THE BIBLICAL ROOTS OF CATHOLIC SOCIAL TEACHING

THE BIBLICAL ROOTS OF CATHOLIC SOCIAL TEACHING
Giuseppe Rugge i
In oduc ion
The body o w i ing known as Ca holic social eaching is o en con ined o he
social encyclicals s a ing wi h Pope Leo XIII’s Re um No a um. The p inciples
expounded in hese encyclicals, howe e , did no suddenly a ise bu we e dis illed
om cen u ies o ai h and adi ion. In ac , we can ade hei o igins in he Old
Tes amen . In his pape , I discuss he biblical sou ces ha o m he ounda ions o
he social eaching o he Chu ch, s a ing wi h he Old Tes amen .
Biblical Roo s: Old Tes amen
On a sunny mo ning, Moses led his a he -in-law Je h o’s he d o sheep and goa s
ac oss he dese all he way o moun Sinai. The e he saw wha appea ed o be a
lame om he cen e o a bush. Ge ing close , he hea d a oice coming om he
middle o he bush, “I am he God o you a he ….I ha e indeed seen he mise y
o my people in Egyp . I ha e hea d hem c ying…and I am conce ned abou hei
su e ing….So I ha e come down o escue hem… So now, go. I am sending you
o Pha aoh o b ing my people he Is aeli es ou o Egyp ….I will be wi h
you….when you ha e b ough he people ou o Egyp , you (plu al) will wo ship
God on his moun ain.”1
“On he i s day o he hi d mon h a e he Is aeli es le Egyp …. hey came o
he dese o Sinai….and Is ael camped he e.”2 Moses wen up o God, and he
Lo d said o him, “This is wha … you ha e o say o he people o Is ael….i you
obey me ully and keep my co enan , hen ou o all na ions you will be my
easu ed possession….You will be o me a na ion o p ies s and a holy na ion.”3
A e Moses epo ed back ha he people o Is ael had accep ed His o e , God
asked Moses o consec a e he Is aeli es h ough i ual cleansing o wo days o
p epa e hem o His isi he ollowing day.4 Moses wen up he moun ain again
wi h his b o he Aa on and ecei ed om God he speci ic condi ions o he
co enan .5
The Mosaic Co enan . This was he hi d co enan o e ed by God. The i s was a
unila e al and uncondi ional p omise om God o Noah a e he lood had
subsided: “I now es ablish my co enan wi h you and you descendan s a e you,
and wi h e e y li ing c ea u e ha was wi h you….e e y li ing c ea u e on
ea h….ne e again will all li e be des oyed by he wa e s o a lood, ne e again
will he e be a lood o des oy he ea h.”6 The i s co enan no only se no
condi ions bu in ol ed all c ea ion.
The second co enan was also unila e al, bu i was mo e a ge ed as i iden i ied
bo h he bene i s o e ed and he bene icia ies. The o me we e speci ic ac s o
land: “To you descendan s I gi e his land, om he Wadi ( i e ) o Egyp o he
g ea i e , he Euph a es.”7 The la e was an iden i iable g oup o people,
Ab aham and his descendan s. “As o me, his is my co enan wi h you: I will
make you e y ui ul; will make na ions o you and kings will come om you….I
will es ablish an e e las ing co enan …. o be you God and he God o you
descendan s.”8 (The condi ions eques ed by God we e ha he Is aeli es would
emain ai h ul o his co enan and be iden i ied by.9
The h ee co enan s men ioned in Genesis and Exodus show a p og ession om
gene ali y o speci ici y. The bene i s e ol e om es ain on he pa o God no o
des oy he ea h wi h loods o he p omise o a land and his o e o be God o a
speci ic people. The unila e al o e in he i s wo co enan s becomes a mu ual
ag eemen in he Mosaic co enan , and he uncondi ional na u e o he i s
co enan is eplaced by a de ailed lis o condi ions in he hi d co enan .
The second and hi d co enan s e ec i ely consec a e he ag icul u al way o li e.
The people o Is ael would inhabi a land o hei own, gi en o hem by he Lo d.
They would se le in his land, hey would wo k i , hey would be ui ul, and om
a small g oup would o m a na ion.
The eplacemen o hun e -ga he e socie ies wi h ag icul u al socie ies in ol es
mo e han a change in economic s uc u es, i ep esen s a pa adigm shi in he
ela ionship be ween humans and na u e. Hun e -ga he e s li e in a wo ld
con olled by na u e. T ees g ow om seeds eely sca e ed on he g ound and
p oduce hei ui wi hou human help. Simila ly, animals a e no domes ica ed
and oam he ea h a will as bo h p eda o s and p ey. Humans do no in e ene in
his na u al cycle o li e. They simply “ha es ” wha hey need o su i al in a
sus ainable manne . In his ype o socie y, he e is no sa ing, no g ow h, and no
weal h accumula ion. The e is sha ing o he “ha es ” o secu e he su i al o he
communi y. In ag icul u al socie ies, pa s o he con ol a e ans e ed om
na u e o humans. Animals a e domes ica ed o se e he needs o humans, ees a e
plan ed whe e humans wan hem, and he land is clea ed o indigenous plan s o
make oom o cul i a ed a ie ies. In his p ocess, e en he landscape is al e ed as
o es s a e ans o med in o a able land, and wa e s a e di e ed om i e s o
i iga e he newly c ea ed ields. Human con ol also allows communi ies o g ow
la ge and e en ually become ci ies, a ans o ma ion ha a ec s no only he
landscape, bu also he economic and social s uc u e and he e olu ion o human
ela ionships.
P ope y Righ s. In ancien Is ael, he de elopmen o an ag a ian socie y occu ed
wi hin he con ex o a special ela ionship wi h he Lo d, an e e las ing co enan
wi h a de ailed se o no ms. An impo an pa o his co enan was he ea men
o p ope y igh s, which had a a ie y o special aspec s.
Fi s , all h ee co enan s es on he undamen al p inciple ha he land upon which
he Is aeli es a e o se le and all ha is ound in i belongs o he Lo d. In he
co enan wi h Noah, he Lo d makes i clea ha he has powe o e all c ea ion. In
he second co enan , God ea i ms his Lo dship o e c ea ion by gi ing a piece o
ea h o Ab aham and his descendan s. He could ha e no o e ed wha was no His.
In he co enan wi h Moses, God ea i ms his owne ship o e he land gi ed o he
Is aeli es: “The land mus no be sold pe manen ly, because he land is mine and you
eside in my land as o eigne s and s ange s.”10 In he ag icul u al socie y o he
chosen people, p i a e owne ship o esou ces was empo a y and always
subo dina e o he will o God, he ul ima e p op ie o .
Second, he land ha he Lo d had p omised Ab aham was gi en exclusi ely o he
Is aeli es. The ins uc ions on how o alloca e he land gi en o Moses a e eco ded
in he book o Numbe s. As a i s s ep, he Lo d asked Moses and his nephew
Eleaza o ake a census o “ he whole Is aeli e communi y by amily – all hose
wen y yea s old o mo e who could be able o se e in he a my o Is ael.”11 Then
He explained how he p omised land should be assigned as “inhe i ance” o he
Is aeli es. The inhe i ance is gi en o each Is aeli e amily h ough he alloca ion o
each ibe. Two di e en ways o alloca ing he land a e epo ed. In he i s one,
“The land will be alloca ed o hem based on he names .…o i s ances al ibe.”12
The o he way is by lo : “Each inhe i ance is o be dis ibu ed by lo among he la ge
and smalle g oups.”13 One way o sol ing his appa en con adic ion is o assume
a wo-s age alloca ion p ocess. The ibes a e i s sepa a ed in o he la ge and
smalle ones and he land is alloca ed o each o hese wo ca ego ies on he basis o
he o al popula ion in each. In he second s ep, he land wi hin each ibe is
dis ibu ed o each amily by lo .
Rega dless o how he alloca ion was ca ied ou , he impo an p inciple is ha he
Mosaic Co enan did no es ablish indi idual gene al p ope y igh s. The land
belonged o God (“The land is mine.”14) and was dis ibu ed as inhe i ance o each
ibe. Mo eo e , his inhe i ance emained wi hin he ibe. Because he land
belonged o God and he chosen people had only use o i , “no inhe i ance in Is ael
is o pass om one ibe o ano he o e e y Is aeli e shall keep he ibal inhe i ance
o hei ances o s.”15
The alloca ion o he land was ini ia ed by Moses, who dis ibu ed he land eas o
he Jo dan, and was comple ed by Joshua. All ibes ecei ed hei allo men excep
he Le i es “since he ood o e ings p esen ed o he Lo d, he God o Is ael, a e
hei inhe i ance.”16 La e on, he ibe o Le i ecei ed owns and he su ounding
pas u e land om he inhe i ance o he o he 11 ibes.17
Thi d, he land assigned o each amily wi hin a ibe was gi en o hei exclusi e
use o ensu e hei su i al. These amilies did no ha e p ope y igh s in he mode n
sense whe e hese igh s may be aliena ed: “The land mus no be sold pe manen ly,
because he land is mine.”18 They had only he igh o use he land, and his igh
was passed on om gene a ion o gene a ion. E ec i ely, hey could only lease he
land. No e en a ibe, as a collec i e uni , could sell he land i had ecei ed as
inhe i ance om he Lo d.19 Full p ope y igh s o eal p ope y exis ed only o
houses loca ed wi hin walled-in owns (excep o houses inhabi ed by Le i e
amilies). Anyone who pu chased such a house gained ull owne ship, and he abili y
o esell, i he selle did no edeem i wi hin a yea .20 P ope y igh s exis ed also
o pe sonal p ope y, including sla es and li es ock.21
Fou h, he landowne had ull owne ship o he p oduc ion om he land, and ha
included domes ica ed animals. Thus, i was possible o acqui e weal h ei he in kind
(inc ease in he s ock o animals and pu chase o houses in walled-in owns) o
inancially by selling su plus p oduc ion. Compa ed o mode n imes, howe e , he
oppo uni ies o weal h accumula ion we e gene ally limi ed in ag icul u al
socie ies and e en mo e limi ed among Is aeli es because o he cons ain on he
sale o land “inhe i ed” om he Lo d.
The Lo d ga e he Is aeli es p oduc i e land so hey could lead a com o able li e:
“…a land wi h b ooks, s eams, and deep sp ings gushing ou in o he alleys and
hills; a land wi h whea and ba ley, ines and ig ees, pomeg ana es, oli e oil and
honey; a land whe e he ocks a e i on and you can dig coppe ou o he hills.”22 He
wan ed hem o “p ospe and be kep ali e”23, as long as hey obeyed His commands.
P ospe i y, howe e , mean a com o able s anda d o li ing no he pu sui o iches,
and he Lo d had a wa ning o he Is aeli es: “…When you ea and a e sa is ied,
when you build ine houses and se le down, and when you he ds and locks g ow
la ge and you sil e and gold inc ease and you ha e mul iplied, hen you hea will
become p oud and you will o ge he Lo d you God.”24
The conce n o he nega i e e ec s o weal h accumula ion on he ela ionship
be ween God and His people and o he long- e m sus ainabili y o he ag icul u al
economic sys em was add essed h ough a se o ules which collec i ely may be
called Sabba h (se en yea s) laws, and include he jubilee ( he yea a e se en
sabba hs).
Res o he Land. The i s sabba h law is ound in Exodus (23-11), (Le i icus (25:2-
7), and Deu e onomy (15:10-11) and add esses sus ainabili y and po e y. In all
h ee books, he Is aeli es a e asked o wo k he land o six yea s, bu in he se en h
yea lea e i o es and egene a e. In Le i icus, wha e e he land p oduces unaided
can be used by he owne , his se an s, his hi ed wo ke s, isi o s, and amed and
wild animals. In Exodus and Deu e onomy, he ha es is le o he poo and o
he wild animals. In all h ee books, he land es s o a yea (long- e m
sus ainabili y) and wha i p oduces wi hou human in e e ence is no o be used o
en ich i s owne , bu is o be sha ed (equi y). In o he wo ds, in he sabba h yea , he
au onomous p oduc ion o he land, which belongs o he Lo d and whose use was
gi en o he Is aeli es, becomes a gi om he Lo d because i was gene a ed wi hou
human help. The e o e, no one has exclusi e igh s o e his p oduc ion.
The yea ollowing he se en h sabba h is he Jubilee, he yea o he Lo d:
“Consec a e he i ie h yea and p oclaim libe y h oughou he land o all i s
inhabi an s.”25. In he Jubilee yea he pa e n o land possession ha exis ed i y
yea s ea lie is e-es ablished: “In his yea o Jubilee e e yone is o e u n o hei
own p ope y.”26 This means ha he land ha each amily ecei ed as inhe i ance
om he Lo d no only could no be sold, bu could be leased o a maximum o 50
yea s a a ime. This ex ension o he sabba h laws was aimed a he p ese a ion o
a amily’s capaci y o make a li ing on hei own land. I also se a limi o 50 yea s

on inden u ed labo . In p ac ice, his limi a ion may no ha e been e y cons aining
gi en he sho li e expec ancy a he ime. S ill, a pe son who became inden u ed
labo o ailu e o epay deb s jus one yea p io o he Jubilee would be eed be o e
he ull deb was epaid.
Lending and In e es . The Old Tes amen makes speci ic e e ences o he ea men
o deb . Because deb is he accumula ion o bo owing no epaid, hese e e ences,
discussed below, mus be in e p e ed in he con ex o he ules abou lending, which
a e ep oduced in Table 1. A numbe o di e en ia ions a e made by he ules o
lending.
Fi s , he e is he di e en ia ion be ween Is aeli es and o eigne s. Deu e onomy
15:6 allows lending o o eigne s, and Deu e onomy 23:20 adds, “You may cha ge a
o eigne in e es .” In Le i icus 25:35-37 he di e en ia ion is mo e sub le, as
discussed below.
Second, he e is he di e en ia ion be ween business lending and pe sonal lending
ound in Exodus 22:25. I lending o a pe son (“one o my people”) is o be ea ed
di e en ly han lending o business and mus no ca y in e es , hen lending o
business can a ac in e es . This dis inc ion has a simple economic explana ion. A
business bo ows money o he pu pose o making mo e money. In his case,
cha ging in e es can be jus i ied as a e u n o an inpu ( he unds bo owed) o be
paid ou o he gains made wi h he help o he bo owed money. In he con ex o a
subsis ence ag icul u al socie y, indi iduals bo ow o su i e. Al hough each
Is aeli e amily ecei ed i s land “inhe i ance,” no all plo s had he same po en ial
p oduc i i y, and hei ac ual p oduc ion depended on a a ie y o ac o s no unde
human con ol. A bad yea , and a amily would quickly join he anks o he poo .
The pe sonal bo owe did no make a p o i om he bo owed unds and he e was
no gain o sha e.
Thi d, he e is he di e en ia ion be ween he poo and he well- o-do ound in
Le i icus 25. In e es - ee lending is ese ed o he poo . This e sion o he
lending ules is consis en wi h he p eca iousness o subsis ence a ming. The Lo d
ga e land o all Is aeli e amilies so ha hey could p o ide o hemsel es, bu he
ac ual p oduc ion om he land was no gua an eed. I would no ake much - a bad
ha es yea , sickness o dea h o he amily head, o some o he calami y – o h ow
a amily in o po e y. In hose cases, hey would be o ced o bo ow in he hope ha
nex yea ’s ha es would be su icien o epay he deb . The in e es - ee lending
ule o he poo aimed a educing he bu den on people who we e al eady ca ying
a hea y bu den.
Finally, he e seems o be a di e en ia ion be ween o eigne s who li e in Is ael and
hose who li e ou side. Fo he la e , Deu e onomy 23 is clea : hey can be cha ged
in e es . In Le i icus 25:35-37, Is aeli es a e asked o ea hei poo coun ymen as
hey would a o eigne by no cha ging in e es . I o eigne s and poo Is aeli es a e
o be ea ed equally and he la e a e no o be cha ged in e es , i ollows logically
ha o eigne s should also be ee om in e es paymen s. Wi h his in e p e a ion
o he abo e Le i icus e ses, he di e en ia ion be ween loans o businesses and o
indi iduals ex ends o o eigne s. Those who li e ou side Is ael a e cha ged in e es
and hose who li e inside Is ael and need help don’ pay in e es . Fo bo h, he
in e es elie is aimed a helping hem emain in he communi y (“so hey can
con inue o li e among you.”27
Table 1. Ve ses abou Lending in he Old Tes amen
Exodus 22:25 I you lend money o one o my people among you who is
needy, do no ea i as a business deal; cha ge no in e es
Le i icus 25:35-37 I any o you ellow Is aeli es becomes poo and a e unable
o suppo hemsel es, help hem as you would a o eigne
and s ange , so hey can con inue o li e among you….
You mus no lend hem money a in e es o sell ood a a
p o i
Deu e onomy 15:7 I anyone is poo among you ellow Is aeli es…. eely lend
Them wha e e hey need
Deu e onomy 23:19-20 Do no cha ge a ellow Is aeli e in e es , whe he on money
o any hing else ha may ea n in e es . You may cha ge a
o eigne in e es
Remission o Deb s. The e is a sabba h law also o deb s and is ound only in
Deu e onomy: “A he end o e e y se en yea s…. E e y c edi o shall cancel any
loan hey ha e made o a ellow Is aeli e….you may equi e paymen om a
o eigne , bu you mus cancel any deb you ellow Is aeli e owes you.”28 I pa allels
he sabba h law abou in e es ound in Deu e onomy 23:19-20. The deb law makes
no di e en ia ion be ween pe sonal and business loans o be ween poo and weal hy
Is aeli es. I di e en ia es only be ween Is aeli es and o eigne s, and o he la e i
does no sepa a e hose li ing wi hin Is ael and hose li ing wi hou . I hese wo
e ses a e in e p e ed li e ally, he deb - o gi eness law is aimed a cu bing weal h
accumula ion, no a educing po e y.
I sugges ha he sabba h laws ega ding in e es and deb - emission should be
in e p e ed in he con ex o God’s p omise o blessings o all Is aeli es. God ga e
each amily enough land o p oduce wha hey needed o sus enance. The e o e,
“ he e need be no poo people among you, o in he land he Lo d you God ga e
you o possess as you inhe i ance, he will ichly bless you.”29 I e en s beyond a
pe son’s con ol lead someone in o po e y, i is he obliga ion o hose mo e
o una e o o e help and be gene ous: “I anyone is poo among you ellow
Is aeli es in any o he owns o he land he Lo d you God is gi ing you, don’ be
ha dhea ed o igh is ed owa ds hem. Ra he , be openhanded and eely lend
wha e e hey need.”30 In he Mosaic co enan , God en isioned a socie y whe e
he su i al and p ospe i y o he communi y ook p ecedence o e he in e es o
he indi idual. Social cohesion was mo e impo an han indi idual sel -in e es . To
achie e hose goals, i was impo an o minimize he sp ead o po e y and he
expansion o weal h inequali y. The means used in he Mosaic co enan included
limi a ions on p ope y igh s ( he land canno be sold pe manen ly), limi a ions on
he use o someone else’s land (laws o land edemp ion and he Jubilee yea o he
Lo d), and commands ega ding in e es - ee lending and emission o deb e e y
se en yea s, and gene osi y in helping he needy.
Labo Ma ke s. In a subsis ence- a ming ag icul u al socie y, human labo is he
p ima y inpu . Fou ca ego ies o labo may be iden i ied a he ime o he Mosaic
co enan : landowne ’s own wo k, sla es, inden u ed labo , and hi ed wo ke s
including se an s. In he case o sla es, he Old Tes amen makes a clea
dis inc ion be ween Is aeli es and o eigne s. Le i icus 25:42 excludes he
possibili y o sla e y o he Is aeli es: “Because he Is aeli es a e my se an s,
whom I b ough ou o Egyp , hey mus no be sold as sla es.” Le i icus 25:44-45
asse s ha all o eigne s may be sla es, whe he hey li e in Is ael o ou side
(“males and emales… om na ions a ound you;… empo a y esiden s li ing
among you and membe s o hei clans bo n in you coun y”). Mo eo e , hese
sla es become he pe sonal p ope y o hei mas e s and hey can be sold o
bequea hed o hei child en. Because o he limi ed choices a o ded o sla es, I
will ocus on labo among Is aeli es. Fi s , I wan o b ie ly discuss he concep o
wo k.
The Concep o Wo k. Genesis ells us ha he c ea ion o he uni e se equi ed
God’s e o s. God did no c ea e he wo ld simply by wishing i , he had o expend
some e o . In Genesis 2:2-3, he e m wo k is ound h ee imes and he e m es
wice: “By he se en h day God had inished he wo k he had been doing….on he
se en h day he es ed om all his wo k…he es ed om all he wo k o c ea ing.”
We can iden i y ou ea u es o God’s wo k. Fi s , i was done by choice. God
decided eely o c ea e he wo ld. Second, his wo k was p oduc i e. Thi d, he
p oduc o God’s wo k was good (Genesis 1). In Genesis, God’s ee ac o c ea ion
es ablished a undamen al p inciple: he pu pose o wo k is o p oduce some hing
good.
This p inciple was ex ended o human ac i i y. Acco ding o Genesis 2:15, “The
Lo d God ook he man and pu him in he ga den o Eden o wo k i and ake ca e
o i .” Man was c ea ed no o idleness bu o wo k. Being p oduc i e is pa o
he human semblance o God. In Genesis, human wo k was con ined o he
sa is ac ion o one’s needs, bu in ol ed he ca e o “ he o he .” Adam was no a
hun e -ga he e , who oamed h ough he Ga den o Eden ha es ing wha he
needed. He was a ga dene , ending a lush and p oduc i e ga den. This pu pose o
wo k emained in ac e en a e he all. When God expelled Adam om he
ga den o Eden, He cu sed he land, no he man o his wo k.31 The in eg i y and
pu pose o wo k was main ained. Wo k now became “pain ul oil” because he land
had been cu sed and became unp oduc i e.32 This cu se was la gely li ed, bu o
he Is aeli es only, in he Mosaic co enan as God ga e his people “a good land…a
land lowing wi h milk and honey.”33 Acco ding o he To ah, wo k is no a
punishmen om God. On he con a y, i is a di ine ac i i y ini ia ed by God in
he c ea ion o he uni e se: c ea i e, ui ul, and p oducing some hing good.
Wo king Condi ions. The Mosaic co enan also es ablished a six-day wo kweek:
“Obse e he sabba h…. o six days wo k is o be done, bu he se en h day is a
day o sabba h es , holy o he Lo d.”34 Exodus 20:8-10 speci ied ha his weekly
day o es applies also o “sons and daugh e s,…male and emale se an s,…
animals, (and) any o eigne s esiding in you owns.” The e is no men ion o
sla es o inden u ed labo . Fo he la e , howe e , Le i icus 25:39-41 commands a
hal way be ween Je usalem and Naza e h. He wen i s o Naza e h, hen isi ed
Cana,10 and con inued o Cape naum whe e he had his esidence.11 While in
Cape naum he called wo mo e b o he s o his minis y, he ishe men James and
John, sons o Zebedee. A his poin , Jesus’ inne g oup consis ed o se en
Galileans: himsel , i e ishe men om he a ea a ound Cape naum, and a man
om Cana. Six mo e apos les we e added la e , bu o hem we know only he
names. Since he o e whelming po ion o Jesus’ minis y ook place in Galilee, i
is no un easonable o assume ha mos o he addi ional apos les we e also
Galileans.
Acco ding o John, Jesus isi ed Je usalem i e imes du ing his adul li e, usually
a elling om Galilee. His i s isi , a he Passo e , has al eady been men ioned.
“Some ime la e (a e his e u n o Cape naum), Jesus wen up o Je usalem o
one o he Jewish es i als.12 I does no seem ha Jesus s ayed long in Je usalem
as he only epo ed “wo k” o Jesus was he healing o a pa aly ic.13 The hi d isi
was o he Feas o Tabe nacles. “Jesus b o he s” wan ed him o go o Je usalem
o “show he wo ks you do,”14, bu Jesus ini ially e used. La e he changed his
mind and wen , bu in sec e , and “no un il hal way h ough he es i al did Jesus
go up o he emple cou s and begin o each.”15 His nex isi was du ing he
ensuing “Fes i al o Dedica ion (Hanukkah) in Je usalem.” Walking in he Temple
cou s, he was engaged in deba es abou his na u e and whe he he was he
Messiah.16 His las isi , he inal Passo e , he was in Je usalem o only one
week and culmina ed in his dea h on he c oss.
O e his en i e li e, Jesus spen a mos i e yea s ou side Galilee, i we assume
ha his amily emained a couple o yea s a ound Je usalem a e his bi h and
conside ue he accoun o he escape o Egyp . His minis y ook place la gely in
Galilee: “The Se mon on he Moun , his T ans igu a ion….nine een o his hi y-
wo pa ables, and wen y- i e o his hi y- h ee eco ded mi acles occu ed in
Galilee.”17 Mo eo e , wi hin his egion, his minis y was la gely con ined o he
illages and coun yside a ound he Sea o Galilee, a lake abou 21 km long and 13
km wide, pa icula ly he no h-wes e n ip a ound Cape naum. A his dea h, only a
ew ollowe s om Galilee we e nea he c oss: one man and se e al women who
had helped him h oughou his minis y. A he esu ec ion, he appea ed i s o
some o he same Galilean women and hen o he apos les, mos o whom we e
Galileans.

Galilee is a egion o Pales ine, ea lie pa o he no he n kingdom o Is ael, wi h
some speci ic cha ac e is ics. A he ime o Jesus, i co e ed an a ea abou 90 km
long and 45 km wide, wi h an a ea oughly hal o Rhode Island. I had a
popula ion o abou 400 housand inhabi an s, mos ly sca e ed o e a la ge numbe
o small illages. The illage whe e he g ew up had no mo e han 500 people, and
he illage whe e he had he “headqua e ” o his minis y had abou 1,500 people.
The e we e only wo ai ly la ge ci ies in Galilee: Tibe ias and Seppho is. The e is
no eco d ha Jesus isi ed ei he o hese wo ci ies du ing his minis y. Whe he
he isi ed hem du ing he “blank” 18 yea s is unknown, bu highly imp obable.
These we e somewha cosmopoli an ci ies while Jesus spoke only A amaic and
Heb ew. The e would ha e been no hing in hem o a ac Jesus’ in e es .
A ound 103 BCE, Galilee was claimed by he Jewish Hasmonean dynas y. Du ing
hei 40-yea eign, Galileans could main ain and e ine hei ai h adi ions and
s eng hen hei cul u al and linguis ic ounda ions in a land su ounded on h ee
sides by po en ial enemies. The daily li e o o dina y Galileans, who li ed la gely
in u al a eas, was no a ec ed when he Romans ook o e 63 BCE and 16 yea s
la e appoin ed He od he G ea as go e no o Galilee and la e king o all Judea
which included Galilee and o he egions. The Romans we e concen a ed in he
wo main ci ies and He od he G ea ocused his ac i i ies in Je usalem. A he ime
o his dea h in 4 BCE, He od bequea hed Galilee and Pa ea o his son He od
An ipas, wi h he app o al o Caesa Augus us. An ipas uled un il 39 CE when he
was exiled o Gaul by Caligula. An ipas ule ushe ed a pe iod o peace and
p ospe i y in Galilee. His main ocus was on a s ong building p og am,
pa icula ly he econs uc ion o Seppho is and he ounda ion o Tibe ias, which
became he new capi al.
Unlike Judea, Galilee was blessed wi h e ile ag icul u al land. Socie y in Galilee
can be sepa a ed in o wo g oups. The i s g oup includes he majo i y o i s
popula ion: i had local oo s, li ed in small u al illages, enjoyed a com o able
subsis ence li e, lacked he p esence o la ge landowne o a is oc a ic classes,
spoke A amaic, and ollowed adi ional Jewish ai h p ac ices. The locals
coexis ed peace ully wi h a mino i y ha li ed in u ban a eas, and comp ised a
a ie y o e hnic, eligious, and linguis ic subg oups ha in e ac ed wi h each o he
and spoke p ima ily Heb ew and G eek.
Jesus was a Galilean, who spen mos o his li e in Galilee, who ga he ed a g oup
o 12 disciples, mos ly om he same egion, and exe cised his minis y p ima ily
in he coun yside o Galilee. His mo he ongue was A amaic, and he la e lea ned
Heb ew. His ai h, acqui ed h ough ha o his amily and o he communi y in
which he g ew up, was he simple bu unshakable se o belie s ha command
ideli y o he wo d o God no o ex e nal signs and ules c ea ed by sel -se ing
humans seeking powe and weal h. O his pa en s’ abiding ai h we know om
Luke: “When Joseph and Ma y had done e e y hing equi ed by he Law o he
Lo d, hey e u ned o Galilee o hei own own o Naza e h.”18 Acco ding o Luke
(2:41), “E e y yea Jesus’ pa en s wen o Je usalem o he es i al o he
Passo e .” This was no a sho ip o he synagogue o he Sabba h se ice. I
was abou 110 km going s aigh h ough Sama ia and i would ake 4 days
walking.
Though aised in a small communi y o mos ly uneduca ed olks, Jesus was a
highly lea ned man, no in scien i ic disciplines, ma hema ics, o enginee ing, bu
in he language, sc ip u es, ai h, and adi ions o his ances o s. When he was
wel e yea s old, his pa en s ook him o Je usalem o he Passo e . As he
emained behind a e hey le , hey e u ned o Je usalem sea ching o him and
“ ound him in he Temple cou s, si ing among he eache s, lis ening o hem and
asking hem ques ions. E e yone who hea d him was amazed a his unde s anding
and his answe s.”19 Acco ding o Gospels, his amazemen was exp essed also by
all hose who hea d him eaching h oughou his minis y, and a good pa o his
ime in Je usalem was spen in heological deba es.
The con lic be ween he zealous ai h o he young u al Jesus and he
comme cialized eligion o Je usalem’s u ban popula ion is highligh ed by John
who places his i s isi o he Holy ci y as an adul on he Passo e ollowing his
bap ism. Used o small u al synagogues whe e pious men and women wen o
wo ship, Jesus was appalled a wha he saw a he Temple in Je usalem: “He ound
people selling ca le, sheep, and do es, and o he s si ing a ables exchanging
money.”20 Unable o con ain his ou age, “He made a whip ou o he co ds and
d o e all om he emple cou s, bo h sheep and ca le; he sca e ed he coins o
he money change s and o e u ned hei ables. To hose who sold do es he said,
‘Ge hese ou o he e! S op u ning my Fa he ’s house in o a ma ke .”21 (John
2:13-17).
The Gospels: Social Teaching. Jesus’ eaching was g ounded on he Sc ip u es.
While some o his p onouncemen s appea o be adical, he was a undamen alis
in he sense ha he ounda ions o his ai h we e oo ed in he Co enan s be ween
God and His people. He did no make a speci ic speech on social jus ice. We can
only in e om his ac ions, his pa ables, and his eachings. These in e ences
in ol e a ce ain deg ee o subjec i i y.
The Lo d’s P aye . Le us s a wi h he Lo d’s P aye ha Jesus augh his disciples
upon eques , and ocus on h ee salien aspec s. Fi s , his p aye is based on an
old Jewish poem/p aye known as Kaddish. Second, since he Kaddish was w i en
in A amaic, and he disciples also spoke A amaic, i is highly p obable ha he
Lo d’s p aye was o iginally spoken in he same language. As an aside, I belie e
ha he apos les asked Jesus o a new p aye no jus o hemsel es bu a
uni e sal p aye o all hose who con e ed, and he po en ial con e s a ha ime
we e u al Galileans who spoke A amaic. Thi d, he Lo d’s p aye is a
ea i ma ion o he Mosaic Co enan . The i s wo lines con i m he accep ance
o one God and pa allel he i s wo commandmen s. Lines h ee and ou epea
he ee accep ance o God’s will in he Mosaic Co enan . Line 5 o he Lo d’s
p aye exp esses he belie ha he God o Is ael is he gi e o li e (b ead is li e).
The p aye in his line is no o iches o powe , i is jus o he necessi ies o li e.
Li e depends on God, bu a happy li e does no depend on weal h. The nex wo
lines deal wi h o gi eness in gene al, bu hey also encompass he p ac ical
o gi eness o deb s ha o med one o he pilla s o he Mosaic Co enan . The
inal lines a e di ec ly ied o he Mosaic Co enan as he pe i ione s beg God o
ee hem om he emp a ions o b eak he commandmen s and o p o ec hem
om he e il ha a ises om e ol ing agains God’s will. The second pa o he
Lo d’s p aye also highligh s i s communal na u e. I is no an indi idual pe i ion
o pe sonal healing and sal a ion. The plu al in all lines e lec s a p aye o an
indi idual on behal o a communi y.
P i a e P ope y. Jesus makes no speci ic e e ence o p i a e p ope y. Howe e ,
he does make a numbe o e e ences o pu chases and sales o land. He also
iden i ies he exis ence o weal hy landowne s who could a o d o hi e wo ke s
and e en li e away om hei land.22 I seems ha om he ime o Mosaic
Co enan o he ime o Jesus, he es ic ions on he pe manen sale o land had
been p og essi ely e oded, and had acili a ed he accumula ion o weal h in he
o m o land holdings.
Wo k and Wages. Jesus makes e e ence o wo ypes o wo k: he wo k we do o
su i e, and he wo k we do o he kingdom o God. S a ing wi h he o me , we
need o emembe ha wha he says abou wo k is an addi ion o commands in he
Mosaic Co enan : “Do no hink ha I ha e come o abolish he Law and he
P ophe s; I ha e no come o abolish hem bu o ul ill hem.”23 We saw in he
p e ious chap e ha he Mosaic Co enan con ained a numbe o commands
ela ed o he ea men o wo ke s: a six-day wo k-week, p ohibi ion o opp ess
hi ed se an s, inden u ed wo ke s, and e en sla es, and immedia e paymen o
wages. In he pa able o he wo ke s in he ineya d,24 Jesus expands on his
heme. In his pa able, a landowne goes i e imes o he ma ke place o hi e
wo ke s o his ineya d, a in e als o h ee hou s. To he i s g oup he o e ed
one dena ius, he going daily wage o a labo e , and o he o he s “wha e e is
igh .” I ’s impo an o no e ha he wo ke s hi ed la e in he day we e no jus
s anding idle in he ma ke place. They we e no es ing a home, bu we e in he
ma ke place wai ing o be hi ed. A he end o he day, he ga e one dena ius each
o all he wo ke s. This pa able es ablishes wo p inciples. Fi s , i an indi idual is
willing and eady o wo k bu canno ind employmen , he aul is no his bu o
he economic sys em. Second, a willing wo ke is en i led o a li ing wage
ega dless o he numbe o hou s he labo s. He should ecei e ( om he employe
o o he sou ces) an amoun no de e mined by wha he p oduces bu wha he needs
o a decen li ing. I mus be s essed ha , in his pa able, he hi ing and wage
decisions by he landowne a e a ee choice. Jesus does no ad oca e speci ic
labo laws. He shows us he p inciples ha would go e n employmen and wages
in he kingdom o God.
Wo k is one o he ounda ions o he kingdom o God. We saw in he p e ious
chap e how he wo ld’s c ea ion equi ed wo k and how Adam was placed in he
Ga den o Eden “ o wo k i and ake ca e o i .”25 Jesus explains ha he kingdom
on ea h is no comple e ye . No only he Lo d’s P aye includes he special
pe i ion, “You Kingdom come”, bu Jesus poin s ou ha he and his Fa he a e s ill
busy a wo k o make i a eali y. In John 5:17 we ead, “My Fa he is always a his
wo k o his e y day, and I oo am wo king,” and la e con inues, “The son can do
only wha he sees his Fa he is doing, because wha e e he Fa he does he son
also does.”26 Finally, he concludes, “The wo ks ha he Fa he has gi en me o
inish – he e y wo ks ha I am doing – es i y ha he Fa he has sen me.”27 No
only a e we commanded o wo k o he kingdom o God, we a e asked o wo k
diligen ly and e icien ly.28
All he p inciples, policies, and p og ams ela ed o employmen , wo k condi ions,
and wages, a e pa o he o e all human e o o building he kingdom o God on
ea h (“You kingdom come”). In doing so, e e yone is o obey God’s will (“You
will be done”) no hei own will o desi es. This means ha employe s and
employees a a minimum a e bound o obey he Ten Commandmen s. Bo h need o
ope a e wi h hones y, and can nei he lie no chea one ano he o he consume s.
Wo ke s a e equi ed o wo k diligen ly and employe s a e equi ed o ea hem
wi h digni y and o a oid exploi ing hem.
Weal h. Jesus had a lo o say abou weal h. A i s blush i seems ha he
ca ego ically condemns he accumula ion o weal h. In Luke 6:24 he says, “Woe o
you who a e ich”; in Ma hew 6:24 he adds, “No one can se e wo mas e s….you
canno se e bo h God and money”; and in Ma hew 23-24 he p oclaims, “T uly I
ell you, i is ha d o someone who is ich o en e he kingdom o hea en. Again I
ell you, i is easie o a camel o en e he eye o a needle han o someone who
is ich o en e he kingdom o God.” O he passages a ibu ed o him, howe e ,
sugges ha his iew o weal h was mo e nuanced. Fi s , his iew was g ounded on
he p io i y o he kingdom o God, as was wi h e e y o he human issue. As he is
eco ded as saying by Ma hew (6:19), “Do no s o e up o you sel es easu es on
ea h….bu s o e up easu es in hea en.” He belie ed ha a com o able li e
equi ed a mode a e amoun o esou ces: “Li e does no consis in an abundance
o possessions.”29 Seeking mo e han ha was g eed, and g eed in e e ed wi h he
capaci y o seek he kingdom o God: “Be on you gua d agains all kinds o
g eed,”30 a s a emen ha pa allels he en h commandmen . Second, weal h is no
in insically bad. I is a cu se because i ou easu e is weal h, he ocus o ou li e
is on accumula ing and p o ec ing i ins ead o seeking he kingdom o God.31
Two pa ables p o ide insigh s in o Jesus’ iew o weal h. The i s is he
con e sa ion wi h a weal hy man who wan ed o know wha he should do o gain
e e nal li e. Lea ning ha his man was ollowing he commandmen s, bu was
unsu e abou his s anding wi h God, Jesus ad ised him: “I you wan o be pe ec ,
go, sell you possessions, and gi e hem o he poo , and you will ha e easu es in
hea en.”32 The second pa able deals wi h he encoun e wi h ano he ich man, a
chie ax collec o named Zaccheus. When Jesus was passing h ough Je icho,
Zaccheus wan ed o see him and climbed a ee because he was sho . Seeing
Zaccheus on he ee, Jesus asked him o come down and in i ed himsel o
dinne . Zaccheus was so ela ed ha he olun ee ed o gi e away hal o his weal h
and o epay ou imes he amoun ha he may ha e gained by chea ing.33 In he
i s pa able we ha e a ich man who is e y a ached o his weal h and is looking
o Jesus’ blessing o keep i . He does no seek sal a ion; he jus wan s a blessing
o keeping he commandmen s. Fo his man, weal h is a cu se. Zaccheus, by

con as , wan s peace o mind, o gi eness, and edemp ion. Jesus does no ask him
o gi e up his weal h because he ealizes ha o Zaccheus weal h is no an
obs acle o en e he kingdom o God. Zaccheus olun ee s o gi e mo e han hal
o his weal h and asks no hing in e u n. Jesus g an s him sal a ion wi hou
condi ions.
Le ’s look a a couple o hypo he ical cases o ou own. The i s case in ol es a
couple wi h wo child en who ecei ed a la ge inancial wind all. I decides o keep
pa o i o he amily’s inancial secu i y and o he es se s up a cha i able us
adminis e ed by a inancial ins i u ion. In he second case we ha e an en ep eneu
who has become ich by o e ing his wo ke s poo wo king condi ions and low
wages and who leads a modes ly com o able li e and gi es he es o cha i y.
Acco ding o Jesus, he beha io o he amily is consis en wi h he kingdom o
God, because hei easu e is no hei weal h, bu he beha io o he en ep eneu
is no because his weal h was ill-go en. These pa ables indica e ha i is no wha
we possess and wha we gi e away ha a ec s ou place in he kingdom o God. I
is ou ela ionship wi h ou possessions ha ma e . I we a e ocused on he
kingdom o God, ou hea s and minds a e illed wi h he desi e o se e Him and
we a e ul illed by he e y ac s o se ing ega dless o wha we ge in e u n.
Ma e ial possessions in addi ion o a no mal li e o e no ing o alue.
These pa ables and cases b ing o h wo addi ional p inciples. Fi s , passi e
obedience o he Law is no su icien o en e he kingdom o God. We need o be
p oac i e, as Jesus was h oughou his en i e minis y. Second, in he kingdom o
God he end does no jus i y he means. The e is only one end, he kingdom o
God, and only one way, lo ing God, obeying his commandmen s, and wo king
i elessly owa d ha end.
Helping he Poo . Jesus did no p esen a s uc u ed an i-po e y plan o be
implemen ed by public ins i u ions. His conce n o he poo was pe sonal, and was
exp essed in ac ion h oughou his en i e minis y. The ou gospels eco d abou
20 ins ances o Jesus’ healings. Only wo o hose – he se an o he cen u ion,34
and he daugh e o a synagogue leade 35 – a e membe s o well- o-do households.
The es a e o dina y olks, mos ly poo : blind, lepe s, c ipples, widows, bleeding,
possessed. In Jesus’ eachings, gi ing o he poo is so impo an ha i is
conside ed he passpo o e e nal li e, as Jesus made i clea in Ma hew 25: 31-36,
“When he Son o Man comes in his glo y,” and sepa a es people as sheep on he
igh om he goa s on he le , “he will say o hose on he le ‘depa om me,
you who a e cu sed. Fo I was hung y and you ga e me no hing o ea , I was hi s y
and you ga e me no hing o d ink, I was a s ange and you did no in i e me in, I
needed clo hes and you did no clo he me, I was sick and in p ison and you did no
look a e me.”
Jesus add esses he indi idual ins ead o go e nmen al ins i u ions because his
ocus is he kingdom o God. In a socie y whe e e e y indi idual is seeking he
kingdom o God, he e will be no la ge concen a ion o weal h and no high deg ee
o po e y, because he p ima y ocus o li e is on one’s ela ionship wi h God.
Weal h accumula ion in e e es wi h ha ela ionship and he exis ence o po e y
is a s a e agains God’s will because God, as we saw in he p e ious chap e , does
no wan any o his people o be poo . F om his pe spec i e, he deg ee o po e y
and weal h concen a ion in a coun y may be iewed as an indica o o he
sepa a ion o i s ci izens om he kingdom o God.
The Gospels ea i m he undamen al p inciples o he Mosaic Co enan : he
c ucial ole o wo k in human li e, he digni ied ea men o wo ke s, he p omp
paymen o hei labo , he dange s o seeking weal h, and he obliga ion o help
no jus he poo bu anyone who asks. The Gospels emphasize pa icula ly a
T ini y o lo e as he d i e o all human ac i i y: lo e o God, lo e o iend and
oe, and lo e o jus ice. In a socie y made up o ha e ul people, jus ice can ne e
p e ail ega dless o i s economic s uc u e and poli ical sys em.
Ac s o he Apos les and he Second Le e o James. The Ac s is he i h book o
he New Tes amen and he second book a ibu ed o Luke. I desc ibes he
ac i i ies o he Apos les in he immedia e a e ma h o he c uci ixion and
esu ec ion and he o ma ion o he ea ly Ch is ian communi ies. Fo he pu pose
o his book, I ocus on h ee elemen s o Ac s. The i s is he way Pe e iden i ied
Jesus in his con e sa ion wi h he cen u ion Co nelius in Caesa ea, “You know
wha has happened h oughou he p o ince o Judea, beginning in Galilee a e he
bap ism ha John p eached – how God anoin ed Jesus o Naza e h wi h he Holy
Spi i and powe , and he wen a ound doing good and healing all who we e unde
he powe o he de il, because God was wi h him.”36 Fo Pe e , Jesus was he
obedien Son o God who dedica ed his li e o doing good wo ks and healing he
sick. He was a wo ke , bu no a physician o a social wo ke . He was no e en a
eligious leade . He was anoin ed by God and was gi en powe in o de o do
God’s wo k on ea h. This wo k consis ed in healing body and spi i . He did his
wo k no by his own powe s bu because “God was wi h him.” Second, he
apos les a e o ollow he example o Jesus: hey p eached, con e ed, and healed.
We a e old in Ac s ha “Pe e con e ed many,”37 ha “The Apos les pe o med
many signs and wonde s,”38 and ha Pe e and Paul healed many.39 Thi d, he ea ly
Ch is ians we e pa o sha ing communi ies: “The belie e s we e oge he and had
e e y hing in common.”40; “All he belie e s we e o one hea and mind. No one
claimed ha any o hei possessions was hei own, bu hey sha ed e e y hing
hey had.”41
Second Le e o James. This le e ocuses on wo issues. The i s is he
condemna ion o he weal hy: “Now lis en, you ich people, weep and wail because
o he mise y ha is coming o you….The wages you ailed o pay he wo ke s
who mowed you ields a e c ying ou agains you.”42 No ice ha he cu se is no
on weal h pe se, bu on iches accumula ed by chea ing. Those who acqui ed
weal h by e ec i ely s ealing om o he s a e cu sed e en i hey gi e all hei
money o cha i ies. Second, ai h is no an in ellec ual exe cise. I is ac ion. I is
“doing good and healing”, as Jesus did. James’ mos amous quo e, “Fai h wi hou
deed is dead”43 is consis en wi h Jesus’ pa able o he wo sons44. We do no gain
he Kingdom o God by ou wo ks, bu we a e ce ainly excluded om i wi hou
wo ks. God g aciously o e s us his kingdom. Ou wo ks signi y ou accep ance o
God’s o e . I we simply say “I accep you o e , Lo d” and will no ollow wi h
ac ion, ha o e is inope a i e. We en e he kingdom o God h ough ou wo ks
by he g ace o God.
Selec ed Le e s o Paul. These le e s o e addi ional insigh s in o he Ch is ian
iew o iches, sha ing, wo k, and he common good. The issue o iches is
add essed in he i s le e o Timo hy, w i en in Macedonia a ound 64-65 CE. In
his le e Paul o e s ins uc ions o Timo hy, one o his con e s, wi h espec o
pe sonal beha io and du ies, and wa ns him agains alse eachings. His wa nings
abou ma e ialism a e ound in 1Timo hy 6:8-10: “I we ha e ood and clo hing,
we will be con en wi h ha . Those who wan o ge ich all in o emp a ion and a
ap and in o many oolish and ha m ul desi es ha plunge people in o uin and
des uc ion. Fo he lo e o money is he oo o all kinds o e il.” In his passage
Paul e o mula es Jesus’ eaching on his subjec . Riches ha e no inhe en
goodness o e il in hemsel es. Thei e il es s in hei powe o des oy ou li e by
sepa a ing us om God.
Paul also s essed he esponsibili y o sha ing and helping he needy. In 1Timo hy
5:3-8, he deals wi h helping wi hin he ex ended amily, pa icula ly widows. He
iden i ies h ee ypes o widows. Those no olde han 60 a e no e en eco ded
because hey a e s ill capable o wo king and a e encou aged o ema y. Widows
o e 60 who ha e child en and g andchild en a e o be suppo ed by hem. Paul is
e y s ic wi h espec o he du ies o amily membe s: “Anyone who does no
p o ide o hei ela i es, and especially o hei household, has denied hei
ai h.”45 In his e se, Paul gi es subs ance o he i h commandmen . Hono ing
a he and mo he is no es ic ed o beha ing in a espec ul manne owa ds one’s
pa en s, bu ca ies he obliga ion o ake ca e o hem in hei ime o need. The
widow who is poo and alone may be en i led o suppo om he communi y
unde wo condi ions: she was ai h ul du ing he ma iage, and she did good deeds
in he communi y. The i s condi ion also ea i ms ou commi men o he
commandmen s, in his case he se en h. I makes i clea ha b eaking he
Co enan has ma e ial consequences. The second condi ion highligh s he p inciple
ha , in a Ch is ian communi y, du ies ha e p io i y o e igh s.
Paul w o e wo le e s o he Thessalonians a ound 51 and 52 CE. In he second
le e he shows his conce n o he beha io o some membe s who “a e idle and
dis up i e.”46 He eminds hem ha du ing his p e ious isi s o he Thessalonian
communi y he did no ely on his posi ion o au ho i y o emain idle, bu “wo ked
nigh and day, labo ing and oiling so ha we would no be a bu den on any o
you.”47 He hen concludes wi h his summa y ule: “ he one who is unwilling o
wo k shall no ea .”48
Paul also w o e wo le e s o he Co in hians, he i s om Ephesus in 53-54 CE
and he second om Macedonia a ound 55 CE. The i s le e was w i en in
esponse o news abou disag eemen s among he membe s o he Chu ch a
Co in h. In his plea o uni y, he uses wo examples in he manne o Jesus’
pa ables. The i s example con ains his e e ence o he “common good” in
ela ion o he gi s o he Spi i . No ing ha hey a e doing well economically, Paul
explains ha “The e a e di e en kinds o gi s, bu he same Spi i dis ibu es
hem.”49 Then he adds ha , “… o each one he mani es a ion o he Spi i is gi en
o he common good.”50
The concep s o wo k in 2 Thessalonians and 1 Co in hians a e closely in e ela ed.
In he la e , Paul ells he membe s o he Chu ch a Co in h ha e e y belie e
has ecei ed special gi s. The e is no anking o hese gi s in e ms o hei
impo ance and no di e ence in hei pu pose. They all come om he Spi i and
hey mus all be di ec ed o he bene i o he communi y. These gi s canno
47 2 Thessalonians 3:7-9
482 Thessalonians 3:10
491 Co in hians 12:4
501 Co in hains 12:7
51 Luke 10: 25-37
52 Ma hew 22:39
53 Ma hew 5: 43-47
541 Thessalonians 2:9