pressur e. It was
observed that the general shapes of the po wders were rod -like, drop-like,
ligamentous, complex and spherical. As shown in Figure 12, it was determined
that the powder shapes changed into droplet -like and spherical as the nozzle
diameter decreased. (Akk aş, et al. , 201 8)

Figure 12: SEM image of AM6 0 powders (Akk aş, et al. , 2018 )

RESULT
In or der for the sintering and pressing of the products to be more successful,
powders with a spherical structure a re required. Th is is one of the most
important a dvantages of the gas atomization me thod in obtaining spherical
powder. Reducing the cost of glob al powder prod uction is possible by adjusting
the optimum parameters of gas atomi zation variables. It has been observed that
as the gas pressure used in atomizatio n processes increases, the powde r size
decreases and moves from a complex , ligamentous and rod -like structure to a
spherical structure. Literatu re research has sho wn that gas pressure greatly
affects powder structure. At the same time, an increase in hardn ess values was
observed with i nc reasing pressure. However, it has been observed that the effect
of pressure on reducing powder size after a certain level is no t at the desired
rate. Howeve r, it has been determined that th e effect of gas pressure varies
depending on the type of metal used . It has been observed that as the nozzle
diameter decreases by a certain amount, the spherical powder in the powder
content increases.
293

REFERENCES
1. Akkas, M. , Çetin, T., Boz, M., (2018). Al12Si P owder Produ ction an d
Characterization by Gas Atomization Method , Dicle University Journ al
of Engineering , 9 (2 ): 795 -804.
2. Akkaş, M. Çetin, T. , Boz, M. (2018). AM 60 Magnesiu Alloy Powder
Production and Characterization by Gas Atomization Me th od, SDU
International Journal o f Technological Sciences , 10( 3), 1 - 9.
3. Akkas, M. (2019 ). Investigatio n of the Effect of Ga s Pressure on AZ31
Mg Powder Production by Gas Atomization Method, GÜFBED/G UST IJ ,
9(2 ): 215-221.
4. Aydın, M., Ünal., (2007). Metal Po wder Produ ction with a N ew Laval
Type Nozzle Design and Investigation of the Effect of Production
Variables , Makine Teknolo jileri Elektronik Dergisi, 1, 69 - 76.
5. Beddow, J.K. (1978), The Production of Metal Powders by Atomi za tion,
Heyden Press, Philadelp hia.
6. Çetin, T. Akkaş, M . an d Boz, M. (2 019) . Investigation of the effect of g as
pressure on powder charac terization of AM60 magnesium alloy powder
produced by gas atomisation method, Gazi Üniversitesi Mühend islik
Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi , 35 (2), 9 67 -9 78.
7. Donaldsan, C.D., and Snedeker, R. S. (1971). A Study of Free Jet
Impingement, Part1. Mean Pro perties of Free and Impinging Jets, J.
Fluid Mech ., 45(2 )281-319.
8. Grant, N.J. (19 78) . A Rewiev of Various Atomization Processes, in: Rapid
Solidification Processing: Principles and Tech nologies , pp .230- 245 ,
Claitor ’ s Publishing Division, Baton Rouge, LA, USA .
9. Gummeson, P.U. (1972) Modern Atomizing Techniques, Powder Metal ,
15(29), 67 - 94 .
10. Gündeş, A., Yaykaşlı H. v e Özger , H., (202 1). Comparison of Structural
and Thermal Properties of AgCu Alloys Pro duced by Mechanical
Alloying and Newly Dev eloped Gas Atomization Me thod, Bitlis Eren
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi , 10 , 1220 -1231.
11. Küçük, Ö., Öztürk, B., Kılıçarslan M. F., (2018). Production Of Fittings
Materials With Powder Mettalurgy Meth od For Recycling And
Sustainability Of Contaminant Plumbic Material With Gas Atomization,
Karadeniz Chemical Science an d Technology , 2 , 11- 14 .
12. Liu , Y., Niu, S., Li , F.i., Zhu,Y., He, Y. (2011). Preparation of
Amorphous Fe-based Ma gnetic Powder by Water At omization, Powder
Technology, 213 (1 - 3) , 36- 40.
294

13. Sheikhaliev, S . M., and Dun kley, J. J. (1996). A Novel Internal Mix ing
Gas Atomiser for Fine Powder Production, in: Advances in Powder
Metallurgy and Particulate Materials, vol .1 , Part 1 , pp. 16 1-170 MPIF
and APMI International, Princeton , NJ, USA.
14. Urtekin. L, Ünal , R . an d Aydın. Ö. (2 020). Effect of Powd er Processes on
Lubricated Bearings, Dicle University Jo urnal of Engineering , 11 (2),
657 -652.
295

Chapter 20

The response of soil properties to global climate change

Fatma Olcay TOPAÇ 1

INTRODUCTION
Climate change, a gl obal phenomenon, has been an ongo ing process since
the inception of the Earth. Over the last decade, it has evolved into a prominent
subject of both scientific inquiry and political discourse. While di scernible cold
and hot cycles punctuate the Earth's climatic history, the pace of these
alterations has notably accelerated in the past 15 0 -200 years on a global scale
(Fauchereau et al., 20 03). In the contempor ary discourse on environmental
sustainability, the focal ch allenges of climate change and global warming have
risen to promin ence, demanding immediate attention and concerted efforts. The
persistent elevation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) arises from a multifaceted
interplay of human-indu ced activities — such as industrialization , urbanization,
and intensive agricu lture — and natural phenomena like fo rest fires, volcanic
eruptions, and alteration s in vegetation and snow cover. This complex in terplay
instigates unprecedented alterations in the global environment, encompassing
modifications in atmospheric gas composition, spatial and temporal shifts in
global temperatures, and variations in precipitation patterns, as underscored by
Abbass et al.(2022). Attributed to these combined hu man and natural factors,
the average global te mperature has been estimated to have risen by
approximately 1 degree Celsius, with a likely range of 0.8 to 1. 2 degree s
Celsius, compared to the pr e- indu strial period. To avoid exceeding a 1. 5 °C
temperature rise, it is imperative to halve net carbon dioxi de emissions within
the coming decade, with the remaining half mitigated between 2030 and 2050.
Climate mod els indicate that achieving a world with net -zero carbon emissions
by 2055 is crucial for a r ealistic chance of meeting the 1.5 °C target. If this
mi lestone is delayed until around 2070, the glob al warming objective shifts to 2
°C, resulting in graver consequences for human bein gs and exceptional climatic
conditions, resembl ing an apocalyptic scenario (Varghese 202 3). Minor
variations in the overall gl obal temperature can trig ger notable environmental
anxieties, setting the stage for substantial chang es in climate and weather

1 Prof . Dr.; B ursa Uludağ Ün iversitesi Mühen dislik Fakü ltesi Çevre Mühendisliğ i Bölümü.
[email protected] ORCID No: 0000 -0002-6364- 4087
296

SOIL ORGANI SMS
Among the potential impacts of climate change on s oil, th e most significant
considerations pertain to subterranean biodiversity, encomp assing bacteria,
microbes, fungi, microscopic invertebrates, and larger invertebrates lik e
earthworms, ants, and termites. The influence of climate change on soil
biodiversity is twofol d: direct effects stem from alterations in soil temperature
and moisture, while indirect effects arise from changes in vegetation
communities, productiv ity, and the rate of organic matter de composition.
Notably, not all soil biota will experience the same deg ree of impact from
climate change.
In an investigation, the response of soil communities to deliberate warming
(+4 °C) and increased atmospheric CO 2 levels (800 ppm) was examined within
a two-year field experimen t carried out in the boreal forest. The initial year of
the study aimed to assess the effect of t hese simulate d climate change factors on
community composition, wealth of species, diversification and similarity.
Surprisingly, in the first year, exp erimental practices had minimal effects on the
fauna. However, during the second year, oribatid mites exhibited responses to
both warming and elevated CO 2 levels. Additionally, there was an increase in
the richness and diversity of sprin gtails, accompanied by alterations in the
composition of the soil community (Meehan et al., 2020).
The modification of microbial soil respiration rates, induced by global
phenomena like warming, is a direct consequence of the temperature sensitivity
inherent in soil microorg anisms and th e processes th ey mediate. DeAngelis et
al. (201 5) observed that under con ditions of a 5 -degree Celsius temperature
increase in a temperate forest, alterations occurred in the proportional
representation of soil bacteria. Fu rthermore, the community 's bacteria - to -fungus
ratio demonstrated an increase. Elevated atmospheric CO 2 affects soil microbes
by increasing mycorrhizal colonization. CO 2 enrichment is expected to boost
mycorrhizal biomass because plants req uire more nitrogen and phosphorus,
which aligns with in creased carbon assimilation rates. So , at high CO 2 levels,
mycorrhizal bi omass increases as C becomes relatively less limiting and soil
nutrients become more limiting for plant growth (Drigo et al., 20 08).
A study focused on alpine forest ecosystem s employed soil column
experiments to assess the impact of climate chang e on soil microbes. The study
simulated climate warming and cooling, mimickin g temperature changes within
the range of ±4.7°C. The fin din gs indicated that warming induced structural
alterations in microbial communities across all soil layers. Conversely, cooling
did not exhibit a notable influence on the structure of bacterial communities in
the various soil layers (0 –10 cm, 10 –20 cm, and 2 0 –30 cm), but it significantly
303

impacted fung al communi ties throug hout these layers. The study concluded that
variations in soil fungal community structure were primarily driven by soil
moisture con tent and temperature, while soil bacterial community struct ure
exhibited a closer associati on with overall soil cond itions (Fu et al., 2023).

SOIL ACIDIFICATION AND SALINIZATI ON
Climate change, characterized by global warming and al terations in
precipitation patterns, can significantly influ ence soil acidity . Cl imate chang e
often brings more intense and frequent rainfall. Th is increased precipitation can
lead to greater leaching of base cations. Elev ated temperatures linked to climate
change expedite the breakdown of organic material within the soil . Th is process
releases organic acids, further contributing to soil acidity. Faster decomposition
can reduce the buffering capacity of the soil, maki ng it more susceptible to
changes in acidi ty (Gelybo et al., 2018 ; Gupta and Upadhyay, 20 23). In the
investigation assessing pH variations in Tibetan Plateau grassland areas
between 2000 and 2020, alongside temperature, precipitation, and radiation
data, findings revealed that climate change in duced soil alkalinization at depths
of 0-10 cm and soil acidification at depths of 10 -20 cm and 20-30 cm. The
study determined that, under conditions of climate change, soil alkalinization
occurred in 23.71% to 36.84% of the surv eyed regions, while soil acidi fication
was observed in 21.43 % to 45.52% of the examined areas (Sun et a l., 20 23 ).
On the ot her hand, a rise in temperature combined with reduced rainfall can
trigger capillary water movement and the evaporation of groundwater. This
process, as highlighted by Varallyay (2007), may give rise to the accumulation
of salts in the soil, a phenomenon commonly referred to as salinization. In a
study conducted by Khamidov (2022), the salinity dynamics of irrigated lands
in the Khorezm region (Uz bekistan) under the influence of climate change wer e
assessed, and projections for salinity increa ses were made using statistical
methods. Th e results of homogeneity tests indicate that by the year 2100, there
will be an in crease of 32.5% and 15.1% in areas classified a s mod erately and
highly saline, respectively, while areas c lassified a s sl ightly salin e are projected
to decrease by 52.4%. The study concludes that salinity levels across the
examined region will sig nificantly increase as a result of climate ch ange.
In a study conducted by Bann ari and Al-Ali (2020), the enduring impacts of
a 30 -year peri od characterized by escalating temperatures and diminish ing
precipitation were investigated. The results underscored a po sitive correlation
between these climatic changes and soil salinit y, particularly in arid regions
where reduced soil leaching occurs. Mor eover, the ongoing trend of global
warming may intensify salinity con cerns in agricultural lands situated in coastal
304

areas, primari ly attrib uted to the melting of ice she ets and th e conse quent rise in
sea levels. In alignment with these findings, Rahman et al. (2018) ob served a
noteworthy surge in the salinit y rate within coastal agricultu ral regions,
escalating from 1% to 33% o ver the past 25 years.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMME NDATI ONS
In con clusion, th is chapter has prov ided a comprehensive exploration of t he
multifaceted impacts of climate change on soil s. Th e intricate interpl ay between
rising temperatures, unstable precipitatio n patterns, and extraordinary weather
events has been thoroughly examined, sheddi ng light on the intricate dynamics
influencing so il processes. Fro m alterations in soil temperature and moisture
content to the consequential changes in soil structure a nd microb ial activity, the
effects of climate change resonate a cross various layers o f the soil ecosystem.
The studies discussed highlig ht the vulnerability of soils to climatic shifts,
with implicatio ns extendi ng beyond mere changes in physical and chemical
properties. Soil erosion, salinizatio n, and shifts in microbial communities
underscore the far-reaching consequences th at climate chang e imposes on soil
health and fertility. Mo reover, the interconnection between soil health and
broader environmental considerations, such as agriculture, biodiversity, and
ecosystem functioni ng, emphasizes the ur gency of under standing and mitigating
these impacts.
The un certainties inherent in climate change, its impact on long -term soil
dynamics, and the complex interactions with agricultural practices all
emphasize the importance of continued scientific inquiry. To address these
uncertainties and sup port ambitio us goals, future stud ies may focus on the
following areas:
- Investigating how climate change in fluences soil processes over the long
term, includ ing aspects such as nu trient cyclin g, microbial activity, and soil
structure.
-Understanding ho w climate chang e interacts with di fferent agricultural
practices, such as crop rotation, irrigation methods, and soil management
techniques, to identify sustainable and resilient approaches.
-Assessing the consequ ences of variou s adaptation op tions, con sidering
factors such as their effectiveness, economic vi ability, and environmental
sustainability.
-Examining the complex in terplay of factors that affect the outcomes of
adaptation strategies, including socio-economic factors, technological
advancements, and po licy changes.
305

-Investigating how changes in markets, technological advancements, and
policy frameworks can impact soil -related adaptatio n strategies.
By addressing these research areas, scientists can contribute valuable
insights that will inform more effecti v e climate change adaptation strategies,
particularly in the context of soil processes and agriculture. Th is knowledge is
crucial for developing sustainable practices and policies that can mitigate the
adverse effects of climate change on soil health and ensu re food sec urity in the
face of a changing climate.
306

REFERENCES
1. Abbass, K., Qasim, M.Z., Song, H., Murshed, M., Mahmood, H., Youni s,
I. (2022). A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation , an d
sustainable mitigation measures. Environ Sci Po llut Res , 29, 42539 –
42559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1135 6 -022-19718- 6.
2. Abdulle, Y.A., Hussein, M.F., Mohamed, A.M., Mohamud , A.H.,
Osman, A.F.I., Mohamuu d, B.A., Idiris, F.H. (2022). Effects o f soil
erosion on crop productivity in Afgoye, lower Sh abelle -Somalia.
International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences , 12,
115 -122. https://doi.org/10.2 6502/ijpaes.4490136 .
3. Baker, R.E., Mahmud , A.S., Miller, I.F., Rajee v, M., Rasambain arivo, F.,
Rice, B.L., Takahashi, S., Tatem, A.J., Wagner, C.E., Wang, L. F.,
Wesolowski, A. , Metcalf, C.J.E. (2022). Infectiou s disease in an era of
global change. Nat Rev Microbiol , 20, 193 – 205.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579 - 021 -00639- z.
4. Bannari, A., Al-Ali, Z. M. (2020). Assessing climate change impact on
soil salinity dynamics between 19 87 – 2017 in arid landscape usin g
Landsat TM, ETM+ and OLI data. Remote Sensing, 12 :2794.
https://doi.org/10 .3390/rs12172794.
5. Borrelli, P., Robinson, D.A., Panagos, P., Lugato, E., Yang, J.E.,
Alewell, C., Wuepp er, D., Montanarella, L, Ballabio, C. (2020). Land
use and climate change impacts on glob al soil eros ion by water (2015 –
2070). Proc Natl Acad Sci, 117, 36 , 21994 – 22001.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.20014 03117 .
6. Brevik, E.C. (2013).Th e Potential impact of climate change on soil
properties and processes and correspo nding influence on food security.
Agriculture, 3, 3 , 398 -417. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture30 30398.
7. Burt, T., Boardman, J., Foster, I., Ho wden, N. (2015). Mo re rain, less
soil: Long -term changes in rainfall int ensity with climate change. Ea rth
Surf. Process. Land f., 41, 563 -566. https://doi.org /10.1002/esp.3868.
8. de Vente, J., Eekhout, J. (2021). The impact of climate change on soil
erosion: a systema tic review. EGU General Assembly, EGU21-50 08, 19 -
30. https://doi.org/10.5 194/egusphere-egu 21-5008.
9. DeAngelis, K.M., Po ld, G. , Topcuoglu , B.D., van Diepen, L.T.A.,
Varney, R. M. , Blanchard, J. L. , Melillo, J. , Frey, S. D. (2015). Long-term
forest soil warming alters microbial communities in temperate forest
soils. Fronti ers in Microbiol ogy, 6, 104.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015. 00104 .
307

10. Drigo, B., Kowalchuk, G.A., Johannes, A.V. (2008). Climate change
goes un derground: effects of elevated atmospheric CO 2 on microbial
community structu re and activities in the rhizosp her e. Biology and
Fertility Soils , 44, 5 , 667 – 679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374 -008- 0277 -
3.
11. Ebi, K.L., Vanos, J., Baldwin, J.W., Bell, J.E., Hondula, D.M., Errett,
N.A., Hayes, K., Reid, C.E., Saha, S., Spector, J., Berry, P. (2 021).
Extreme we ather and climate change: P opulation health and health
system implications. Annual Review of Public Health, 42,1, 293-315.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev -publhealth-012420 -105026.
12. Eekhout, J.P.C., de Vente, J. (2022). Global impact of climate change on
soil erosion and potential for adapt ation through soil conservation. Earth-
Science Reviews, 226, 103921.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.1 03921.
13. Fauchereau, N., Trzaska, S., Rouault, M., Richard, Y. (2003). Rainfall
variability andchanges in Southern Afr ica durin g the 20th centu ry in the
global warming context. Natural Hazards , 29, 2, 139 – 154.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:102 3630924100 .
14. Fu, F., Li, J., Li, Y., Chen, W., Ding, H., Xiao, S. (2023). Simulating the
effect of climate change on soil microbial comm unity in an Abies georgei
var. smithii forest. Fron t. Microbiol. 14 , 1189859.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2 023.1189859.
15. Garcia- Ruiz, J.M., Begu ería, S., Nadal - Romero, E., González -Hi dalgo,
J.C., Lana- Renault, N., Juán, Y.S. (2015). A meta -analysis of soi l erosion
rates acros s the World. Geomorpho logy, 239, 160-173.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph. 2015.03.008.
16. Gelybo, G., Toth, E., Far kas, C., Horel, A., Bakacsi, Z. (2 018). Potential
impacts of climate change on soil properties. Agrochem. Soil Sci., 67 , 1,
121 -141. https://doi.org/10.1556/0088.201 8.67.1.9.
17. Gupta, S. K., Upadhyay, A. ( 2023 ). Impact of climate change on soil
properties. Vigyan Varta , 4, 12, 122 -127.
18. Jones, A., Stolbovoy, V., Rusco, E., Gentile, A.R., Gardi, C., Marechal,
B., Montanarella, L. (2 009). Climate change in Europe. 2. Impact on
soil. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev , 29, 423 – 432.
https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:20 08067.
19. Karmakar, R. Das, I., Dutta, D., Rakshit, A. (2016). Potential effects of
climate change on soil pr operties: A r eview. Science International, 4, 51 -
73. https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=scii ntl.2016.51.73.
308

20. Khamidov, M., Ishchanov, J., Hamidov, A., Donmez, C., Djumaboev, K.
(2022). Assessment of soil salinity changes under the climate chang e in
the Khorezm region, Uzbekistan. Int J Environ Res Public Health,
19,148794. doi: 10.33 90/ijerph19148794.
21. Link, S.O., Smith, J.L., Halverson , J.J., Bolton, H., Jr. (2003). A
reciprocal transp lant exp eriment within a climatic gradient in a semiarid
shrub-steppe ecosyste m: Effects on bu nchgrass growth and repro duction,
soil carbon, and soil nitrogen. Glob. Change Biol., 9, 1097 – 1105.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365 -2486 .2003.00647.x.
22. McMichael, A.J. (2015). Extreme weather events and infectious disease
outbreaks. Virulence, 6, 6 , 543 -5477.
https://doi.org/10 .4161/21505594.2014.975022.
23. Meehan, M.L., Barreto, C., Turnbull, M.S., Bradl ey, R.L., Bellenger,
J.P., Darnajoux, R., Lin do, Z. (202 0). Response of soil fauna to simulated
global change factors depend s on ambient climate condit ions.
Pedobiologia, 83, 150672.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedobi.202 0.150672.
24. Ostle, N. J., Levy, P . E., Evans, C. D., Smith, P. (2009). UK land use and
soil carbon sequestration. Land Use Policy, 26, S274 – S283.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009 .0 8.006.
25. Papalexiou, S.M., Montanari A. (2019). Global and regional increase of
precipitation extremes under global warming . Water Resour. Res., 55, 6,
4901 -4914. https://doi.org/10.102 9/2018WR024067.
26. Pareek, N. (2017). Climate change impact on soils: adap tation and
mitigation. MOJ Ecolog y & Environ mental Science, 2, 3 , 136‒139.
https://doi.org/10 .15406/mojes.2017.02.00026.
27. Patil, A., Lamnganbi, M. (201 8). Impact of climate change on soil
health: A review. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 6, 3, 2399 -
2404.
28. Rahman, A. K. M. M., Ahmed, K. M., Butler, A. P., Ho que, M. A.
(2018). Influence of surface geo logy and micro -scale land use on the
shallow sub surface s alinity in deltaic coastal areas: A case from
southwest Bangladesh. Environ. Earth Sci, 77, 423.
https://doi.org/10 .1007/s12665- 018 -7594- 0.
29. Reshotkin, O.V., Khudyakov, O.I. (2019). Soil temperature response to
modern climate change at fo ur sites of different latitude in the European
part of Russia. IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth En viron. Sci., 368, 012040.
https://doi.org/10 .1088/1755-1315/368 /1/012040.
309

30. Sun, W., Li, S., Zhang, G., Fu, G., Qi, H., Li, T. (2023). Effects of
climate change and anthropogenic activities on soil pH in grassland
regions on the Tibetan Plateau. Global Ecology and Con servation, 45 ,
e02532. https://doi.o rg/10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02532.
31. Varallyay, G . (200 7). Potential impacts of climate change on a gro-
ecosystems. Agricultu rae Conspectus Scientificus , 72, 1, 1- 8.
32. Varallyay, G. (2010). The impact of climate change on soil s and on their
water management. Agron omy Research, 8 (Special Issue II), 385 – 396.
33. Varghese, S. (2023). Future of Climate Chan ge. In: Landesz, T.,
Varghese, S., Sargsyan, K. (eds) Future Intellig en ce. Future of Business
and Finance. Springer, Cham. https://d oi.org/10.1007/978 -3-031-36382-
5_7.
34. Wan, Y., Lin, E., Xiong, W. Li, Y., Guo, L. (2011). Modeling the impact
of climate ch ange on soil organic carbon stock in upland soils in the 21st
century in China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. , 141, 23 – 31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.02 .004 .
35. Wang, Y., Jiang, Z., Zhou, D., and Gong, Z. (2022). Evaluation and
analysis of observed soil temperature data over Northwest China. Open
Geosciences, 4, 1 , 1562-1576. ht tps://doi.org/10.1515/geo -2022-0376.
36. Wasan, J.P. M., Wasan, K.M. (2023). Effects of climate change on soil
health resultin g in an increased glob al spread of neglected tropical
diseases. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 17, 6, e0011378.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pntd.0011378.

310

Chapter 2 1
Modeling and Simulation of Fuzzy Logic MPPT Method for
Photovoltaic DC/DC Boost Converter
Yasemin Ö NAL 1
Abstract:
Nowadays, in many countries that ai m to use clean energy, high amounts of
energy are saved with PV panel systems, while gas emission that harm the
environment are reduced. However, th e performance of the photovoltaic panel
system changes with system designs, technological developments and variable
environmental conditions such as temperature and irradiation, which reduces the
efficiency of the system. T o increase the efficiency of the system a nd to reduce
cost of the system, PV pan els must be o perated at the maximum power poin t. In
this study, modeling and simulation studies of the fuzzy logic MPPT method
were carried ou t to increase the system efficiency by operating the PV panel fed
DC/DC boost converter at the maximum power point under variable temperature
and irradi ation. Modeling, simulation and verification of the me thod used were
carried out in the MATLA B/Simulink program. The simulated circuit consists o f
PV pan el system, DC/DC boost converter, fuzzy logic control block and
measurement blocks. Solar irradiation intensity was applied to the panel input as
600W/m 2 , 800W/m 2 and 10 00W/m 2 , and the ambient temperature was 25 °C.
While 380V constant voltage is obtained at the PV panel ou tput, 550V, 62 0V and
700V are obtained respectively at the boost converter output . Throughout the
simulation, system effi ciency was achi eved at 94.5% and abo ve. The results
obt ained show that the photovoltaic system with the fuzzy logic MPPT method
monitors the maximum power point with high efficiency in changing
environmental conditions.
Keywords : MPPT method , PV system, Fuzzy logic algorithms, DC/DC boost
converters.
1 Doç. Dr.; Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University Elect ric -El ectronic Eng ineering Department, Gulumbe Campus,
Bilecik, Turkey, yasemin.on [email protected] , ORC ID ID: 0000 -0003-0173- 0948
311

INTRODUCTION
Todays technol ogy is largely dep endent on fossil fuels as an energy source fo r
heating, production, transportation and all ot her activities. However, the use of
fossil fuels causes an increase in costs due to the decrease in fuels such as oil and
natural gas with limited reserves, and causes har mful emissions and negative
effects of greenhouse gases on the environment as a result of burning f ossil fu els.
Due to the drawbacks of using fo ssil fuels, renewable energy sources such as
wind, solar, geothermal an d biomass have begun to be used. Ph otovoltaic (PV)
systems, which convert solar energy into electricity and provide environmentally
friendly and sustainable energy production, have an important pla ce among
renewable energy sou rces. However, achieving the ma ximum power ou tput of
PV systems is a challenging process du e to the in fluence of environmental factors
such as variable solar irradiation levels and temperature (Benner and Kazmerski,
1999:9).
The current and voltage characteristics and the power and voltage
characteristics ob tained from the PV panel system have only one maximum
power point (MPP). In addition, the location of the MPP changes according to
the changing solar ir radiation level, temperature level and environmental
conditions such as clouds, rain, snow, dust and humidity. The power inequality
between sources and load characteristics restricts the maximum power draw from
the PV panel system, cau sing some large power losses. This reduces the
efficiency of PV panel systems and increases syst em costs (Hepzibah and
Premkumar, 2020 :15).
MPP monitoring in PV systems increases efficiency by ensuring that the panel
operates at the optimum operating point. Th ere are many traditional MPPT
methods in the literature to achieve this point. S ome of these traditional methods
are Perturb -and-Observe (P&O) (Jubaer and Zainal , 2015:1 2; Alik and Juso h ,
2017:12), hill climbing (Saharia and Saharia, 2016 :9 ), incremental conductance
(IC) (Safari and Mekhilef, 2010:8) and incremental resistance metho d (Mei et al .,
2010:8). Traditional methods usually use fixed measurement techniques or some
optimized algo rithms. However, these methods are limited in their ability to
provide stable perfo rmance under variab le weather con ditions and variable solar
radiation, and the system ef ficiency is greatly reduced (Dadfar et al., 2 019:19 ).
In order to solve these problems in the literature, ar tificial neural netwo rk
(ANN) (Elobaid 2015:21; Fathi and Parian, 2021:11), fuzzy lo gic (FL) (Nabipour
et al., 2017:23; Al Nabulsi and Dhaouadi, 2012:12), artificial intelligence-based
methods such as neuro-fuzzy (NF) (Hassan et al., 2017:16) and genetic algo rithm
(GA) (Joshi and Arora , 2017:24; Had ji et al., 2015:15) hav e been dev eloped
(Seyedmahmoudian et al., 2016:21) . The MPPT method usin g a fuzzy neu ral
312

fixed at 25 ° C, the decrea se in irradiance greatly reduces the current of th e PV
panel. However, when the irradiance valu e decreases, the PV panel voltage
changes very little. PV panel system parameters us ed in the study are given in
Table 3.1.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.3 . (a) Variable ir radiance I-V characteristic, (b) Variable irradiance P -
V characteristic,

319

Table 3.1. PV panel syste m parameters
Parameters

Value

Maximum power , P max

3060W

Current at point MPP I mpp

24.96A

Voltage at point MPP V mpp

122.6V

Short circuit current, I sc

26.85A

Open circuit voltage, V oc

151.2V

I-V and P -V curves fo r different temper ature values a re shown in Figure 3.4 .
As can be seen from the fig ure, when the solar irradiation is constant at
1000 W/m 2 and the panel temperature increases, the voltage of th e PV panel
decreases. However, when the temperature value increases, the PV panel current
changes very little.

(a)
320

(b)
Figure 3.4. (a) Variable temperature I-V characterist ic, (b) variable temper ature
P-V characteristic

SYSTEM SIMULAT ION AND RESULTS
The simulatio n of the PV DC/DC b oost converter was carried out in th e
MATLAB/ simulink environment using the FL MPPT algorith m. The po wer
circuit of the PV panel system and DC/D C boost converter is seen in Figure 4.1 .
In the first stage of modeling, it is necessary to select the PV panel and determin e
the parameters. At this stage, the PV pan el “ So ltec 1STH -215p ” model was
selected. The parameters of the panel are shown in Table 4.1 . In order to ob tain
the desired voltage level and power from the PV panel system, it must be
converted into a module. For this purpose, a total of 24 panels were used, 12
panels in series and 2 panels in parallel. Th e total power of the created panel
system is 5115.6 W, current is 15.68 A and voltage is 4 35.6 V.

Table 4.1 . PV panel para meters used in DC/DC boost converter
Panel ID

MPP P mpp
(W)

I sc
(A)

V oc
(V)

MPP I mpp (A)

MPP V mpp
(V)

Soltec 1STH-215p

213.15

7.84

36.3

7.35

29

321

Figure 4.1 . PV panel system and DC/D C boost converter power circuit

By connecting a capacitor parallel to the PV panel sy stem output, the vol tage
produced in the PV panel is transferred to the capacito r. The voltage on the inpu t
capacitor is amplified at the DC/DC boost converter output and transferred to the
output capacitor and th e load. The PWM switching signal of the IGBT used in
the boost converter is produced at the output of the FL control circuit and the DC
voltage is increased at the outp ut of the boost converter. Curr ent and voltage
information of the PV panel was used f or th e FL control circuit. The power is
calculated and its previous value is subtracted from t he current valu e. Then, th e
error signal was produce d by subtracting th e previous value from the current
value and dividing it. Error and error change were applied as input to th e FL block
and comparison was made according to the fuzzy logic rules seen in Table 4. 2.
The signal obtained at the output of t he FL block was used to gener ate the PWM
signal.

Table 4.2 . Fuzzy logic rule table

322

Figure 4.2 shows FL control and measurement block s. Her e, FL block was
created to obtain the duty ratio and D C/ DC PWM block was used to obtain PWM
signals. Th e op timum load poin t required to operate the PV pan el in MP P un der
the environmental conditions must be found, it must be operated at this load point
and the active switch in the boost converter must be triggered at this angle valu e.
Solar irradiation applied to th e system, temperature, PV panel curren t I PV and
voltage V PV , boost converter ou tput current I out and voltage V out , P V panel ideal
power P id eal , PV panel po wer P P V and bo ost converter po wer P out are obtained
using the measurement block,

Figure 4.2 . FL control and measu rement blocks of the PV fed DC/DC bo ost
converter

Current and voltage signals were obtained at the PV panel output and boost
converter output from th e MATLAB simulatio n for different irradiance an d
constant temperature values . Figure 4.3 shows the irradi ation and temperatur e
signal shapes. Solar irradiation was chan ged to 600 W/m 2 at 0s, 80 0 W/m 2 at 0.5s
and 1000 W/m 2 at 1 s, and the temperature v alue was kept constant at 25 °C.

323

Figure 4.3 . Different irradiance and con stant temperature signals app lied to the
PV panel input

Figure 4.4 shows the PV pan el voltage and current sign als, and the current
and vo ltage signals obtained at the boost converter output. As can be seen in th e
graphics, 380V constant vo ltage is obtained at the PV panel o utput, while 550V,
620V and 700V are obtained at the boost converter outp ut, respectively,
depending on the amount of irradiation applied to the panel.

Figure 4.4 . PV panel vol tage and current signals, boost conv erter voltage and
current signals

Figure 4.5, PV panel ideal po wer, PV panel po wer and boost con verter output
power signals are given. PV ideal power varies between 3000W, 4000W and
5100W, respectively, depending on different irradiation intensity values. The
power obtained from the PV panel and the boost converter power follow the ideal
power of th e PV panel thanks to the FL MPPT algo rithm. Additionally, the

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5

324

efficiency for the system was also calculated. Throughout the simulation, the
circuit operates at an efficiency of ov er 94.5%. Havin g less fluctuatio n in the
signals is a desired situation for the FL con troller, and the desired situation has
been achieved. It has been observed that the boost converter works and follows
the maximum power point of the FL MPPT method using the FL algorithm.

Figure 4.5 . PV panel ideal po wer, PV panel power and boost con verter power
signals for different irradiance and constant temperature values

RESULTS
In th is stud y, in order to operate the PV panel fed DC/DC boost converter at
the maximum power point, the fuzzy logi c MPPT method was modeled under
three different irradiation severity and simulation studies were carried ou t.
Matlab/Simulink was used for modeling and simulating. The responses of the P V
panel system under changing irradiance and constant temperature were ob served.
The total power of the created panel system is 5115.6 W, current is 15.68 A, and
voltage is 435. 6 V. While 38 0V constant voltage is obtained at the PV panel
output, 550V, 620V and 700V are obtained respectively at the boost con verter
output, depending on th e amount of irradiation app lied to the panel. PV ideal
power varies between 3000W, 4000W and 5100W, respectively, depending on
different irradiation intensity values. The po wer obtained from the PV panel and
the boost converter power follow the ideal power of the PV panel thanks to the
FL MPPT algorithm. The MPP detectio n efficiency of the FL MPP T method was
obtained as 94.5% and above. It proves that in the presence of changes in solar
irradiance, the FL MPPT method performs well and extracts the maximum power
from the PV panels.

325

REFERENCES
1. Benner, J. P., and Kazmerski, L. (1999). Photovoltaics gaining greater
vi sibility. IEEE Spectr., 29, 3 4- 42.
2. Hepzibah, A., and Premkumar, K. (2020). ANFIS curren t – voltage
controlled MPPT algorithm for solar po wered brush less DC motor based
water pump. Electrical En gineering , 102 (1), 421-435.
3. Jubaer, A., and Zain al, S. (2015). An improved perturb and observe (P&O)
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm for higher efficiency.
Appl. Energy. 150, 9 7 – 108.
4. Alik, R., and Jusoh, A. (2017) , Modified Perturb and Observe (P&O) with
checking algorithm under various solar irradiation. Sol. Energy , 148, 128 –
139.
5. Saharia, B. J., and Saharia, K. K. (2016). Simulated study on nonisolated
DC -DC converters for MPP tracking for photovoltaic po wer systems.
Journal of Energy Engineering , 142(1), 04015001.
6. Safari, A., and Mekhilef, S. (2010). Simulation and hardware
implementation of incremental conductance MPPT with di rect contro l
method using cuk converter. IEEE T. Ind. Electr. 58(4 ), 1154 -1161 .
doi:10.1109/TIE.2010. 2048834.
7. Mei, Q., Shan, M., Liu, L., and Guerrero, J. M. (2010). A novel improved
variable step-size incremental-resistance MPPT metho d for FV systems.
IEEE T. Ind. Electr. 58(6), 242 7 -2434. doi:10.1109/TIE.2010. 2064275.
8. Dadfar, S., Wakil, K., Khaksar, M., Rezvani, A., Miveh, M. R., and
Gandomkar, M. (2019). Enhanced control strategies for a hybrid
battery/photovoltaic system using FGS -PID in grid-con nected mode.
International journal of hydrogen en ergy, 44 (29), 14642-14660.
9. Elobaid, L. M. Abdelsala m A. K., and Zakzouk E. E. (2015). Artificial
neural network -based photovoltaic maximum power po int tracking
techniques: A survey . IET Renew. Power Generat., 9 (8), 1043 – 1063.
10. Fathi, M., and Parian, J. A. (2021). Intelligent MPPT for photovoltaic
panels using a novel fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks based on
evolutionary algorithms. Energy Reports, 7, 1338-1348.
11. Nabipour, M. , Razaz, M., Seifossadat, S. , and Mortazavi, S. (2017). A new
MPPT scheme based on a novel fuzzy approach. Renew. Su stain. Energy
Rev., 74 , 1147 – 1169.
12. Al Nabulsi, A., and Dhaouadi, R. (2012). Efficiency optimization of a
DSP-based standalon e FV system using fuzzy logic and dual - MPPT
control. IEEE Transaction s on Industrial informatics , 8(3), 573 -584.
326

13. Hassan, S.Z., Li, H. , Kamal, T., Arifoğlu, U. , Mumtaz, S., and Khan, L.
(2017). Neuro-Fuzzy Wavelet Based Adaptiv e MP PT Algorithm for
Photovoltaic Systems. En ergies, 10 , 394.
14. Joshi, P., and Arora, S. (2017). Maximum power point tracking
methodologies for solar FV systems – A review. Renewab le and
Sustainable Energy Reviews , 70 , 1154-1177.
15. Hadji, S., Gaubert, J. P., and Krim, F. (2015). Theoretical and exp erimental
analysis of genetic algorith ms based MPPT for FV systems. Energy
Procedia , 74 , 772-787.
16. Seyedmahmoudian, M., Horan, B., Soon, T. K., Rahmani, R., O, A. M. T.,
Mekhilef, S., and Stojcevski, A. (2016). State of the art artificial
intelligence-based MPPT techniques for mitigatin g partial shading effects
on FV systems – a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 64,
435 – 455.
17. Gani, A. (2021). Imroving dynamic efficiency of photovoltaic generation
systems using adaptive type 2 fuzzy -neurol network via EN 50530 test
procedure. International Jou rnal of Circuit Theory and Application s,
49 (11), 3922-3940.
18. Mao, M., Cui, L., Zhang, Q., Guo, K., Zhou, L., and Huang, H. (2020) .
Classification and summarization o f solar photovoltaic MPPT techn iques:
A review based on traditional and intelligent control strategies. Energy
Reports, 6, 1312 -1327.
19. Nadia, A. R., Isa, N. A. M., and Desa, M. K. M. (2018). Advances in solar
photovoltaic tracking systems: A revi ew. Renewable and sustainable
energy reviews , 82, 2548 -2569.
20. Bollipo, R. B., Mikkili, S., and Bonthagorla, P. K. (2020). Critical review
on FV MPPT techniques: classical, intelligent and optimisation . IET
Renewable Power Generation , 14(9), 1433-1452 .
21. Yilmaz, U., Kircay, A., and Borek ci, S. (2018). FV system fuzzy logic
MPPT method and PI control as a charge controller. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews , 81, 994-1001.
22. Tsai, H. L., Tu , C. S., and Su , Y. J. (2008). Developme nt of generalized
photovoltaic mod el usin g MATL AB/SIMULINK. In Proceedings of the
world congress on En gineering and computer science, 1 -6.
23. Tutorial, PSIM. How to Use So lar Module Physical Mo del. Powersim Inc ,
Accessed on 25 November 2019.

327

Chapter 2 2
Results and Suggestions Regarding Cutting For ces, Surface
Rough ness An d T ool W ear In T urning Inconel 718 With Differ ent
Cutt ing T ools
Abdulla h AL TIN 1
ABSTRACT
In th is stud y , to ol life, cuttin g for ces and surface roughness , which are
machinability parameters, were taken int o accou nt in evaluatin g the
machinability of In con el 71 8 superallo y . In stock remov al experiment s, silicon
nitrid e based ceramic (KY 20 00 RNGN, KY 21 00 S NGN), whisk er reinfo rced
(Al2O3+SiC w) aluminum oxid e based cera mic ( KY 43 00 RNGN, KY 43 00
SNGN), CV D coated cement ite carbid e (KC 93 5 SCMT , KC 9225 ). SCMT ,
SECO 56 0 RCMT) and uncoated tungst en carbid e (SECO 88 3 RCMM) cutting
tool s were us ed. Th e selec ted parameter s wer e con st ant feed (f=0.20mm/re v .),
con stant dept h of cut (d=2 mm ), and dif f erent cutting speeds (V=15 , 30, 45, 60,
75 m/min . fo r carbid es, ceramics). fo r V=150, 20 0, 250, 30 0 m/min.). An
evaluation was m ade by takin g int o account th e wea r pattern s on cutting tools
and th eir causes , th e cutti ng forces acting when cutting th e ma terial, t he resulting
surface roughness values and chip shap es. As a result, op timum machining
condi tions fo r both cerami c and carbid e tool s were t ried to be determined for
Incon el 71 8 mat erial. In th is stud y , th ree criteria were taken as ba sis in
determining th e effect of cutting variables on to ol life . These;
1-T ool wear and tool life
2- Cutting forces and cutting power
3- It is the surface roughn ess or the quality of the processed surface.
While evaluating the machinability , the surface quality of the processed
material was taken as the main criterion to reveal the perfo rmance of the cutting
tool used . For example, if processing is to be done based on surface quality , a
better quality surface was formed in the whisker-reinforced alumin um oxide
(Al2O3+SiCw) ceramic tool (KYON 4300 SNGN), although the to ol life was
shorter , at a cutting speed of 15 0 m/min. On the contrary , in cases where surface
quality is con sidered secondary , V=25 0 m/ min. wi th whisker reinforced
1 Prof. Dr . Abdullah AL TIN; Y uzuncu Yıl University , V an V ocational of Higher Schoo l, Mechanical and Metal
T echnology Department. V an/Turkey , [email protected] .tr ORCID No:0000 - 0003 -4 372-8272
328

7. Refer ences
Richards, N., Aspin wall, D., “Use of ceramic to ols for machining ni ckel -based
alloys”, Int. J. Mach. t ools Manuf. , 294, 575-588 (1989).
Ezugwu, E. O., W ang, Z. M., “Performance of PVD and CVD coated tools when
nickel-based machining Inconel 718 all oy”. IN: N.Narutaki et al. Progress
of Cutting and Grinding 1 1 1 , 102 -107 (1996).
W ang, Z. M., Ph.D Thesis, South Ba nk University , L ondon, pp78,79(1997).
Khamsehzadeh, H., “Behaviour of ceramic cutting tools when machining
superalloys”, PhD Thesis, pp125 (1991).
Bhattacharya, S. K., Pashby , I. R., Ezugwu, E. O., “Machining of INCO 718 and
INCO 901 superalloys with Sic -whisker reinforced Al 2 O 3 composite
ceramic tools”, Prod. En g , Osaka, 176-18 1 (1987).
Moltreacht, K. H., “T ool failure when turning nickel base high temperatur e
alloys”, ASME T echnical Paper series no. 637 , Presented at Ann ual
Meeting, Detroit, 1 -31 (April 1964).
Ezugwu, E. O., Pashb y , I. R., “High speed milling of nickel -based superalloys”.
J.Mater Proc.technol. 3 , 429- 437 (1992).
Lee, M., Horne, J. G., T abor , D., “The mechanism of no tch formation at dept of
cut line of cer amic tools machining nickel -base superalloys”, Pr oc. 2nd
Int Conf , W ear Material s Dearborn, MI, 460 -464 (1979).
Shaw , M. C., Thurman, A. L., Ahlgren, H. J., “A plasticity problem impro ving
plain strain and plain stress simultaneously: Groove formation in the
machining of high temperature alloy s”, T rans. ASME (series B), J. Eng.
Ind. , 88-2, 142-146 (1966).
Choudhury , I. A., El-Baradie, M. A., “Ma chinability of nickel base super alloys:
a general review”, Proc. Advances in Materials and Processing
T echnologies AMPT '95 , Du blin, Ireland, vol. III, 1 405-1413 (1 995).
Suh, N. P ., “New theories of wear and their implications for tools materials”,
W ear , vol. 62, 1-20, Abstract INSPEC/ Abstract -FLUIDEX (198 0).
Anon, “Cutting T ool Innovations from Carboloy Systems”, Metal Powder Report
No. 39 , 41 1-412 (July 1984).
Niemi, R.M., “Integrity prediction”, SME T echnical Paper , Dea rbon, Michigan,
pp46 (1971).
Bhattacharya, S. K., Jawaid, A., Lewis, M. H., W allbank, J., “W ear me chanism
of sialon ceramic tools when machining nickel based materials”, Metals
T echno. 10 , 71-74 (Dec. 1983) .
Chow , C. B., Liu, Y . H., Miao, H. C., Lo, Z. P ., “Investigation on the cutti ng
performance of silicon nitride ceramic too ls” , Int. Conf. on Manu. Eng ,
Melbourne, Australia, 71-74 (Aug. 1980).
335

Reckling, K. S., “New cutting tool tames tough metals”, T ooling Prod. , 47, 74-
79 (1981).
Baker , R. D., “High-velocity cutting tools: Application guid elines”, Proc .
Biennial Int. Mach. T ool T ech. Con , McLean, V A, 487-52 9 (Sept 1982).
Ezugwu, E. O., Machado, A. R., Pashby , I. R., W allbank , J., “The e f fect of high -
pressure coolant supply”. Lub. Eng. , 47 9, 751-757 (1990).
Kramer , B. M. , Hartun g, P . D., Proc. Int. Con f. Of Cutting T ool Mat , Fort
Mitchell, K,Y , 57-74 (1980).
Focke, A. E., W estermann, F . E., Eemi, A., Y avelak, J., Hoch, M. , “Failure
mechanism of sup erhard materials wh en cutting superalloys”, Proc. 4th
Int.-Am.Conf. , China, A 268-296 (April 1991).
Al -T or nachi, M. J. K., Dugdale, D. S., Proc. 18th MTD R Con f , 523- 528 (1977).
Itakura, M., Kuro da, H., Omokawa, H ., Itani, K., Y amamoto,Y ., Ariura, “W e ar
mechanism of coated cemented carpide tool in coated in cutting of Inconel
718 super heat resisting alloy ”, International Jo urnal of Japanese Society
for Precision Engineering 334, 326-333 (December 1999).
Prengel, H. G., Jindal., P . C., W endt, K. H., Santhanam, A. T ., Hedge, P . L., Penich,
R.M., “A new class of high performance PVD c oatings for carbide cutting
tools”. Surface and Co atings T echnolog y 139, 25-34 (2001).

336

Chapter 2 3
Contact Mechanics of Functionall y Graded Orthotropic
Materials : Semi-Analytical Solution for Rigid Punch Loading
E rdal ÖNE R 1
Ahme d Wasfi Hasan A L-QADO 2
ABSTRACT
Contact mechani cs has consistently been a significant field of study in the
realm of elasticity theory, since it has been utilized to address a diverse
range of engineering problems. Due to the fact that changing the gradient of
material characteristi cs permits to alte r contact stresses and , consequently, to
minimize surface-related damages, contact mechanics analysis of
functionally graded materials (FGMs) is of major relevance. This study
focused on handling t he continuous contact problem of a fu nctionall y graded
(FG) orthot ropic layer th at is in contact with a rigid found ation. The analy sis
was conducted using the principles of linear elasticity th eory. The solution
incorporates the considerat ion of the body force acting on the layer. In order
to apply normal concentr ated load to the FG orthotro pic layer, a rig id
cylindrical punch was used. Over the course of the thickn ess of the FG
orthotropic layer, it was presumed that the elastic stiffnes s constants
exhibited an expon ential variation. Th e Gauss – Chebysh ev integratio n
formulas are employ ed to achieve the numerical solutio n for the singular
integral equation. Th e main goal of this stud y is to examine the in fluence of
several factors, such as punch radius, indentation load, and the
inhomogeneity parameter of the FG orthot ropic layer, on both contact stress
and contact length.
Keywords – Contact mechanics, functio nally graded materials,
orthotropic layer, rigid founda tion, theory of elasticity
INTRODUCTION
1 Assoc. Prof. ; Bayb urt University Faculty of Engin eering, Departmen t of Civil Eng ineering .
eoner@baybu rt.edu.tr ORCID No: 0000 -0001-7492-3754
2 Graduate student ; Bayburt University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Eng ineering .
[email protected] ORCID No: 0000 - 0002 - 4609 -5047
337

Contact problems have remained a pivotal area in engineering f or ov er
150 years. In 1882, Hertz initiated a new era in the realm of contact
mechanics. Engineering disciplines deriv e advantages from un derstanding
the contact leng ths and stress distributions of materials, since it facilitates the
production of materials with more ease and reliability. Contact mechanics
found use in many technical con texts, in cluding highways, braking disks,
airport superstructures, trains, foundations, grain silos, fuel tanks , and
clutches. Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are compo site materials
consisting of two or more con stituent ph ases, characterized by continuous
and smooth spatial gradients in both composition and microstructure.
Because of their exceptio nal thermal, mechanical, optical, and electric al
capabilities, FGMs are now extensively utilized in a variety of technical
applications. These include tribology, nanotechnolo gy, thermal barrier
coatings, and biomechanics.
In the existing body of literature, numerous studies have been conducted
to explore the behavio r of FGMs in contact mechanics scenario s. These
investigations have employed diverse solu tion method s, geometric
conditions, variations in loading, and material distributions.
Singh et al. (2007:155) examined the dynamic response of FG
piezoelectric materials subjected to both anti -plane mechanical loading and
in -plane electrical loadin g. Barik et al. (200 8:775) explored the static plane
contact between FG heat-con ducting punch and a ri gid insulated half -space.
Choi (2009:27 03 ) investigated the contact mechanic s invo lving a FG layer
that experiences loading from a fl at punch with frictional sliding.
Shahzamanian et al. (2010:1591) conducted an analysis of the thermoelastic
contact prob lem associated with a rotating brake disk made of FG material.
The study considered the presence of a heat source in duced by contact
friction. Trubchik et al. (201 1:1754) studied the contact problem associated
with th e layer, examining instances where the elastic prop erties of the
medium vary as arbitra ry continuously differentiab le funct ions of its
thickness. Volkov et al. (2013:1 96 ) investigated a contact problem within the
theory of elasticity, specifically addressing the penetration of a circular
indenter with a flat base into a compliant FG elastic layer. Nikb akht et al.
(2014:92) conducted a study on the elastic contact i nvolving a FG plate of
finite dimensions, characterized by a continuous variation of material
properties, and subjected to the indentation of a rigid spherical indenter.
Çömez (201 5:339) examined a contact problem inv olving the motion of a
rigid cylindrical pu nch and a FG la yer. Adıyaman et al. (201 6:1753)
explored the scenario of a frictionless receding contact in the plane problem,
338

focusing on an elastic FG layer pressed against two ho mogeneou s qu arter
planes. Güler et al. (20 17:12 ) studied the frictional contact problem in the
plane, focusing on a cylindrical punch interacting with a FG orthotropic
medium. Polat et al. (2018:3565) solved the con tinuous contact pr oblem of a
FG layer po sitioned on an semi-infinite plane, subjected to loadin g from two
distinct blocks. Balci and Dag (2019:267) introduced an analytical method
designed fo r exploring the dynamic frictional contact mechanics between a
FG coating and a moving cylin drical punch. Öner and Birinci (2020:2799)
explored the discontin uous contact problem involvi ng a FG layer lo aded by a
rigid block. Çömez and Omurtag (2021:3937 ) focused on the frictionless
plane contact pr oblem between a rig id punch and a FG orthotropic layer
situated on a Pasternak foundation within the bounds of linear elasticity
theory. Karabulut and Çömez (2023:e202200427) investigated the scenario s
of continuous and discontinuous contact in a FG orthotropic laye r,
positioned over a homogeneou s and isotropic layer.
In this study, the continuous co nt act problem of a FG orthotropic layer
resting on a rigid foundation was examined using elasticity theory , while
considering the body force exerted by th e functionally gr aded orthotropi c
layer.

ANALYTICAL FORMU LATION OF THE CONTACT P ROBLEM
Figure 1 depicts the schematics addressing the considered problem. The
orthotropic layer has a thickness denoted by h . The orthotropic layer is
considered to have functional gradin g as part of the assumptio n. The layer is
subjected to a no rmal force, represented as P , applied th rough a rig id
cylindrical-profile pu nch. Contact between the punch and th e layer occurs
within the interval (-a, +a) .

Figure 1: The problem's geometric conf iguration and loading condition
339

In Fig. 1, the elastic stiffness constants C ij (z) exhibit exponential variation
through the layer's thickness, characterized as fo llo ws:

(
1)

where the inho mogeneity parameter, den oted as β , is featured in the
context. The stiffness con stants at the bottom surfac e of the FG layer ar e
denoted by C ij0 .
The boundary conditions governing the con tinuous contact problem
presented in Fig. 1 can be expressed in the follo wing manner:

(
2)

(
3)

(
4)

(
5)

where the contact length is indicated by a and the function P(x)
represents the contact stress und er the punch.
The boundary conditions (2-5) lead to the derivation of unknown
functions in integral form, expressed in terms of the contact stres s function
P(x) . By utilizing the displacement deriv ative condition associated with the
punch profile, the problem is transformed into a singul ar integral equation,
expressed as follows:

(
6)

where R denot es the punch radiu s. By applying the aforemention ed Eq .
(6) and conducting the necessary asymptotic analyses, the singular integral
equation (SIE) is expressed in the following form:

(
7)

In the singular integral equation (7), the contact length a remains
unknown a prio ri. A complete solu tion requires the function p(  ) to satisfy
the following equilibriu m condition.

(
8)

Following the essential n ormalizations and con sidering that the contact
stresses at the ends of th e con tact area are zero, the in dex of th e integral is
340

set to - 1 (Erdog an et al., 1973 :368). Subsequent in termediate operations lead
to the reduction of the integral equation and the equilib rium conditi on into
the following system of algebraic equati ons:

(
9)

(
10)

where

(1
1a)

(1
1b)

(1
1c)

The N/2+1 th equation in Eq. (9) is sati sfied aut omatically and it is
extracted from Eq. (9). Therefore, Eq s. (9) and (10) togeth er provide N + 1
equations for determining the N +1 unknown s. Due to the nonlinearity in the
system of equations regarding contact length, it is necessary to employ an
it erative procedure for determining the unknown contact lengt h. In the
iterative algo rithm, an initial value for contact len gth is chosen, and N
unknowns are obtained from Eq. (9). Subsequently, the equat ion
extracted in (9) and the equilibrium condition (10) are validated. If the
targeted level of accuracy is not achieved, new values for the contact length
are selected. The loop continues until the contact length meets the desired
accuracy.

RESULTS AND DIS CUSSION
In this section, we present t he nu merical finding s pertaining to the
scenario illustrated in Fig . 1, where a rigid cylindrical punch interacts with
an orth otropic layer composed of functionally gr aded (FG) materials. The
mechanical characteristi cs of the orthotropic materials e mployed in this
study are detailed in (Binienda and Pindera, 1994 :119) .
Fig. 2 illustrates variations in contact length resulting from changes in
both punch radius and indentatio n load. Upo n closer inspection of the figure,
341

it becomes evident that a larger punch radius results in the formation of a
correspondingly larger contact surface with the FG orthotropic layer.
Consequently, this leads to an augmentation in the contact length in this
particular scenario. Another in sight gl eaned from the figure is that an
es calation in the inden tation load facilitates deeper penetratio n of the punch
into the FG orthotropic layer, consequently leading to an increase in contact
length.
Fig. 3 shows the effect of variation in th e inhomogeneity parameter on
contact length. As the inhomogeneity parameter for the functionally graded
layer increases, indicating a gradual increase in rigidity from the bottom to
the top surface of the ort hotropic layer, the con sequence is a redu ction in
contact l ength. Physically, the reduced penetrati on of the pu nch on a stiffer
surface aligns with the ob served outcome.

Figure 2: Effect of p unch radius and indentation lo ad on contact length
(graphite/epoxy (T300/934) , =2, h=1, β=0.5 )

342

Figure 3: Effect of in homogeneity parameter on contact leng th
(boron/aluminum (B/Al), =2, h=1, (P/h)/C 550 =0.005)

Figs. 4 -6 depict alterations in the distribution of contact str ess under the
punch across vario us dimensio nless paramet ers. Upon examination of these
figures, it becomes evident that th e highest stress is concentrated along th e
axis of symmetry, reaching zero at th e end of the contact region.
Fig. 4 illustrates the variations in contact stress distribution under the
punch resulting from changes in punch radiu s. Clearly discernible fro m the
figure is the direct relationship between an increase in punch radiu s and the
corresponding increase in con tact length. This exp anded contact area leads to
a dispersio n of the load over a wider region, consequently causing a
reduction in the peak values o f contact stresses.
In Fig. 5, the effect of variations in indentation load on contact stress
distribution under the punch is demonstrated. As antic ipated, the peak values
of stresses exhib it an increase with increase in pun ch indentation load.

343

Figure 4: Effect of pun ch radius on contact stress dist ribution
(graphite/epoxy (T300/934) , =2, h=1, β=0.5, (P/h )/C 550 =9x10 -3 )

In Fig. 6, the effect of variations in the inhomogeneity parameter of the
FG orthot ropic layer on contact stress distrib ution under the punch is
illustrated. The figure demonstrates th at an increase in the inhomogeneity
parameter, signifying enhanced stiffness from th e bottom to the top surface,
results in a corresponding increase in th e peak values of contact stresses.

Figure 5: Effect of in dentation load on contact stress distrib ution
(graphite/epoxy (T300/934) , =2 , h=1, β=0.5, R/h=80 )
344

compared to other algorithms. The flowchart of the PoW consensus algorithm is
provided in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 PoW Consensus Algor ithm flowchart
PoS is a consensus algorithm that add resses the energy consumptio n and
computational requirements of PoW. Instead of solv ing NONCE pu zzles, PoS
assigns block validation rights based on the number of tokens held by validators.
Validators with a higher stake ha ve a gr eater chance of being selected to verify
transactions and create new block s. The flowchart of the PoS consensus
algorithm is presented in Fig. 2 .
351

[Document text truncated for crawler view.]