Te ae Incogni ae
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An Effec o “Co osi e” Globaliza ion? T ading
“Knowledges”: The Ca ee o Ba olomeu Baião Be ween
Po ugal, Spain, and England (1564–1572)
Nuno Vila-San a
To ci e his a icle: Nuno Vila-San a (2025) An Effec o “Co osi e” Globaliza ion? T ading
“Knowledges”: The Ca ee o Ba olomeu Baião Be ween Po ugal, Spain, and England (1564–
1572), Te ae Incogni ae, 57:1, 60-84, DOI: 10.1080/00822884.2025.2458433
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00822884.2025.2458433
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup.
Published online: 21 Feb 2025.
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An E ec o “Co osi e” Globaliza ion?
T ading “Knowledges”: The Ca ee o
Ba olomeu Baião Be ween Po ugal,
Spain, and England (1564–1572)
NUNO VILA-SANTA
Depa men o His o y and Philosophy o Science, Facul y o Sciences,
Uni e si y o Lisbon, Lisbon, Po ugal
Abs ac
The Po uguese Ba olomeu Baião is a poo ly known cha ac e in he his o y o
Anglo-Po uguese ma i ime exchanges in he 16 h cen u y. This a icle aims o
econs uc Baião’s ca ee , as a pilo , a me chan , a cosmog aphe , and a spy,
among Po ugal, Spain, and England. Using Spanish and English documen s,
he main momen s o Baião’s ca ee a e deba ed. The mo i a ions o Baião’s
depa u e om Po ugal and his nau ical p oposals in Spain in 1564–65, and all
Baião’s endea o s, be ween 1565–71 wi h John Hawkins, William Cecil, Robe
Dudley a e discussed. By d awing he connec ion be ween he knowledge ha
Baião b ough o England and he expedi ions no able Elizabe hans o ganized in
he 1570-80s, i is a gued ha Baião was ano he “in o mal” bu decisi e agen
who leaked Ibe ian ma i ime knowledge o Elizabe han England. I is also
claimed ha mo e esea ch is needed on he ole hese agen s could play in
he “co osi e” globaliza ion o knowledge.
KEYWORDS ma i ime knowledge; go-be ween; espionage; diplomacy; A lan ic Ocean;
global knowledge
Resumén
El po ugués Ba olomeu Baião es un pe sonaje poco conocido en la his o ia
de los in e cambios ma í imos anglo-po ugueses del siglo XVI. Es e a ículo
TERRAE INCOGNITAE, Vol. 57, No. 1, 2025, 60–84
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup. DOI 10.1080/
00822884.2025.2458433
p e ende econs ui la ayec o ia de Baião, como pilo o, come cian e,
cosmóg a o y espía, en e Po ugal, España e Ingla e a. U ilizando uen es
documen ales españolas e inglesas, se deba en los p incipales momen os de
la ca e a de Baião. Se abo dan las mo i aciones de la salida de Baião de
Po ugal y sus p opues as náu icas en España en 564-65, y odas las ges iones
de Baião, en e 1565-71, con John Hawkins, William Cecil, Robe Dudley. Al
es ablece la conexión en e los conocimien os que Baião lle ó Ingla e a y las
expediciones o ganizadas po los na egan es isabelinos en los años 1570-80,
se a gumen a que Baião es o o agen e “in o mal” pe o decisi o que il ó
conocimien os ma í imos ibé icos ala Ingla e a Isabelina. Además, se p o-
pone que son necesa ios más es udios sob e el papel que es os agen es
pod ían desempeña en la “co osi a” globalización del conocimien o.
PALABRAS-CLAVE conocimien o ma ı
´ imo, in e media io, espionaje, diplomacia,
Oce
´ano A la
´n ico, conocimien o global
Resumo
O po uguês Ba olomeu Baião é um pe sonagem pouco conhecido na
his ó ia do in e câmbio ma í imo anglo-luso do século XVI. Es e a igo
p e ende econs i ui aca ei a de Baião, como pilo o, me cado ,
cosmóg a o e espião, en e Po ugal, Espanha eIngla e a. Reco endo
a on es documen ais espanholas e inglesas, são deba idos os p incipais
momen os da ca ei a de Baião. Abo dam-se as mo i ações pa a asaída de
Baião de Po ugal, as suas p opos as náu icas em Espanha, em 1564-65, e
odas as diligências de Baião, en e 1565-71, com John Hawkins, William
Cecil, Robe Dudley. Ao es abelece aligação en e os conhecimen os que
Baião le ou pa a Ingla e a e as expedições o ganizadas po na egado es
isabelinos nas décadas de 1570-80, a gumen a-se que Baião oi mais um
agen e “in o mal” mas, decisi o que ez chega à Ingla e a Isabelina os
conhecimen os ma í imos ibé icos. De ende-se ainda que são necessá ios
mais es udos sob e opapel que es es agen es pode ão desempenha na
globalização “co osi a” do conhecimen o.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE conhecimen o ma ı
´ imo, in e media
´ io, espionagem, diplomacia,
Oceano A la
ˆn ico, conhecimen o global
In oduc ion
S udies on global his o y, ma i ime his o y and his o y o knowledge ha e high-
ligh ed he impo ance o examining he in e change h ough bo h o mal and
YTIN 61
in o mal channels o ma i ime knowledge and i s bea ing on he planning o o e seas
oyages among i als.
1
His o ians o knowledge ha e long emphasized he c i ical
impac o poo ly known cul u al in e media ies,
2
o en labeled as go-be weens, in
he ea ly mode n A lan ic wo ld.
3
Many o hese s udies s ess ha knowledge
exchanges be ween he me can ile cul u es o he Ibe ian and B i ish wo lds we e
pi o al o bo h sides.
4
They in luenced he eme gence o he ea ly mode n Ibe ian
and B i ish o e seas empi es. The impo ance o in e changes has been unde sco ed
due o he impac o he i s globaliza ion, some imes called he “Ibe ian
globaliza ion.”
One o he key-consequences o 16
h
cen u y Ibe ian globaliza ion has been i s
“co osi e” e ec s. As Ba olomé Yun Casalilla has explained, he “co osi e” globali-
za ion dynamics on poli ics, economy, socie y and cul u e was b ough by he i s
globaliza ion. Du ing he 16
h
cen u y, he e e -escala ing in ensi y o he ci cula ion o
people, goods, and ideas, on a plane a y scale b ough a “co osi e” e ec o globaliza-
ion: none o he playe s in ol ed (me chan s, missiona ies, poli ical and mili a y ule s,
sailo s, kings) p o ed able o con ol he majo lows, e en when hey we e de imen al
o hei in e es s. Al hough his eali y was clea ly de ec able in he Ibe ian Wo ld, due
o i s in ensi y, i soon impac ed he es o Eu ope.
5
1
To men ion simply h ee o hese ecen cases see: Paula Findlen, “In oduc ion,” in Empi es o Knowledge:
Scien i ic Ne wo ks in he Ea ly Mode n Wo ld, ed. Paula Findlen (London: Rou ledge, 2019), p. 2 and 8;
Lau en Ben on and Na han Pe l-Rosen han, “Making Ma i ime His o y Global” in A Wo ld a Sea. Ma i ime
P ac ices and Global His o y, eds. Lau en Ben on and Na han Pe l-Rosen hal, (Penn: Uni e si y o
Pennsyl ania P ess, 2020), pp. 13–14; Ba olomé Yun Casalilla, “Ea ly Mode n Ibe ian Empi es, global
his o y and his o y o globaliza ion,” Jou nal o Global His o y 17–3, (2022), pp. 1–23.
2
The bibliog aphy on his ield is la ge. Jus o men ion some o he mos impo an s udies: Pe e Bu ke,
A Social His o y o Knowledge: F om Gu enbe g o Dide o (Camb idge: Poli y P ess, 2000); Pe e Bu ke,
James A. Seco d, “Knowledge in T ansi ,” Isis 95–94 (Decembe 2004), pp. 654–72; Lo aine Das on, “The
His o y o Science and he His o y o Knowledge,” Know 1, no. 1 (Sp ing 2017), pp. 131–54; Ci cula ion o
Knowledge: Explo a ions in he His o y o Knowledge, eds. Anna Nilsson Hamma , Da id La sson
Heidenblad, Ka i No dbe g, Johan Ös ling, and E ling Sandmo (Lund: No dic Academic P ess, 2018).
Connec ing Wo lds: P oduc ion and Ci cula ion o Knowledge in he Fi s Global Age, edi ed by Amélia
Polónia, Fabiano B ach and Gisele C. Conceição (Camb idge: Camb idge Schola s Publishing, 2018); Anna
Nilsson Hamma , Da id La sson Heidenblad, Johan Ös ling, Knowledge Ac o s: Re isi ing Agency in he
His o y o Knowledge (Lund: No dic Academic P ess, 2023).
3
Alida C. Me cal , Go-Be weens and he coloniza ion o B azil, 1500–1600 (Aus in: TX/Uni e si y o Texas
P ess, 2005); Renaissance Go-Be weens: Cul u al Exchange in Ea ly Mode n Eu ope, edi ed by And eas and
on Koppen el Hö ele (Be lin: De G uy e , 2011). Benjamin Schmid and Pamela H. Smi h, Making
Knowledge in Ea ly Mode n Eu ope: P ac ices, Objec s, and Tex s, 1400–1800 (Chicago: The Uni e si y
o Chicago P ess, 2007); The B oke ed Wo ld: Go-Be weens and Global In elligence, 1770–1820, ed. James
Delbou go, Kapil Raj, Lissa Robe s and Simon Scha e (Sagamo e Beach: Science His o y Publica ions,
2009).
4
F ancisco Be encou , “The Ibe ian A lan ic: Ties, Ne wo ks, and Bounda ies” In Theo ising he Ibe o-
Ame ican A lan ic, eds. Lisa Vollendo and Ha ald B aun (Leiden: B ill, 2013), pp. 15–36. Fo ano he well-
known example in his o iog aphical e ms, al hough mainly o he 17
h
cen u y, see: Me chan Cul u es.
A Global App oach o Spaces, Rep esen a ions and Wo lds o T ade, 1500–1800, eds. F ancisco Be encou
and Cá ia An unes (Leiden: B ill, 2022).
5
The hesis on he Ibe ian o igin o con empo a y globaliza ion has been de ended ecen ly by Anna Mo e,
Rachel Sa ah O’Toole, and I onne del Valle, “Ibe ian Empi es and a Theo y o Ea ly Mode n Globaliza ion,”
in Ibe ian Empi es and he Roo s o Globaliza ion, eds. Anna Mo e, Rachel Sa ah O’Toole, and I onne del
Valle (Nash ille: Vande bil Uni e si y P ess, 2019), pp. 3–5. Howe e , i is o he al eady classical wo ks o
Ba olomé Yun Casalilla, ha one needs o u n o dig be e his idea, and pa icula ly he e ec s o
“co osi e” globaliza ion in he Ibe ian Wo ld. Among he au ho ’s many wo ks a good s a poin is:
Ba olomé Yun Casalilla, Ibe ian Wo ld Empi es and The Globaliza ion O Eu ope 1415–1668 (Singapo e:
Sp inge Ve lag, 2019).
62 NUNO VILA-SANTA
On he o he hand, unde lying s udies on he his o y o knowledge lies an
assump ion ha he ci cula ion o knowledge enac ed by go-be weens was always
made easily. In mos cases, he ensions knowledge ci cula ion be ween ma i ime
i als c ea ed emain almos “in isible” as hey we e embodied in he de ails o he
ca ee s o he go-be weens hemsel es. Such de ails a e o en o go en, gene a ing
he idea ha knowledge ci cula ion was smoo he han i eally was.
This p oblema ic is aceable when applied o Elizabe han England, whose ma -
i ime and o e seas expansion was acili a ed by a combina ion o ac o s. A he
beginning o Queen Elizabe h I’s eign (1558–1603), England was unde de eloped
in e ms o i s o e seas en u es when compa ed o Po ugal, Spain, o F ance.
Richa d Hakluy (1553–1616), he leading compile and publishe o English
eco ds, acknowledged his in his P incipal Na iga ions. He w o e ha “seeing
ha he weal h o he Spania ds and Po uguese . . . hey [ he English] he e upon
esol ed upon a new and s ange na iga ion.”
6
Schola s ha e also long asse ed ha England in he 16
h
cen u y lea ned nau ical
knowledge om i s Po uguese and Spanish i als.
7
Po uguese pilo s such as Simão
Fe nandes and Nuno da Sil a we e hi ed o he g ea English oyages o disco e y.
8
In he 1570-80s, in he se ice o Elizabe h I, Fe nandes guided oyages o no able
Elizabe han explo e s such as Humph ey Gilbe (1539–1583), Richa d G en ille
(1542–1591) and Wal e Raleigh (1552–1618).
9
Sil a was a Po uguese pilo om
Opo o ha F ancis D ake (1540?−1596) kidnapped, in 1577, a Cape Ve de
Islands o guide his ci cum-na iga ion in he Sou h A lan ic.
10
Pa o hese in e -
changes we e mo i a ed by he in ensi y o he English comme cial connec ion o
Po ugal and Spain.
11
6
Richa d Hakluy , Voyages in Eigh Volumes, ed John Mase ield, ol. I (Den : London, 1962), pp. 266–267.
7
Jus o men ion some wo ks om ele an au ho s, who made his a gumen see: E. G. R Taylo , The English
deb o Po uguese nau ical science in he 16
h
cen u y, o p in om I Cong esso da His ó ia da Expansão
Po uguesa no Mundo, Lisbon, 1958, pp. 5–11, la e de eloped a E. G. R. Taylo , The Ha en-Finding A .
A His o y o Na iga ion om Odysseus o Cap ain Cook (London: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 1971); Louis
B. W igh , English explo e s´ deb o he Ibe ians (Coimb a: Jun a de In es igações Cien í icas do Ul ama ,
1980); Da id Wa e s, The Ibe ian Bases o he English A o Na iga ion in he Six een h Cen u y (Lisboa/
Coimb a: Jun a de In es igações Cien í icas do Ul ama , 1970) – The au ho had al eady made his a gumen
in his enamed: Da id Wa e s, The A o Na iga ion in England in Elizabe han and Ea ly S ua imes
(London: Hollis and Ca e , 1958).
8
Megan Ba o d, and Louise De oy, “Using he Seas and Skies: Na iga ion in Ea ly Mode n England” in Tudo
& S ua sea a e s. The eme gence o a ma i ime na ion, 1485–1707, ed James Da ey (London: Na ional
Ma i ime Museum G eenwich, 2018), pp. 106–107.
9
Da id Quinn, “Simão Fe nandes, a Po uguese Pilo in he English Se ice, ci ca 1573–1588” in Ac as do
Cong esso In e nacional de His ó ia dos Descob imen os, Vol. III, (Lisbon: Comissão pa a a Comemo ação
do V Cen ená io da mo e do In an e D. Hen ique, 1961), pp. 463–464.
10
On he opic see: José Ma ía Mo eno Mad id and Da id Salomoni, “Nuno da Sil a’s hi d ela ion: an
unknown epo on F ancis D ake oyage (1577–1580),” Te ae Incogni ae 54 (2022), pp. 64–82.
11
E en du ing he yea s o open wa be ween 1585 and 1603 as s a ed by Pauline C o , “English ma ine s
ading o Spain and Po ugal, 1558–1625,” Ma ine ’s Mi o 69 (1983), pp. 251–266.
YTIN 63
Bu ea lie , o he Po uguese se ed England, including An ónio Eanes Pin eado,
F ancisco Rod igues, and Ba olomeu Baião.
12
While Pin eado and Rod igues we e
ac i e in he 1550s,
13
Ba olomeu Baião ope a ed in he 1560-70s. Baião’s ca ee
emains obscu e.
14
Mainly emembe ed as a p i a ee in English se ice, Baião was
also a me chan , an expe in na iga ion, and a so o spy dealing ma i ime
in elligence be ween he Ibe ians and he English. The easons o his coming o
England, his se ices o John Hawkins (1532–1595), William Cecil (1520–1598)
and o London me chan s ha e no been s udied in de ail.
15
The p ima y objec i e o his a icle is o econs uc Baião’s ca ee ac oss
Po ugal, Spain, and England, o e alua e i s impac on he ansmission o ma i ime
knowledge be ween he Ibe ian Peninsula and Elizabe han England and o discuss he
in icacies o knowledge ci cula ion in he 16
h
cen u y. This s udy will u ilize
Spanish and English sou ces o econs uc Baião’s ca ee . The con ex s in which
Baião ope a ed will be examined, wi h a pa icula emphasis on unde s anding his
mo i a ions a each s age. This s udy aims o elucida e he me hods and s a egies
media o s o nau ical knowledge like Baião used o ci cula e, nego ia e, and secu e
employmen wi h i al ma i ime powe s. The conclusion will assess whe he Baião
can be conside ed a media o o Ibe ian ma i ime knowledge by compa ing him o
his p edecesso s and con empo a ies in England. Fu he mo e, i will explo e how
Baião’s ca ee in luenced English o e seas ambi ions and e lec on how i can
con ibu e o u he s udies on ma i ime knowledge ci cula ion in he 16
h
cen u y.
Exchanging Po ugal o Spain o a Nau ical P oposal (1564–65)
Li le is known abou he ea ly li e o Ba olomeu Baião. Since he pa icipa ed in he
expedi ion o Simão de Alcáço a (1470–1535), he Po uguese explo e unde Spanish
se ice who died in he Pa agonian a ea in 1535, Baião may ha e been bo n in he la e
1510s. Gi en he pa e n o in ense ci cula ion o Po uguese nau ical expe s be ween
Po ugal and Spain and e en he nau ical espionage in which bo h sides engages du ing
du ing he 1530s,
16
i is possible Baião subsequen ly e u ned o Po uguese se ice. Ye ,
he Po uguese ule s John III ( . 1521–1557) and Sebas ian ( . 1557–1578) did no
12
James Alexande Williamson, Si John Hawkins: he ime and he man (London: Cla endon P ess, 1927),
pp. 99; Alan Haynes, Walsingham: Elizabe han Spymas e and S a esman (S oud: Su on, 2004), p. 42.
13
Fo an o e iew o he b oade impac o Pin eado and Rod igues’ ac ions in England in Anglo-Po uguese
ma i ime and diploma ic ela ions see Nuno Vila-San a, Knowledge Exchanges be ween Po ugal and Eu ope:
Ma i ime Diplomacy, Espionage and Nau ical Science in he Ea ly Mode n Wo ld (15
h
-17
h
cen u ies)
(Ams e dam: Ams e dam Uni e si y P ess, 2024), pp. 87–120.
14
P. E. H. Hai , “The Teixei a da Mo a A chi e and he Guinea Tex s P ojec ,” His o y in A ica, 10 (1983),
p. 388. A elino Teixei a da Mo a (1920–1982) planned o w i e an a icle on Baião bu his wo k appea s
no o ha e been comple ed. I ha e sea ched o he Admi al’s no es o his a icle on Baião a Lisbon’s
Academia de Ma inha, Biblio eca de Ma inha, A qui o His ó ico de Ma inha and a he ancien a chi es om
IICT, whe e mos o Teixei a da Mo a’s pape s a e kep , bu ha e no ound hem. I seems ha he a icle
was ne e published a e Mo a’s dea h.
15
Recen wo ks on London’s ading communi y do no men ion Baião. Fo ins ance: Jessica Howe , S. Tudo
Empi e. The Making o Ea ly Mode n B i ain and he B i ish A lan ic Wo ld, 1485–1603 (Palg a e
Macmillan, 2020); Edmond Smi h, Me chan s. The communi y ha shaped England’s T ade and Empi e,
(New Ha en: Yale Uni e si y P ess, 2021).
16
Vila-San a, Knowledge Exchanges, p. 63.
64 NUNO VILA-SANTA
p o ide Baião wi h any oyal g an . Baião’s name is absen om he Po uguese oyal
chancelle y eco ds be ween he 1530s and he 1570s.
17
The Spanish a chi e o Simancas holds wo unda ed pape s Baião signed, bo h in
he Sec e a ia de Es ado Po ugal, which con ain eco ds ela ing o Spain’s diplo-
ma ic ela ions wi h Po ugal. The legajo 382 con ains se e al documen s ela ing o
Dom Alonso de To a , he Spanish ambassado o Po ugal be ween 1561 and
1567.
18
Bo h o Baião’s pape s a e au og aphs, p obably add essed o To a ,
gi en ha in 1563, s a ioned in Lisbon, To a deal wi h he Po uguese pilo
Ba olomeu Bo ges, whom he ied o ec ui in o Spanish se ice.
19
A epo om
he la e 1560s, by Es eban Be çon de Medina del Campo, who me Baião in Spain
while he was in p ison, s a ed ha To a ga e Baião le e s o c edence o p esen o
Philip II ( . 1556–1598).
20
As legajo 382 con ains documen s o he yea s
1564–65, i is likely ha Baião’s pape s also da e om 1564–65.
The mo e o mal one o he i s documen sugges s ha Baião in ended i o
Philip II. Baião began by discussing he na iga ional challenges Spanish ships e u n-
ing om he Ame icas and No he n Eu ope aced in Ibe ian wa e s. Baião claimed
ha inadequa ely ained pilo s we e oo o en unawa e o hei exac posi ion
because hey we e unable o calcula e hei la i ude. As mos pilo s we e igno an
o he p inciples o as onomical na iga ion, did no know how o calcula e he
heigh o he sun, and elied only on hei p ac ical expe ience a sea, he esul was
equen shipw ecks. Baião aun ed his in en ion o a no el nau ical ins umen
enabling pilo s o accu a ely measu e he heigh o he sun, e en unde cloudy o
s o my condi ions. The ins umen was so easy o use ha any sailo would be able
o ope a e i wi hou di icul y. Addi ionally, i could also be used a nigh o
measu e he heigh o he pola s a s, no only in he No he n Hemisphe e, bu
also in he Sou he n Hemisphe e, whe e hese s a s we e mo e di icul o loca e.
Baião emphasized ha his in en ion was pa icula ly aluable o na iga ion in he
Paci ic, whe e sailing mean spending many days wi hou sigh ing land. Baião
o e ed o p esen his in en ion in pe son, along wi h all his o he “sec e s.” He
concluded by s a ing ha he had special in elligence o con ey ega ding he
Po uguese cou ’s esponse, based on he amous 1494 me idian o To desillas in
he A lan ic, o Spanish claims in Flo ida. Baião p omised o disclose his in o ma-
ion, despi e he signi ican isk he aced in Po ugal. Thus, he ended his i s
documen by hin ing ha i he was accep ed in o he Spanish se ice, he would
p o ide his nau ical in en ion and in elligence on Flo ida.
17
A A qui o Nacional To e do Tombo (ANTT), I sea ched o oyal g an s o Baião o e en a pa don-le e
o him by Kings John III and Sebas ian, and he e is no such eco d (a Chancela ia de D. João III and
D. Sebas ião e D. Hen ique (P óp ios and Pe dões).
18
A chi o Gene al de Simancas (AGS), Sec e a ia de Es ado, Legajo 382. The documen s in his legajo a e no
numbe ed.
19
On he opic see: Nuno Vila-San a, “The Un old S o y o Oceanic Pilo Ba olomeu Bo ges who Guided Jean
Ribaul o Flo ida in 1562: Documen T ansc ip ion and T ansla ion, accompanied by an His o ical
In oduc ion,” Te ae Incogni ae 55–1 (2023), pp. 82–102.
20
A chi o Gene al de Indias (AGI), Pa ona o 171, nº 1, R. 18, o. 24.
YTIN 65
Baião’s second Po uguese pape is almos a epe i ion o he i s . Ti led “No es
on he e ec o he ins umen ,” i seems o ha e been di ec ed o ambassado To a ,
who likely eques ed ha Baião p o ide mo e scien i ic de ails abou his in en ion
be o e To a in o med Philip II and his cosmog aphe s abou Baião’s p oposal.
None heless, i was no in Baião’s in e es o disclose he scien i ic “sec e s” o his
in en ion o a hi d pa y, a he han p esen ing hem pe sonally in Spain. A e
ou lining he ad an ages o his nau ical ins umen , Baião s a ed ha he had been
conside ing se ing Spain o many yea s. Since Spain was he g ea es Eu opean
ma i ime powe , he decided o p esen his nau ical ins umen he e, as no one in
Po ugal app ecia ed i . To deli e he in elligence abou Flo ida pe sonally, Baião
eques ed le e s o c edence o sa ely c oss he Po uguese-Spanish bo de .
As s a ed, he e is no o mal indica ion ha ambassado To a eplied o Baião.
S ill, conside ing ha To a app oached pilo Bo ges in 1563, he may ha e acco ded
Baião he c edence le e s ha Be çon la e claimed o ha e seen. Baião’s d a s
indica e his amilia i y wi h he adi ional he o ic Po uguese pilo s a emp ing o
se e Spain in he Paci ic employed. Po uguese cosmog aphe João Pacheco in 1535
p oposed ha Empe o Cha les V ( . 1516–1556) o ganize a Spanish en u e o he
Paci ic.
21
Baião’s he o ic closely esembles Pacheco’s, bu Baião also p o e ed his
nau ical in en ion sho ly be o e he Spanish inaugu a ed he nau ical ou e be ween
New Spain and he Philippines in 1565. Baião clea ly saw his as an oppo uni y o
claim ha his nau ical ins umen could be used in he Paci ic oyages.
Baião also con ended ha he Po uguese cou was p epa ing o challenge Spain’s
igh s o Flo ida, e en hough Flo ida was clea ly wi hin he Spanish hemisphe e
acco ding o he To desillas T ea y o 1494. Baião’s e e ence o he Po uguese
claim o Flo ida sugges s ha he pilo was awa e ha his would immedia ely aise
conce n a Philip II’s cou and migh also enhance his chances o accep ance in o
Spanish se ice. The e is no e idence, howe e , ha Po ugal e e p esen ed such
a p o es o Spain. I also emains unclea whe he cosmog aphe s om he Casa de
la Con a ación o Se ille e e examined Baião’s nau ical ins umen , as would ha e
been ypical had he Spanish cou se iously conside ed i . S ill, Baião knew well he
language and ac ics necessa y o “sell” his nau ical expe ise.
22
Baião also ope a ed
as ano he ypical Spanish a bi is a, p oposing his emedies o he Spanish chal-
lenges. In his, Baião was also in luenced by his Po uguese o igin. Since he eme -
gence o he Po uguese o e seas empi e, such ype o “ emedies” li e a u e is
common in Po uguese a chi es.
23
Baião’s p oposal wa an ed conside a ion less because o his ques ionable nau ical
in en ion, han because he p omised o p o ide in elligence on Flo ida. In 1564–65,
21
Vila-San a, Knowledge Exchanges, pp. 44–45.
22
This is mos ly he case o he a ille y men employed by he Casa exac ly in he same pe iod as Baião. See
B ice Cossa d, Les a illeu s e la Mona chie hispanique (1560–1610). Gue e, sa oi s echniques, E a (Pa is:
Classiques Ga nie , 2021).
23
See Luís de Albuque que, José Pe ei a da Cos a, “Ca as de se iços da Índia (1500–1550),” Ma e Libe um nº
1, 1990, pp. 309–396.
66 NUNO VILA-SANTA
amid he F anco-Spanish con lic s in Flo ida,
24
any nau ical, geog aphical, ma i ime
o poli ical in elligence ha Baião migh ha e had would ha e been aluable o
Spain. The e is no indica ion, howe e , ha he ecei ed any o mal eply om
To a , Philip II o he Consejo de Indias. Baião hus u ned o England, hoping o
capi alize on his nau ical expe ise by o e ing o suppo John Hawkins’ oyages.
Ma i ime and Me can ile In elligence in he Se ice o John Hawkins
and he Spanish Imp isonmen (1565–69)
Awa e o Hawkins’ i s oyage in 1562 and o his comme cial p o i s om selling
sla es om Wes A ica o he Spanish ou pos s in he Ca ibbean, Baião likely hea d
ha in Oc obe 1564 Hawkins depa ed om Plymou h o epea his ea .
25
The
Po uguese ule was in o med o his ia he many wa nings sen by João Pe ei a
Dan as, he Po uguese ambassado in F ance be ween 1557 and 1568.
26
Po uguese
p epa a ions agains English oyages o Wes A ica in 1564–65 we e no sec e
ei he .
Po uguese pilo s An ónio Eanes Pin eado and F ancisco Rod igues had ac i ely
pa icipa ed in he oyages o Thomas Wyndham and William Towe son in he
1550s. In 1561, Po uguese New-Ch is ian Belchio Vaz de Aze edo was sen o
England by Nicholas Th ockmo on (1516–1571), he English ambassado in
F ance. In he ambassado ’s wo ds, Aze edo was being sen wi h “ he bes pilo in
he wo ld.”
27
Aze edo would ad ise he London me chan s on op imal ading
loca ions in Wes A ica. When Baião wen o London in 1565, i was also well
known ha Hawkins had hi ed Spanish pilo s in he Cana y Islands o his i s
oyage.
28
Baião likely signaled his willingness o se e he English as a p ojec o and
o e ed o help os e he inancial goals o English oyages o Wes A ica, in
exchange o he social p omo ion denied in Po ugal and Spain.
29
Baião p esen ed himsel o Hawkins and he London me chan s. I is unclea i he
did so as a sla e ade , a me chan who could also ade wi h many commodi ies, o
as an expe cosmog aphe . Imp essed by his c eden ials, Hawkins and he London
me chan s appoin ed Baião cap ain o an English ship. In 1565, Baião aided he
Po uguese Cape Ve de Islands whe e he s ole sla es ha he subsequen ly sold in he
Ca ibbean o he Spanish.
30
24
See John T. McG a h, The F ench in Ea ly Flo ida: in he Eye o he Hu icane (Miami: Uni e si y P ess o
Flo ida, 2000).
25
On Hawkins see: Ha y Kelsey, Si John Hawkins Queen Elizabe h’s Sla e T ade (New Ha en: Yale
Uni e si y P ess, 2003), p. 19.
26
Nuno Vila-San a, “Figh ing o Ma e Clausum and Sec e Science: Spain, F ance and England in he s a egies
o ambassado Dan as (1557–1568),” Vegue a 23–2 (2023), pp. 1141–1143.
27
Calenda o S a e Pape s, Fo eign Se ies, o he eign o Elizabe h, 1561–62, edi ed by Joseph S e enson
(London: Longman, G een, Longman & Robe s, 1866), doc. 279.
28
Kelsey, Si John Hawkins, p. 14.
29
On he opic o English p ojec o s see: Koji Yamamo o, Taming Capi alism be o e i s T iumph: Public
Se ice, Dis us , and “P ojec ing” in Ea ly Mode n England (Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2018).
30
Go don Kay Mcb ide, “The poli ics o economic expansion: English economic and diploma ic ela ions wi h
Po ugal and incu sions in o he Po uguese o e seas empi e, 1550–1590,” PhD hesis (Cincinna i: Uni e si y
o Cincinna i, 1975), p. 95.
YTIN 67
and sell mo e sla es in he egion. Spes e ained om gi ing Baião a de ini i e
esponse un il he could con i m Philip’s s ance on he ma e , enclosing his co e-
spondence wi h Baião o he king’s e iew.
53
Baião was a emp ing o see who
would o e him be e e ms, England o Spain. Philip II eplied ambassado Spes on
26 June:
I Ba olomé Bayon ul ils his p omise, he shall be willingly supplied wi h wha he asks;
bu as ma e s o his so a e gene ally e y easy o say and mo e di icul o do, hey
usually u n ou ain, and i will be well o you o come o close qua e s wi h him,
and ind ou he exac way in which he hinks o do wha he p omises. You will send
ull pa icula s o his o my decision.
54
Thus, o he i s ime, Philip pe sonally add essed he Baião a ai , indica ing
a heigh ened le el o conce n, e en hough Baião’s case had been on his desk since
1564–65. On 30 June, Philip in o med Spes ha he had ye o ecei e Baião’s
enclosed le e s ha Spes had o wa ded and ins uc ed Spes o esend hem.
55
Wi hou being ce ain o Baião’s in en ions, he king could no make a inal
decision.
56
Meanwhile in England, he si ua ion quickly changed. On 28 July, ano he
Spanish agen in Spes’ se ice, An onio de Gua as, elayed new de elopmen s o
Philip. Hawkins was p epa ing a lee o Flo ida and Gua as wa ned ha Hawkins
would employ Baião as his pilo and was scheduled o lea e in Augus .
57
Th ee days
la e , Gua as in o med he Po uguese cou ha Baião had depa ed wi h Hawkins
om London o Plymou h o pilo he oyage. He added ha Baião was dange ous:
“This bad pilo , who knows much and has g ea expe ience, will ce ainly do us
some g a e inju y i means a e no quickly de ised o p e en i .”
58
Gua as’ missi e sugges s ha he Spanish we e e en con empla ing assassina ing
Baião.
59
Ne e heless, a his junc u e, Philip had no ye esponded de ini i ely o
Spes, which allowed Baião o seize he oppo uni y o swi ch allegiances once again
and en e Hawkins’ se ice. On 5 Augus , Spes in o med Philip ha Baião would
pilo he English oyage in ended o a ack he Indian lee e u ning om he
Ame icas. A e , he English would head no o he Magellan S ai , bu o New
Spain.
60
Baião was using his pe sonal connec ions o ec ui Ibe ian sailo s o se e
England, posing ano he p oblem o Spain and Po ugal. Gua as con i med ha
53
Ibidem, doc. 189.
54
Ibidem, doc. 197.
55
Ibidem, doc. 193.
56
See he conside a ions o Geo ey Pa ke , Imp uden King: A New Li e o Philip II (New Ha en: Yale
Uni e si y P ess, 2014) who has long e lec ed on he consequences o his app oach o Spain’s o e all
in e es s, e en claiming ha Philip II was as an “imp uden king.” On Philip II as a spide a his nes a El
Esco ial see also: A nd B endecke, The Empi ical Empi e. Spanish Colonial Rule and he Poli ics o
Knowledge (Be lin: De G uy e , 2016).
57
Calenda o S a e Pape s, (Simancas), 1568–1579, doc. 198.
58
Ibidem, doc. 199.
59
Simila ly o wha Spanish ambassado s in F ance did. See Vila-San a, “Figh ing,” pp. 1132–1136.
60
Calenda o S a e Pape s, (Simancas), 1568–1579, doc. 200.
74 NUNO VILA-SANTA
Baião had “seduced” wo Spanish sailo s (Damien Dela and Ba ien os) o join
Hawkins’ a ack on he Spanish. Hawkins and Baião’s plans we e clea ; o uni e
wi h he F ench aide Jacques de So es and a ack he Ca e a de Indias.
61
Thus,
Baião had unmis akably picked a side and seems o ha e been ac ing in e enge o
Philip’s e usal o o e him a pos in he Spanish lee . Gua as’ upda e was wo ying
o ano he eason. So es was one o Coligny’s ice-admi als and had aided
San iago de Cuba wi h success in 1555. E e since, So es’ plans we e always
a ma e o conce n o Spain. None heless, on 9 Augus , Gua as in o med Philip,
Hawkins had decided o emain in Plymou h o obse e wha would happen in
Flande s (a e e ence o he ension be ween he English and he Spanish o e he
much-needed supplies sen by sea om Spain o he Ne he lands o de ea he
ebellion in he egion). Baião hus e u ned o London.
62
The looming p ospec o
an open wa be ween England and Spain, oge he wi h he ac ha comme cial
ela ions be ween England and Po ugal,
63
we e s ill o icially suspended, impac ed
Baião’s nex maneu e s.
Baião ealized ha oppo uni ies o pe sonal gain unde Hawkins we e limi ed
due o he s ained ela ions be ween England and he Ibe ian c owns. Consequen ly,
on 12 Augus , Baião hu ied o in o m Spes ha Hawkins in ended o sail wel e
ships o San Juan de Ulloa o plunde a he han coloniza ion. I Hawkins ound
he a ea o i ied, he would a ack o se le pas g ie ances. Baião p o ided his
in elligence because he was once again con empla ing a e u n o Spain’s se ice,
condi ional on accep ance by Philip. Should his o e be declined, Baião wa ned Spes
ha he would join ano he English oyage.
64
The same day, Gua as epo ed ha
Baião was icking Spes and was only buying ime, as ul ima ely, he would sail wi h
Hawkins.
65
On 20 Augus , Gua as w o e Philip ha Elizabe h had decided ha Hawkins
would no se sail so long as he Spanish lee o Flande s did no pass h ough he
English Channel. He also con i med Baião’s ue in en ions: “I ha e since disco e ed
ha he Po uguese pilo was eally o go wi h he lee al hough he denied.”
66
Baião
once again ac ed as a double agen , misleading bo h Spes and Gua as o conceal his
ue in en ions. Howe e , his plans we e exposed. By his poin , Baião’s duplici y
was well-known bu did no diminish Philip’s need o moni o Baião’s mo emen s,
as Baião emained a h ea o Ibe ian o e seas in e es s we e he o sail wi h
Hawkins.
61
Ibidem, doc. 202.
62
Ibidem, doc. 203.
63
On he opic see he classical: A. B. Wallis Chapman, V. M. Shilling on, The Comme cial Rela ions o
England and Po ugal (London, Geo ge Rou ledge & Sons Limi ed, 1907) and also he a icle on he English
ambassado Thomas Wilson dispa ched o Lisbon by William Cecil in 1567 be o e King Sebas ian decided o
seize English p ope ies in Po ugal in 1569: Susana Oli ei a, “Ne wo ks o exchange in Anglo-Po uguese
six een h-cen u y diplomacy and Thomas Wilson’s mission o Po ugal,” in Exile, Diplomacy and Tex s:
Exchanges be ween Ibe ia and he B i ish Isles, 1500–1767, edi ed by Ana Sáez-Hidalgo and Be a Cano
Eche a ia (Leiden/Bos on: B ill, 2020), pp. 32–54.
64
Calenda o S a e Pape s, (Simancas), 1568–1579, doc. 204.
65
Ibidem, doc. 205.
66
Ibidem, doc. 210.
YTIN 75
In Sep embe , Spes again o wa ded Baião’s le e s o Philip. Spes ecommended
ha Philip hi e Baião and pledged o engage wi h Baião u he . Philip ejec ed Spes’
p oposal, ci ing his mis us o Baião’s in en ions, and ins uc ed Spes o con inue
moni o ing Hawkins.
67
The e o e, i becomes clea ha Philip II had aken his
decision and disag eed wi h Spes conce ning Baião. E en so, Spes con inued o
nego ia e wi h Baião and o y o pe suade Philip o hi e he enegade pilo . This
is e ealed in Spes’ missi e o Philip on 19 Sep embe . The ansc ip ion is ele an
as i speci ies he de ails o he nego ia ion be ween Spes and Baião, ully e ealing
how a Baião had a i ed:
I ha e aken ca e, in ul ilmen o You Majes y’s ins uc ions, o deal wi h Ba olomé
Bayon, as i on my own accoun , in o de o ge him o make clea how he hinks he
could bes se e You Majes y. I old him, in o de o ge him o open ou , ha I would
communica e on he subjec h ough a iend o mine who was a sec e a y o he
Council o he Indies. The esul was ha I go him o make he s a emen which
I enclose he ewi h, and i seems o me undoub ed ha he is a man who could se e wi h
ad an age, and whom i is impo an o sepa a e om he English and he pi a es, who
hink by his help o make g ea p og ess in he Indies. I is ue ha some o he clauses
in his documen need mode a ion; bu i he sails only wi h You Majes y’s subjec s,
You Majes y will always be able o punish him o modi y he ag eemen a you
disc e ion. His eques o be allowed o ake ic uals wi hou p esen paymen and
wi hou gi ing secu i y in Se ille, appea s somewha impe inen , bu he es o his
demands, a e aba ing he expo o neg oes, and he aking o me chandise om he e,
do no seem o be objec ionable.
68
This le e om Spes e eals ha Philip had ins uc ed him o nego ia e wi h Baião
in o mally, ac ing only in his name and no on behal o he king himsel . This would
pe mi Philip o assess whe he Baião ha bo ed any genuine in en ion o se e Spain
wi hou in ol ing he king di ec ly. Philip acknowledged on 2 No embe ha he had
ecei ed Baião’s le e s bu indica ed ha he would ca e ully analyze hem be o e
making his decision.
69
The e o e, i appea s ha Philip was inclined o yield o
ambassado Spes’ pe sis ence in lu ing Baião back o Spain. Bu , because Hawkins
did no se sail, Baião in 1570 could no longe use he h ea o sailing wi h Hawkins
in his nego ia ions wi h Spes. E en so, Baião had much o gain by aligning wi h
Hawkins a he han Spain. I is plausible ha Baião was playing bo h sides, eeding
in o ma ion o Hawkins abou Spes’ ac i i ies and ice e sa, jus as he did wi h
Spes’ p edecesso , ambassado Guzmán de Sil a in 1567, when he misled him
ega ding he des ina ion o his oyage based on William Cecil’s counsel.
70
Philip no i ied Spies o his decision conce ning Baião on 31 Janua y 1571. Once
mo e he ansc ip ion is essen ial o unde s and how he king o med his opinion o
Baião:
67
Ibidem, docs. 213, 214 and 217.
68
Ibidem, doc. 218.
69
Ibidem, doc. 224.
70
Ronald, The Pi a e Queen, p. 103.
76 NUNO VILA-SANTA
Ha ing conside ed wha you ha e w i en on a ious occasions abou Ba olomé Bayon
and he memo andum he ga e you, I ha e come o he conclusion ha his p oposals a e
qui e ou o he ques ion, and we e no doub only made o he pu pose o ge ing mo e
c edi and epu a ion wi h he people he e in consequence o he eply he hoped o ge
om he e. Al hough his was he case, you will do well no o appea o sligh him, and
you may ell him, as i on you own accoun , ha he pe son who was you in e -
media y had in o med you ha , i he would mode a e somewha he demands he
makes, he migh be deal wi h easonably, bu ha i would be much be e , in o de
ha i should be se led mo e speedily and easily, ha he himsel should come he e o
ea on he ma e ; o which pu pose a sa e conduc would be gi en o him. You can
p oceed cau iously in acco dance wi h his as you see i and le me know wha
passes.
71
Philip con inued his ypical ploy o dissimula ion, ins uc ing Spes o s a e clea ly o
Baião ha he needed o mode a e his demands, bu pe mi ing he ambassado o
issue Baião a sa e conduc o a el o Spain o u he nego ia ion. Like Spes, Philip
wan ed o cap u e he “ ai o ous” Baião be o e he la e could do mo e damage.
Once mo e, Baião eluded a es , and e en s in England compelled Spes o adop
a new s a egy. William Win e and Hawkins we e eady o depa in se en o eigh
ships and Baião was o ollow hem in wo ships o buy sla es in Wes A ica and o
sell hem in he Ca ibbean.
72
Spes was wo ied enough o add ess wo le e s o
Philip, da ed Ma ch 2 and 10. In he second, Spes admi ed his p e ious misjudg-
men o Baião’s in en ions:
I ha e no been able o se le any hing wi h he Council, and s ill less wi h Bayon. When
I sen o summon him hi he , he was al eady in ag eemen wi h a Po uguese Doc o
he e and ce ain Flemish exiles o i ou wo ships, and he e used o come o me, bu
w o e o me ha he would no ouch in You Majes y’s e i o y. I do no belie e him,
bu I am no abandoning he ma e and p o ess g ea a ec ion o him, al hough he
p esumes a g ea deal mo e han he has any igh o do. The Council a e willing,
howe e , ha he should go.
73
Following Philip’s ins uc ions, Spes al e ed his app oach. While publicly showing
a o owa d Baião, he clandes inely wo ked owa d his down all. He had an
addi ional mo i e o unde mining Baião: he la e ’s collabo a ion wi h Flemish
exiles in London. Thus, on 10 Ma ch, Spes pe suaded he English au ho i ies o
imp ison Baião, and in o med Philip ha Baião was inca ce a ed bu e o s we e
unde way o his elease. Spes disclosed ha nego ia ions wi h Baião, who now
enjoyed open suppo om membe s o he P i y Council, con inued e en while
Baião was de ained. Spes s a ed, wi h e iden us a ion, ha “I has been impos-
sible o b ing him o decency, as he is a g ea scamp. I wea he do no p e en him,
I unde s and he will go o he i e Senegal and hence all hese pi a es hope ha he
winds will ca y hem o he coas on he no h o he Island o Hispaniola, whe e
he e a e good po s and oppo uni ies o p o i .”
74
71
Calenda o S a e Pape s, (Simancas), 1568–1579, doc. 234.
72
Ibidem, doc. 238.
73
Ibidem, doc. 240.
74
Ibidem, doc. 242.
YTIN 77
Meanwhile, wa ned o Baião’s in ol emen wi h Flemish ebel exiles and Doc o
Hec o Nunes (1521–1591), a Po uguese-Jewish physician in Elizabe h’s se ice,
Philip eac ed. He w o e o Spes on 17 Ap il ha he had long dis us ed Baião and
only endo sed he dissimula ion s a egy a Spes’ insis ence: “Wha you w i e abou
he pilo Bayon has been no news o us he e as we always judged ha his p oposals
made o you we e simply an a ul ick.” S ill, he King also p omised o keep Spes
upda ed on Baião and Nunes’ connec ions in Spain.
75
Spes pe sis ed in his e o s o
secu e Baião’s de ini i e imp isonmen . On 27 Ap il, in a le e o Philip, he
explained in de ail how he managed o ob ain Baião’s a es , by exploi ing Baião’s
deb s. Spes’ accoun is no ewo hy o his ac ics, bu also o he e e ence o he
“F ench” dange : “I ha e had Ba olomé Bayon a es ed he e h ough ce ain c ed-
i o s o his, and he will no be able o go o he Indies now, e en hough he be
eleased, as he season is oo a ad anced. I will y o s op him o any u u e
season, and also his going o Rochelle, which he in ends o do in de aul o any o he
oyage.”
76
Once mo e, Spes was w ong in assuming ha Baião would no be eleased in ime
o sail wi h he English lee . Baião conside ed leeing o he Hugueno s a La
Rochelle, which was allied wi h Coligny, whose in e es in hi ing Po uguese ma -
i ime expe s was well-known.
77
Spes conside ed Baião an imminen h ea o
Spain’s in e es s, whe he he sailed in 1571 unde English o F ench lag, because
he knew ha Coligny would a ge Spanish and Po uguese o e seas e i o ies. The
p e ious yea , Coligny’s ice-admi al So es had aided he Cana y Islands and
execu ed he new Po uguese go e no o B azil, along wi h se e al Jesui s. The
p ospec o Baião, a skilled pilo and cap ain knowledgeable abou Po ugal and
Spain’s A lan ic ou es, aligning wi h Coligny was a deeply ala ming scena io o
bo h ealms.
Spes wa ned Spain o mo e quickly. He judged i p e e able o ha e Baião in Elizabe h’s
se ice, as she s ill hesi a ed o a ack Ibe ian shipping and ea ed open wa wi h bo h
Po ugal and Spain. Baião would be mo e dange ous wo king o Coligny, who ad oca ed
a ma i ime wa be ween F ance and he Ibe ian powe s. Ul ima ely, Baião emained in
English se ice. The English may ha e sough o e ain Baião and o p e en him om
joining Coligny. Some yea s be o e, p ecisely because o his nau ical knowledge, Jean
Ribaul was jailed in London o a oid his een y in o Coligny’s employ.
78
Upon his elease om p ison and wi h he suppo o he P i y Council and London
me chan s, Baião esumed p epa a ions o his oyage. Philip issued wo o de s on 31 July
The i s was di ec ed o D. Juan de Bo ja, he Spanish ambassado in Po ugal om 1570
o 1575. Philip ins uc ed Bo ja o ho oughly in es iga e and e i y Spes’ epo ha Baião
and Nunes had ins uc ed Be na do Ruiz o pu chase a ship in Lisbon o a oyage o he
Spanish Indies wi h hei ca go. I con i med, Bo ja was asked wi h hwa ing hese plans
75
Ibidem, doc. 248.
76
Ibidem, doc. 250.
77
Vila-San a, “Figh ing,” pp. 1123–1130.
78
Fo de ails on Ribaul ’s ca ee be ween England and F ance see: McG a h, The F ench, pp. 50–56.
78 NUNO VILA-SANTA
in Lisbon.
79
The second di ec i e was dispa ched o Spanish au ho i ies in Biscay. Spes had
ale ed Philip ha Baião and Nunes had an associa e, Ped o Zuazo, in Bilbao, and wa ned
ha Baião would cap ain his oyage. Consequen ly, Philip commanded au ho i ies in
Biscay o p e en any such schemes in ol ing Biscayan accomplices.
80
On 5 Augus , he
in o med Spes o hese o de s and acknowledged ha he had ac ed upon Spes’ counsel.
81
Despi e hese e o s o obs uc his depa u e, Baião sailed. Philip w o e o Spes on
13 Augus :
I was well o epo he sailing o he pilo Ba olome Bayon, as I a once had he
necessa y s ep aken o ca ch him, and ad ised my nephew, he King o Po ugal, o
cap u e him when he called in o ake he neg oes, ha being he place whe e he can be
mos easily aken. We do no doub ha he Po uguese will do hei bes as hey a e
much o ended wi h him.
82
Philip’s le e a i ms he collabo a ion be ween he Po uguese and he Spanish in hei
e o s o app ehend Baião in 1571, akin o hei ac ions wi h An ão Luís and Gaspa
Caldei a in 1567. Reg e ably, he comple e co espondence o F ancisco Gi aldes in
1571, he Po uguese ambassado in England, has no su i ed, making i impossible o
e i y his Po uguese-Spanish collabo a ion om he Po uguese pe spec i e.
Ne e heless, ano he documen con i ms Baião’s English se ice in 1571. I pe ains o
English plans o sail o New Spain, os ensibly da ed 1575, hough i s con en s s ongly
sugges i was composed a ound 1571. This documen e e ences Baião’s nego ia ions
wi h ambassado Spes in 1570 ega ding his po en ial e u n o Spain’s se ice. I also
no es ha du ing hese nego ia ions, Baião made undisclosed p omises o Thomas Ea ne,
an indi idual who had se ed in I eland unde Robe Dudley, he 1
s
Ea l o Leices e and
Elizabe h’s a o ed cou ie .
83
Ea ne likely in oduced Baião o Dudley and subsequen ly
o William Cecil. Baião con inced Dudley and Cecil ha he would lead an English
expedi ion o New Spain. To secu e hei us , Baião swo e comple e loyal y o
England, e en sugges ing ha ailing, hey could cu o his head. Despi e hei ecogni ion
o Baião’s skills as a cosmog aphe , Dudley and Cecil hesi a ed o app o e he expedi ion’s
depa u e due o Baião’s his o y o shi ing allegiances. This hesi a ion was no unp ece-
den ed, as he English had p e iously encoun e ed simila si ua ions in ol ing Po uguese
pilo s. In 1567, Po uguese sailo s An ão Luís and Gaspa Caldei a had a i ed in England
o e ing o guide he English o pu po ed gold deposi s in Wes A ica. They had made
simila p omises in Spain and F ance ea lie . Accep ed in o Elizabe h’s se ice and
subsequen ly unde Hawkins, hey la e admi ed o ab ica ing hei knowledge o he
gold mines and led.
84
Simila suspicions likely a ose in Dudley and Cecil’s minds
ega ding Baião’s p oposal in 1571. Cecil was always cau ious and me iculous, and also
e y a en i e o e e y hing connec ed o Po ugal as a ecen manusc ip ound in his
79
AGI, Indi e en e, 426, book 25, o. 119 -120 .
80
AGI, Indi e en e, 426, book 25, o. 119 -119 .
81
Calenda o S a e Pape s, (Simancas), 1568–1579, doc. 269.
82
Ibidem, doc. 275.
83
See Sa ah G is wood. Elizabe h & Leices e : Powe , passion and poli ics (New Yo k: Viking, 2007).
84
See Bou don, Deux a en u iez.
YTIN 79
pe sonal lib a y demons a es.
85
Thus, Cecil could no a o d he dange o Baião
jeopa dizing his in luen ial cou posi ion,
86
pa icula ly du ing he 1570s, a ime o
escala ing powe s uggles o con ol o e Elizabe h.
Baião he e o e collabo a ed wi h o he London me chan s o o ganize a new expedi-
ion. On 18 July 1571, he depa ed om London as he cap ain o a ship c ewed by six y
men. His objec i e was o emula e Hawkins’ successes by p ocu ing wine in he Cana y
Islands, selling co on in Cape Ve de, ga he ing sla es in Rio G ande, and hen ading
hem in he Ca ibbean. Baião success ully comple ed his jou ney. While passing nea
Pue o Rico, he e alia ed o pas g ie ances endu ed he e in 1565. Howe e , be o e
Baião’s depa u e, he was summoned by Dudley and Cecil. Bo h eques ed ha he lead he
expedi ion o New Spain, gi en hei p e ious nego ia ions. Baião declined, ci ing ha he
na iga ional schedule o his depa u e was oo ad anced, bu assu ed hem he would
cap ain he oyage in 1572. Based on Baião’s assu ance, Cecil and Dudley allowed him o
se sail. Baião planned o u ilize he p o i s om his oyage o acqui e i e ships and
commence he en e p ise o New Spain he ollowing yea . In 1572, he in ended o
pe sonally demons a e o he English he e ec i e me hods and loca ions o ading in
ha egion.
87
This documen sugges s ha Cecil and Dudley, as membe s o he P i y Council in
1571, likely acili a ed Baião’s elease om he jail. Secondly, i aises he ques ion o
whe he Baião was in ol ed in plans o an English expedi ion o New Spain wi h F ancis
D ake (1540?−1596). Was Baião planning o sail alongside D ake, o did he sha e
in o ma ion ha D ake la e u ilized in his a acks on Panama in 1572–73? While no
documen s con i ming his ha e been ound, he possibili y emains open, gi en Baião’s
close associa ions wi h D ake’s con idan s like John Hawkins and William Cecil.
Mo eo e , D ake had sailed wi h Hawkins, and i canno be discoun ed ha he may
ha e me Baião pe sonally a some poin , ei he in 1565 o in 1570–71.
Baião’s u bulen ca ee was ending. On 22 No embe 1571, An ónio Fogaça epo ed
o Rui Gomes da Sil a (1516–1573), he P ince o Eboli who se ed Philip,
88
ha Doc o
Nunes was impa ien ly awai ing Baião’s e u n.
89
Baião’s cap u e likely occu ed in Wes
A ica du ing his e u n oyage, whe e a local A ican chie app ehended him and deli e ed
him o An ónio Velho Tinoco, he Po uguese go e no o he Cape Ve de Islands om
1571 o 1577. Acco ding o a Po uguese accoun , Tinoco execu ed Baião in San iago o
pi acy p obably in la e 1571 o ea ly 1572.
90
The Po uguese and he Spanish may ha e
collabo a ed o o ches a e Baião’s cap u e, especially as Philip disclosed o Spes ha he
had p oposed such a s a egy o Sebas ian. Baião’s execu ion can be compa ed wi h he
85
Nuno Vila-San a, Ka e Lowe, “An unknown his o y o Po ugal (c. 1570) in William Cecil’s lib a y:
Commissioning and w i ing his o y du ing he Elizabe han E a,” The An iqua ies Jou nal 2024, pp. 1–29.
86
On he opic see: Da id Loades, The Cecils: P i ilege and Powe Behind he Th one (Richmond/Su ey: The
Na ional A chi es, 2007).
87
AGI, Pa ona o, 265, R. 27.
88
On Sil a see: James M. Boyden, The Cou ie and he King: Ruy Gómez de Sil a, Phillip II, and he Cou o
Spain (Be keley: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess, 1995).
89
Calenda o S a e Pape s, (Simancas), 1568–1579, doc. 291.
90
And é Donelha, Desc ição da Se a Leoa e dos ios da Guiné e Cabo Ve de (1625) (Lisbon: Jun a das
In es igações Cien í icas do Ul ama , 1977), pp. 336–337.
80 NUNO VILA-SANTA
pe secu ions and public inal execu ion o pilo s An ão Luís and Gaspa Caldei a in Lisbon
in 1568. The Po uguese celeb a ed Baião’s dea h, unde sco ing i s signi icance.
Conclusion
Ba olomeu Baião’s s o y o e s an example o how di icul i was o Eu opean
ule s o con ol pi o al igu es who ci cula ed wi h c i ical knowledge o hei
disad an age. Th oughou his ca ee , Baião e ec i ely exploi ed his dynamic o
he de imen o h ee ma i ime powe s: ini ially he Po uguese, hen he Spanish,
and o some ex en , e en he English. Baião’s abili y o ci cula e among and o e his
se ices o Po ugal, Spain, and England illus a es his. A e sa ile igu e, Baião
adap ed his p oposals o align wi h he ma i ime in e es s o he powe s he sough o
se e. Po ugal and Spain, as es ablished ma i ime empi es, demanded inno a i e
app oaches. Acco dingly, Baião ad oca ed o a new nau ical ins umen o gain
a en ion and u he his plans o ma i ime employmen . Bu , as was a gued, i in
Po ugal and Spain, Baião made p oposals ha could label him as an a bi is a o
nau ical knowledge,
91
his ac ion in England easily sugges s ha he ac ed as
p ojec o .
92
By Baião’s ime in England, ma i ime endea o s we e less de eloped
han in Po ugal and Spain. This mean ha he could le e age his ma i ime expe ise
o swi ly secu e employmen .
This s a egy p o ed success ul wi h he London me chan s, John Hawkins,
William Cecil, and Robe Dudley, all o whom ecognized Baião’s capabili ies.
E en i he speci ics o he knowledge Baião exchanged wi h hem emain unclea
due o gaps in he his o ical eco ds, i is e iden ha he capi alized on his expe i-
ence. Gi en his ea lie ca ee in Po ugal and Spain, whe e he pa icipa ed in oyages
like Simão de Alcaço a’s in 1535, Baião likely sha ed Ibe ian ma i ime expe ise,
such as nau ical u e s, cha s, and geog aphical insigh s, c i ical o English p e-
pa a ions o oyages o Wes A ica, he Ca ibbean, o Sou h Ame ica. This
pa allels he ac ions o Po uguese pilo s like Pin eado in 1553–54 and An ão Luís
and Gaspa Caldei a in 1567, who simila ly sha ed hei knowledge in England.
The e is no compelling eason o belie e ha Baião would no ha e pu sued he
same s a egy in England, especially a e his depa u e om Spain whe e he had
al eady p oposed nau ical inno a ions. His abili y o ci cula e and exploi he
knowledge gaps be ween ma i ime powe s unde sco es his signi icance in he his o y
o Anglo-Ibe ian ma i ime ela ions in he 16
h
cen u y.
This leads o a second conclusion. Baião’s ema kable adap abili y wi hin he
English ma i ime con ex , echoing o he Po uguese sea a e s in England, unde -
sco es his awa eness o he “global” alue o his ma i ime knowledge as he mo ed
be ween i al powe s. Baião ecognized ha his expe ise could secu e employmen
in Po ugal, Spain, F ance, o England – he key playe s in ma i ime a ai s all
91
See Re o ming Ea ly Mode n Mona chies. The Cas ilian “A bi is as” in Compa a i e Eu opean
Pe spec i es . . .
92
See Koji Yamamo o, Taming Capi alism
YTIN 81
seeking na iga ional knowledge o hei o e seas en u es. This demand acili a ed
his mobili y among hese ma i ime powe s. His allegiance o P o es an England o e
he Ca holic Ibe ians did no hinde his oppo uni ies; a he , he p io i ized he
chance o apply his nau ical skills o pe sonal gain. Baião’s ca ee sheds ligh on
he s a egies pilo s employed o ba gain and secu e employmen wi h ma i ime
powe s, in luencing global dispu es be ween ma i ime i als. Concu en ly, Baião
exempli ied he Renaissance p ac ice o sel - ashioning,
93
molding his pe sona o sui
he expec a ions and needs o di e en pa ons. Baião also capi alized on he endu -
ing a che ype o he Po uguese pilo , which was es ablished ac oss Eu ope since he
ea ly 16
h
cen u y.
94
Thi dly, i is e iden ha Baião’s impac on English ma i ime en u es du ing he
Elizabe han e a was no as p o ound as ha o his Po uguese p edecesso s and
successo s. Unlike igu es such as An ónio Eanes Pin eado, who cha ed new nau ical
ou es o Wes A ica, Nuno da Sil a o he Magellan S ai , and Simão Fe nandes
o No h Ame ica, Baião did no in oduce g oundb eaking nau ical ou es du ing
his sho e enu e in English se ice. Ne e heless, Baião’s p esence was signi ican in
inspi ing o he p ominen Elizabe hans owa d oceanic explo a ion and geog aphical
disco e ies in he Ame icas, as Spes epo ed o Philip II. The co ela ion be ween
Baião’s p oposals o New Spain, Flo ida, he Ca ibbean, and he Magellan S ai ,
and subsequen oyages led by F ancis D ake, Richa d G en ille, Humph ey Gilbe ,
and Wal e Raleigh in he 1570s and 1580s is e iden . Al hough Baião did no
pa icipa e in hese expedi ions, he knowledge he b ough o England played
a pi o al ole. Hence, Baião eme ges as a mul i ace ed igu e in he Elizabe han
e a, pa cosmog aphe , sailo , me chan , and pi a e, con ibu ing o he e ol ing
concep o an English o e seas empi e ha eme ged h ough ade and plunde .
95
I
is a his junc u e ha Baião’s con ibu ions o England me i assessmen .
Fou hly, in line wi h he his o iog aphical impe a i es ou lined in he
In oduc ion, u he in es iga ion is wa an ed ega ding how o he Spanish
and Po uguese, like Baião, con ibu ed o he de elopmen o English o e seas
s a egies in he Elizabe han e a, especially om he 1580s onwa ds. As Richa d
Hakluy candidly asse ed, England en u ed in o o e seas endea o s o emula e
he successes o he Ibe ians and o seize oppo uni ies o en ichmen . Hakluy
en isaged a “mi acle” when An ónio Eanes Pin eado a i ed in England in
1552–53.
96
Likewise, i is plausible ha igu es like Hawkins, Cecil, and
Dudley iewed Baião h ough a simila lens as Hakluy did wi h Pin eado.
They ecognized he po en ial bene i s ha such “mi acles” could b ing o
England. By suppo ing Baião’s ini ia i es, akin o Walsingham’s backing o
Po uguese pilo Simão Fe nandes,
97
Cecil and Dudley pe cei ed ha knowledge
93
On he opic see: S ephen G eenbla , Renaissance Sel -Fashioning. F om Mo e o Shakespea e (Chicago:
Chicago Uni e si y P ess, 2005).
94
Vila-San a, Knowledge Exchanges, pp. 323–325.
95
No ably by And ews, T ade, and Ronald, The Pi a e Queen.
96
See no e 49.
97
See no e 9.
82 NUNO VILA-SANTA
held mo e han jus in insic powe - i could se e as a co ne s one o de el-
oping an English o e seas empi e and ga ne ing a o wi h Elizabe h
I. None heless, Baião’s ca ee also ypi ies ha o an “uno icial” ac o dissemi-
na ing “global” ma i ime knowledge. I se es as ano he compelling case s udy
illus a ing how he es ablishmen o o e seas empi es in he 16
h
cen u y was
con inually shaped by he exchange o knowledge among ma i ime i als.
Finally, Baião’s ca ee was also ele an in he unanswe ed ques ions i lea es. I
he su i ing documen s sugges ha he ac ed in Po ugal, Spain, and England
mainly as a sla e ade , i is also clea ha Baião capi alized on his nau ical
knowledge. He mos ly managed o elude cap u e, a key- ea u e ha needs o be
add essed wi hin he amewo k o s udies o he ci cula ion o knowledge. Baião’s
ca ee unde sco es how he had shi ing and always adap able schemes o esis
cap u e. Baião was pe secu ed bo h o his ac ions, bu also o his p ac ical knowl-
edge. His s o y es i ies o how he ci cula ion o ca ie s o sensi i e knowledge
among i al ma i ime powe s could some imes esul in pe secu ion and dea h. I
while Baião was in England, Spain and Po ugal pe cei ed him as a “ ai o ,” we
canno asce ain om he sou ces i when he sough o een e Spanish se ice his
English in e locu o s iewed him as a “ ai o ” o e en a “Spanish Elizabe han.”
98
Cecil’s conce ns abou Baião’s ideli y sugges his was he case.
Ul ima ely, o Baião’s ca ee , bu also o o he indi iduals s udied by his o ians
o knowledge, no only ac ions and knowledge we e a s ake: pe cep ions we e
always and also key. Recen schola ship has s essed he “co osi e” e ec s o 16
h
cen u y globaliza ion,
99
as i was mainly he e ec s o ha “co osi e” and
uncon ollable globaliza ion ha enabled Baião o ci cula e and ha e he ca ee he
had be ween Po ugal, Spain, and England. Seen in his ligh , Baião is ano he case
showing he comple e ailu e o Ibe ian (Po uguese and Spanish) a emp ed sec ecy
policies in he 16
h
cen u y.
100
The e o e, u u e his o iog aphical s udies need o
inco po a e his “co osi e” dimension o globaliza ion o be e app ehend he
complexi ies o ma i ime knowledge ci cula ion among Eu opean i als in he 16
h
cen u y.
Acknowledgemen s
This a icle was w i en in he amewo k o he RUTTER p ojec . The esea ch leading o
hese esul s has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Resea ch Council (ERC) unde he
Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme (g an ag eemen
No. 833438). Financed by Fundação pa a a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P./MCTES and by
na ional unds (PIDDAC): UIDB/00286/2020 e UIDP/00286/2020. The au ho wishes o
exp ess his g a i ude o Rui Manuel Lou ei o o he exchanges o e e ences on wo ks and
documen s on Ba olomeu Baião’s used in his a icle. Addi ionally, he au ho is indeb ed o
he commen s o wo anonymous e iewe s which helped him o imp o e his esea ch.
98
Albe J. Loomie, Spanish Elizabe hans: The English Exiles a he Cou o Philip II (New Yo k: Fo dham
Uni e si y P ess, 1963).
99
One o he examples, among many o he s, o such his o iog aphical claims can be seen in se e al wo ks by
Ba olomé Yun-Casalillla men ioned in no es 1 and 5.
100
Vila-San a, Knowledge Exchanges, pp. 323–325.
YTIN 83
