Landscape Research V

LANDSCAPE
RESEARCH V
Edi o s
Öne DEMİREL
E an DÜZGÜNEŞ
Lyon 2025
LANDSCAPE
RESEARCH V
Edi o s
Öne DEMİREL
E an DÜZGÜNEŞ
Lyon 2025
Landscape Resea ch V
Edi o s • P o . D . Öne DEMİREL• O cid: 0000-0002-8102-5589
P o . D . E an DÜZGÜNEŞ• O cid: 0000-0002-1523-9722
Co e Design • Mo ion G aphics
Book Layou • Mo ion G aphics
Fi s Published • Sep embe 2025, Lyon
e-ISBN: 978-2-38236-897-8
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17181944
copy igh © 2025 by Li e de Lyon
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e-mail • [email p o ec ed]

I
·He was bo n in A dahan in
1964. He g adua ed om Ege Uni e si y
Facul y o Ag icul u e, Depa men o
Landscape A chi ec u e in 1985. In 1988,
he comple ed his Mas e ’s Deg ee in
Landscape A chi ec u e a Ege Uni e si y
Ins i u e o Science and Sciences. and in
1997, he comple ed his PhD in Landscape
A chi ec u e a K.T.U. Science Ins i u e.
·Be ween 1987 and 1992, he
wo ked a he T.C Minis y o Fo es y.
Be ween 1992 and 2017, he se ed as
an academician a Ka adeniz Technical
Uni e si y. He was appoin ed Assis an
P o esso in 1998, Associa e P o esso in
2000 and P o esso in 2007.
·Be ween 1990-91, he ecei ed
he CIHEAM Schola ship, Mon pellie
(F ance) and om 1991-92 he ecei ed he
CIHEAM Schola ship and he Sa agosa (Spain) Schola ship. He was g an ed
h ee Belgian Go e nmen schola ships in 1994, 1996 and 2000. Ağus os
Be ween 2001 and June 2002, he conduc ed esea ch a A izona S a e Uni e si y.
Be ween Augus 2011 and Feb ua y 2012, he conduc ed esea ch a No he n
A izona Uni e si y wi h he suppo o he Resea ch Ab oad P ojec . In 2015,
he was g an ed a 1-yea TUBITAK Pos doc o al Resea ch Fellowship (Pu due
Uni e si y/USA).
·In addi ion o en i onmen al and na u e p o ec ion o ganiza ions, he
also se ed olun a ily in non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions and se ed as o
a ious non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions p esiden (P esiden o Belediyespo
Tennis Club, TEMA P o incial Rep esen a i e, TMMOB T abzon Chambe
o Landscape A chi ec s P o incial Rep esen a i e, Head o Moun ain
P o ec ion Pla o m).
·In addi ion o he esea ch p ojec s suppo ed by Co po a e
o ganiza ions, TUBITAK, Uni e si ies and a ious esea ch Ins i u ions, which
he has managed and comple ed wi h wide pa icipa ion a home and ab oad as
di ec o and esea che , he e a e books and book chap e s ha he has edi ed and
he also se es on he edi o ial boa d in scien i ic jou nals published a home and
P o .D .Öne DEMİREL,
Landscape A chi ec ,
T.C. Kı ıkkale Uni e si y Head
o Depa men o Landscape
A chi ec u e, Facul y o Fine A s
II   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
ab oad. He has se ed on he scien i ic commi ees o in e na ional and na ional
con e ences, cong esses and symposiums, and has published a icles in indexed
jou nals and nume ous pape s p esen ed ab oad and a home.
·Öne Demi el has been se ing as head o he Depa men o Landscape
A chi ec u e a The Facul y o Fine A s, Kı ıkkale Uni e si y since Janua y
2018. He speaks luen English and F ench and is ma ied wi h wo child en.
III
He was bo n in Anka a in 1982.
A e comple ion o his elemen a y,
middle and high school educa ion
in T abzon, he go his Bachelo s
deg ee om Ka adeniz Technical
Uni e si y, School o Fo es y,
Landscape A chi ec u e Depa men in
2005. In 2007, he was appoin ed as a
esea ch assis an a he Depa men o
Landscape A chi ec u e a he Facul y
o Fo es y o K.T.U. In he same yea ,
he wo ked on “Con adic ions S a egy
in P o ec ed A eas” and “Nega i e
E ec s o Tou ism on Highland
A eas” o six mon hs a Bodencul u e
Uni e si y (Vienna-AUSTRIA) wi h
he ERASMUS p og am. Then, he go
his Mas e s deg ee in 2009 and Ph.D.
deg ee in 2015 om Ka adeniz Technical Uni e si y, Ins i u e o Na u al and
Applied Sciences. He is now wo king as Assoc. P o . a Ka adeniz Technical
Uni e si y in T abzon since 2018. He has se e al s udies and pape s published
in a ious academic jou nals in English and in Tu kish on his p ima y esea ch
in e es s, which a e including na u e conse a ion, p o ec ed a eas, na ional
pa ks, isi o managemen in na ional pa ks, con lic s a egies, pa icipa o y
app oach, ou ism and ec ea ion planning, al e na i e ou ism.
P o . D . E an DÜZGÜNEŞ
Ka adeniz Technical Uni e si y,
School o Fo es y, Depa men o
Landscape A chi ec u e
61080, T abzon, TÜRKİYE
Phone: +90 462 377 40 80
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
xı
REFEREE BOARD
1.P o . D . Işık SEZEN
2. P o . D . Mu a YEŞİL
3. P o . D . Pe in YEŞİL
4. P o . D . Tu an YÜKSEK
5. Assoc. P o . D . Me yem Bih e BİNGÜL BULUT
6. Assoc. P o . D . Mus a a ÖZGERİŞ
7. Assoc. P o . D . Sul an Se inç KURT KONAKOĞLU
8. Ass . P o . D . Bige ŞİMŞEK İLHAN
9. Ass . P o . D . Gülşah Bilge ÖZTÜRK

1
CHAPTER I
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION
PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE AND
RESILIENCE IN LANDSCAPE PLANNING
Kadi Tolga CELIK 1, Sul an Se inc KURT KONAKOGLU 2
1 (Ass . P o .), Depa men o U ban Design and Landscape A chi ec u e,
Facul y o A chi ec u e, Amasya Uni e si y, Amasya, Tü kiye
O chid: 0000-0002-3036-4206
1 (Assoc. P o .), Depa men o U ban Design and Landscape A chi ec u e,
Facul y o A chi ec u e, Amasya Uni e si y, Amasya, Tü kiye
O chid: 0000-0001-5383-0954
*Co esponding au ho , i s au ho
1. In oduc ion
1.1.Clima eChangeandI sImpac
Clima e change (CC), which a ies ac oss empo al and spa ial scales,
di ec ly in luences human ac i i ies and gene a es ulne abili ies in
a eas such as social li e, indus y, ag icul u e, and wa e managemen
(Liang and Gong, 2020; Şen, 2022). These e ec s a e p ojec ed o in ensi y
u he in he coming yea s, leading o p o ound and cumula i e consequences
o CC and o he en i onmen al ac o s on na ions, egions, and ci ies (Connolly
e al., 2020).
The cascading e ec s o CC ha e dis up ed he ecological balance.
Meanwhile, indus ializa ion, popula ion g ow h and in ensi ied economic
ac i i y ha e con ibu ed o inc eased ossil uel consump ion, esul ing in highe
g eenhouse gas emissions and ising global empe a u es. Rising empe a u es
and unp edic able ain all pa e ns damage ecosys ems and nega i ely impac
people’s physical, men al, and inancial well-being, he eby educing hei o e all
quali y o li e (Akay, 2019; Demi dö en and Kayae , 2023). Fu he mo e, u ban
a eas ha e ecen ly become inc easingly exposed o na u al and human-made
2   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
disas e s such as ea hquakes, loods, pandemics, hu icanes and wild i es. This
g owing exposu e makes ci ies pa icula ly suscep ible o he impac s o CC
(Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2018; Sho and Fa me , 2021; Hamza Çelikyay
and Küçük Bay ak a , 2023). In his ega d, ci ies a e a c ucial a ena o engaging
in comba wi h clima e change (Pasquini, 2019), and one o he mos p ominen
and e ec i e app oaches o add ess ulne abili y and agili y is he concep o
u ban esilience.
1.2.U banResilienceandGo e nance
U ban esilience is abou mo e han jus eco e ing om disas e s; i ’s
also abou how well ci ies can adap o unce ain y and change. In his sense,
he abili y o an icipa e and p epa e o shocks— h ough obus in as uc u e,
e ec i e go e nance mechanisms, and empowe ed communi ies me ging as a
undamen al componen in he de elopmen o esilien ci ies (Singh, 2024). In
his ega d, CC cons i u es no only an en i onmen al h ea , bu also a s uc u al
challenge ha unde mines u ban esilience, necessi a ing mul i-scala s a egies
a global, na ional, egional and local le els (Yao e al., 2017; Dai e al., 2018;
Hamza Çelikyay and Küçük Bay ak a , 2023). Consequen ly, enhancing u ban
esilience capaci y equi es inclusi e and e ec i e go e nance s uc u es.
Conside ed one o he mos p essing global challenges acing humani y in
he 21s cen u y (Zhou e al., 2016; Wang e al., 2021), CC is in ica ely linked
o he complex ans o ma ion p ocesses expe ienced by socie ies, exe ing
mul idimensional impac s on human li e and p ojec ed o escala e o po en ially
uncon ollable le els in he nea u u e. The ajec o y and esolu ion o his
an h opogenic issue will be shaped by decisions and ac ions unde aken in he
coming yea s (Al es and Schmid , 2022). These decisions and ac ions mus
be amed wi hin a collabo a i e go e nance app oach, g ounded in he ac i e
pa icipa ion o di e se s akeholde s, including go e nmen al ins i u ions, he
p i a e sec o , and ci il socie y o ganiza ions (Cho e al., 2023). Mo eo e , CC
adap a ion s a egies mus be adap ed o local and egional con ex s, in o med by
ho ough analyses o di e se ypes o CC, disas e scena ios and en i onmen al
isks (Dong, 2014; Shi e al., 2016). A he in e na ional le el, hese s a egies
a e ope a ionalized h ough a ange o o mal ag eemen s.
1.3.In e na ionalF amewo ksandS udyCon ibu ion
Se e al in e na ional ini ia i es ha e been es ablished o add ess CC,
including he Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change,
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . .   3
which was signed in 1992; he Kyo o P o ocol, which was adop ed in 1997; and
he Pa is Ag eemen , which was signed in 2015 (Ünsal, 2024; Di ec o a e o
Clima e Change, 2025a; Di ec o a e o Clima e Change, 2025b). Acco ding o
he Wo ld Economic Fo um’s Global Risks Repo (2022), insu icien clima e
ac ion, ex eme wea he e en s, and biodi e si y loss pose se ious h ea s no
only o ecosys ems bu also o human popula ions and se lemen s. In eac ion
o hese isks, s eng hening u ban esilience o CC has been ecognized as
a cen al goal wi hin he Uni ed Na ions’ 2030 Agenda and Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals. Among he co e s a egies o add essing CC, adap ing
o i s impac s is conside ed equally impo an as educing g eenhouse gas
emissions (Tuğaç, 2022).
The s udy o e s guidance o de eloping e ec i e adap a ion s a egies.
The app oach is s uc u ed a ound six co e p inciples, 26 ac ions and 111
indica o s, and encompasses key componen s such as iden i ying and p io i izing
clima e isks, inancing mechanisms, esilien in as uc u e, ecosys em-based
solu ions, building ins i u ional capaci y and moni o ing impac . This sys ema ic
amewo k empowe s landscape planne s o design sus ainable adap a ion
s a egies ac oss di e en egions and sec o s. The chap e ou lines he impac s
o CC on landscape sys ems, emphasizes he need o adap a ion and highligh s
he con ibu ions o he Wo ld Bank o his p ocess.
2. P inciples and Ac ions o Clima e Change and Resilience
The six co e p inciples and wen y-six conc e e ac ions, iden i ied as
p io i y a eas o clima e change adap a ion and esilience policy (Figu e 1),
a e a icula ed in his sec ion (Hallega e e al., 2020; Di ec o a e o Clima e
Change, 2023).
4   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 1: Summa y Scheme o P inciples and Ac ions o CC and Resilience
2.1.Founda ions-Rapid,Robus ,andInclusi eDe elopmen
One o he mos e ec i e policy pa hways o educing po e y and
os e ing economic de elopmen is o minimize ulne abili y o CC. This can be
achie ed by ensu ing equi able access o heal hca e, in as uc u e and inancial
se ices, and by p o iding indi iduals wi h he ins i u ional, echnical and
inancial capaci ies necessa y o adap a ion. The ac ions ela ed o his policy
pa hway a e as ollows (Hallega e e al., 2020):
· 1s Ac ion: S eng hen economic p oduc i i y and p omo e g ow h,
while main aining mechanisms ha can mi iga e he impac o sudden ad e se
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . .   5
de elopmen s and economic shocks. T adi ional s abiliza ion ools and
mac oeconomic bu e s play a c ucial ole in educing na ional ulne abili y o
ex e nal s esses.
· 2nd Ac ion: Ensu e ha economic g ow h is inclusi e and eaches all
segmen s o socie y. Recognizing he c i ical impo ance o e e y indi idual
is essen ial, as apid de elopmen can obscu e subs an ial dispa i ies ac oss
egions and socioeconomic g oups. P o iding smallholde a me s wi h access
o li elihood oppo uni ies and ex ending in as uc u e se ices and isk
managemen ools, such as heal h insu ance, o he wide popula ion, helps o
mi iga e he long- e m e ec s o CC and disas e s.
2.2.P io i yA ea1–Facili a e heAdap a iono PeopleandFi ms
The p i a e sec o aces mul iple ba ie s o adap a ion, including beha io al
biases, insu icien in o ma ion, and inancial cons ain s. To minimize hese
obs acles, enhance he economy’s adap i e capaci y, and mi iga e he impac s o
CC and na u al haza ds, go e nmen s mus wo k o emo e hese ba ie s. The
ac ions ela ed o his policy pa hway a e as ollows (Hallega e e al., 2020):
· 3 d Ac ion: Ensu e ha isks a e assessed and ha ele an in o ma ion
is made publicly accessible. To e ec i ely adap o CC and manage na u al
haza ds, go e nmen s mus p o ide open access o di e se, p ac ical da ase s
on opics such as na u al h ea s, sec o -speci ic ulne abili ies and ood p ices.
Fu he mo e, plausible clima e scena ios and associa ed unce ain ies mus be
communica ed clea ly, anspa en ly and accessible o he public.
· 4 h Ac ion: Responsibili ies mus be clea ly de ined, and incen i es
mus be aligned wi h esilience and adap a ion objec i es. When managing
clima e isks and na u al disas e s, go e nmen s mus explici ly ou line he oles
and obliga ions o households and p i a e sec o s akeholde s and sha e his
in o ma ion wi h all ele an pa ies. Fu he mo e, p i a e en e p ises should be
made awa e o hei cu en le el o disas e p o ec ion.
· 5 h Ac ion: Imp o e access o echnology by implemen ing ade
policies and in es ing in esea ch and de elopmen . Success ul adap a ion in
sec o s such as ag icul u e and heal hca e depends on echnologies ha can
mi iga e he impac s o CC being deployed. Howe e , ba ie s such as limi ed
knowledge sha ing, inadequa e capaci y, ade es ic ions and di icul ies
accessing echnology can hinde his p ocess. Inno a ion in his a ea is
p edominan ly concen a ed in high-income coun ies, while low-income

6   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
na ions o en expe ience signi ican de ici s. Consequen ly, i is i al o in es
in he de elopmen o local echnologies, acili a e echnology ans e , e o m
ade policies and implemen capaci y-building ini ia i es.
· 6 h Ac ion: Equi able access o inancial esou ces mus be ensu ed, and
he poo es and mos ulne able g oups mus be suppo ed. P i a e sec o en i ies,
pa icula ly hose wi h limi ed access o c edi , and low-income households o en
s uggle o implemen adap a ion measu es due o high cos s o inancing gaps.
Social p o ec ion mechanisms and a ge ed subsidies he e o e play a c i ical
ole in educing ulne abili y among hese popula ions.
· 7 h Ac ion: P omo e s uc u al ans o ma ion wi hin he economic
sys em. While CC ad e sely a ec s ce ain sec o s, i may simul aneously
c ea e oppo uni ies o o he s. The e o e, go e nmen s a e expec ed o ac i ely
manage and acili a e economic ansi ion. This in ol es suppo ing eme ging
sec o s o maximize hei po en ial, acili a ing smoo h ansi ions o declining
indus ies and os e ing economic di e si ica ion o build esilience agains
clima e- ela ed isks.
2.3.P io i yA ea2–Adap LandUsePlansandP o ec C i icalPublic
Asse s and Se ices
In addi ion o suppo ing businesses and households, coun ies hold a
ans o ma i e ole in CC adap a ion by secu ing undamen al public se ices
such as in as uc u e, heal hca e, educa ion, and secu i y h oughou he
adap a ion p ocess. I is c ucial o align u ban and land use plans wi h clima e
isks; o he wise, popula ions may se le in high- isk zones, he eby exace ba ing
s uc u al ulne abili ies. The ac ions ela ed o his policy pa hway a e as
ollows (Hallega e e al., 2020):
· 8 h Ac ion: Iden i y c i ical public asse s and se ices. Gi en he high
cos s associa ed wi h econs uc ing essen ial public se ices linked o socie al
wel a e, i is impe a i e o comp ehensi ely e alua e and manage clima e isks.
Wi hin his amewo k, de eloping an in en o y o public asse s becomes
c i ical, allowing p ecise de e mina ion o he loca ion, condi ion, and c i icali y
o hese asse s—an essen ial s ep o s a egic planning.
· 9 h Ac ion: Design and implemen a go e nmen -led s a egy o enhance
he esilience o in as uc u e and public asse s. Dis up ions o in as uc u e
incu mul i-billion-dolla losses o coun ies, while main enance de iciencies
inc ease sys em ulne abili ies. The e o e, leade ship h ough an in eg a ed
s a e app oach is i al o ensu ing he du abili y o c i ical in as uc u e.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . .   7
· 10 h Ac ion: Re iew and e ise land use and u ban plans o make hem
mo e sensi i e o isk. Land ma ke s ypically ail o accoun o CC and na u al
disas e isks when add essing de elopmen demands, esul ing in cons uc ion
wi hin haza dous a eas. App op ia e land use egula ions can mi iga e isks and
help p e en ma e ial and psychological damage caused by na u al disas e s.
Fu he mo e, as in as uc u e in es men s in luence spa ial de elopmen ,
popula ion densi y and employmen dis ibu ion, di ec ing such in es men s
owa ds sa e a eas can encou age heal hie u baniza ion pa e ns.
2.4.P io i yA ea3–HelpFi msandPeopleManageResidualRisks
andNa u alDisas e s
Al hough e ec i e isk educ ion signi ican ly dec eases losses and damages,
some na u al disas e s emain highly des uc i e and una oidable. Consequen ly,
go e nmen s mus de elop s a egies ha enable indi iduals and businesses o
cope wi h he de as a ing impac s o hese disas e s and eco e apidly. The
ac ions ela ed o his policy pa hway a e as ollows (Hallega e e al., 2020):
· 11 h Ac ion: Loss o li e and p ope y can be p e en ed h ough
hyd ome eo ological moni o ing, ea ly wa ning sys ems and eme gency
managemen amewo ks. Wea he o ecas s acili a e he ea ly de ec ion
o ex eme e en s, enabling imely e acua ions ha sa e li es. Addi ionally,
ea ly wa nings and p e en i e measu es educe physical damage and economic
losses. P o iding adequa e shel e and o ganizing hese spaces a e also c i ical
componen s.
· 12 h Ac ion: P o ide i ms and households wi h isk managemen ools
ailo ed o hei needs. I is essen ial o ecognise he di e ing equi emen s
o a luen and low-income households. Flexible s a egies a e necessa y o
enhance indi iduals’ abili y o wi hs and shocks and espond app op ia ely o
a ious disas e scena ios.
· 13 h Ac ion: Fos e he de elopmen o he insu ance sec o h ough
collabo a ion be ween public and p i a e s akeholde s. Local insu ance
schemes, such as Tü kiye’s Na u al Disas e Insu ance Ins i u ion (DASK) and
Mongolia’s Li es ock Insu ance Pool, help o make popula ions and businesses
mo e esilien in he e en o a disas e . Howe e , insu ance ma ke s ace
challenges in low-income egions, and olun a y pa icipa ion emains limi ed
whe e insu ance is no manda o y.
· 14 h Ac ion: Se up a social p o ec ion sys em ha can espond quickly
o sudden shocks. Low-income households o en lack he means o sa e o
8   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
eme gencies o pu chase p i a e insu ance. The e o e, adap able social p o ec ion
mechanisms a e needed o suppo ulne able g oups, alloca e esou ces
e ec i ely and p e en long- e m se backs o adap a ion ollowing shocks.
· 15 h Ac ion: Suppo businesses in de eloping con inui y plans and
inancial p epa edness. Fi ms mus possess business con inui y plans o
enhance disas e eadiness and esilience. These plans de ail he ac ions ha
bo h he company and i s employees should ake in an eme gency, ensu ing ha
ope a ions can con inue wi hou in e up ion.
· 16 h Ac ion: Robus pos -disas e econs uc ion equi es p e-es ablished
ac ion plans and inancing esou ces. Disas e econs uc ion may no always be
possible due o ime and esou ce cons ain s; he e o e, ha ing a well-designed
p e-c isis ac ion plan is essen ial.
2.5.P io i yA ea4–ManageFinancialandMac o iscalIssue
CC has a signi ican impac on he economy, in luencing economic
ac i i ies, ax e enues, sec o s, he ade balance and capi al lows. Gi en he
inhe en unce ain y su ounding hese impac s, go e nmen s mus app oach
isk managemen wi h cau ion and lexibili y. The ac ions ela ed o his policy
pa hway a e as ollows (Hallega e e al., 2020):
· 17 h Ac ion: Plan o economic liabili ies a ising om na u al disas e s
o en i onmen al shocks and in eg a e hem in o budge a y p ocesses. In o de o
main ain economic p epa edness agains clima e and disas e isks, go e nmen s
should inco po a e con ingen liabili ies, such as pos - lood epai s, in o iscal
planning.
· 18 h Ac ion: De elop inancial s a egies employing a combina ion o
ins umen s o manage con ingen liabili ies. Eme gencies ollowing disas e s
gene a e u gen needs o in e en ion and humani a ian aid, which may be
cons ained by liquidi y sho ages, ad e sely a ec ing sho - e m esponses.
The e o e, iscal space should be c ea ed du ing no mal pe iods, a esilien ax
sys em es ablished, and di e se inancing mechanisms u ilized concu en ly.
Pos -disas e expendi u e mus be planned and execu ed ia disas e -sensi i e
public economic managemen sys ems.
· 19 h Ac ion: An icipa e and plan o long- e m mac oeconomic e ec s.
In ligh o he isks posed by CC o ax e enues and economic g ow h,
go e nmen s mus o mula e app op ia e s a egies. Risk e alua ions guiding
e enue and expendi u e planning should be in o med by analyses such as he
Wo ld Bank and IMF’s Clima e Change Policy Assessmen s.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ADAPTATION PRINCIPLES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE . . .   9
· 20 h Ac ion: T anspa en ly disclose he exposu e o inancial sec o s and
pension sys ems o disas e and clima e isks and implemen measu es o educe
hese isks. T anspa ency aids in minimizing po en ial u u e losses by p o iding
in o ma ion on isk exposu e, enabling in es o s and decision-make s o adjus
po olios acco dingly. Fu he mo e, egula o y amewo ks should equi e i ms
o e ec i ely manage clima e isks and ensu e hese egula ions a e en o ced.
2.6. Applica ion – P io i iza ion, implemen a ion, and moni o ing
p og ess issues
E ec i e ins i u ional and legal amewo ks mus be es ablished o
ensu e ha public ins i u ions adop adap a ion s a egy decisions, and ha
go e nmen s can moni o , e alua e he impac o hese decisions and ac ions,
and ake p e en i e measu es agains po en ial challenges. The ac ions ela ed
o his policy pa hway a e as ollows (Hallega e e al., 2020):
· 21s Ac ion: Facili a e s akeholde pa icipa ion in o de o de elop a
obus ins i u ional and legal in as uc u e. Fo clima e policies o be e ec i e,
a legal and ins i u ional amewo k mus be es ablished o ensu e s akeholde
engagemen . Exis ing ins i u ions should be adap ed o new ones es ablished, as
necessa y, o c ea e coo dina ion mechanisms ha enable he ac i e in ol emen
o all ele an s akeholde s.
· 22nd Ac ion: P io i ize key ac ions o de elop adap a ion and esilience
s a egies. Due o limi ed esou ces, go e nmen s canno implemen all
measu es simul aneously. The e o e, i is c i ical o iden i y which in e en ions
hold p io i y. Sho - e m p io i ies mus be aligned wi h long- e m planning
amewo ks.
· 23 d Ac ion: Di ec sec o -speci ic s eps by de ining conc e e objec i es
o ele an minis ies. Responsible minis ies and local go e nmen s should
implemen adap a ion and isk educ ion measu es. Assigning clea a ge s and
esponsibili ies os e s accoun abili y. Ob aining pa liamen a y app o al o
hese objec i es enhances accoun abili y and he e ec i eness o he s a egy,
while egula epo ing ins i u ionalizes he p ocess.
· 24 h Ac ion: E alua e public policies and expendi u es h ough he lens
o disas e and clima e isks and align hem wi h adap a ion goals. E ec i e
adap a ion equi es in es men and planning decisions o inco po a e clima e isk
conside a ions. Go e nmen s should o e see policies and hei implemen a ion,
managing public in es men s in a way ha is sensi i e o clima e and disas e
isks, and ensu ing ha adap a ion is in eg a ed in o all ins i u ions and p ojec s.
16   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
· Inco po a ing clima e- esilien in as uc u e and ecological co ido s
in o u ban de elopmen s a egies,
· P omo ing mul i-le el and c oss-sec o al collabo a ion, om local
o ganiza ions o na ional and in e na ional ins i u ions,
· Expanding u ban g een in as uc u e o mi iga e hea islands, imp o e
s o mwa e managemen , and s eng hen ecosys em se ices,
· Suppo ing knowledge-sha ing sys ems and pa icipa o y go e nance o
ensu e adap a ion s a egies a e socially inclusi e and con ex ually app op ia e.
Empi ical s udies show ha adap a ion s a egies ocusing on ag icul u al
p oduc ion, wa e esou ce managemen , and u ban g een in as uc u e achie e
posi i e ou comes when suppo ed by s ong local engagemen . Howe e , he
long- e m success o hese s a egies depends on embedding landscape-based
p inciples in o o mal go e nance and policy amewo ks, he eby ensu ing
con inui y, accoun abili y, and scalabili y.
In conclusion, landscape planning is a i al means o adap ing o clima e
change, o e ing mul i unc ional, lexible and locally sensi i e solu ions. This
emphasizes he impo ance o adop ing a holis ic and pa icipa o y app oach o
enhancing u ban esilience in he ace o clima e haza ds. S eng hening g een
in as uc u e and applying na u e-based s a egies a e essen ial.
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25
CHAPTER II
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL
AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED IN
URBAN AREAS ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Seyhan SEYHAN1*
1*(Res.Assis .D ), Ka adeniz Technical Uni e si y,
Facul y o Fo es y, Depa men o Landscape A chi ec u e,
T abzon / Tu key, [email p o ec ed],
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6046-5024
1. In oduc ion
U ban a eas a e a eas whe e socie y densely se les and cen e s o social,
economic, and cul u al in e ac ion coexis . These a eas encompass
many unc ions such as housing, se ices, comme ce, anspo a ion,
g een spaces, public a eas, and in as uc u e sys ems (Lynch, 1960; Ca mona,
2021). The spa ial physical iden i y o u ban a eas is shaped by he na u al and
a i icial ma e ials used in hese a eas. A his poin , na u al (soil, s one, wood,
e c.) and a i icial (asphal , conc e e, and plas ic, e c.) play impo an oles in he
c ea ion o u ban en i onmen s, bo h aes he ically and unc ionally (Gökşen e
al., 2017; Rakhshandeh oo e al., 2017). Howe e , wi h he u baniza ion p ocess,
u ban a eas ha e ans o med in o non- e lec i e, impe meable, and hea -
e aining a eas compa ed o hei su oundings (Akba i, e al., 2001). Na u al
a eas ha e been eplaced by a i icial su aces. This has signi ican ly impac ed
he clima e, ene gy use, and li abili y o ci ies (Oke, 1987; San amou is, 2014).
I has been bo h a cause and a consequence o clima e change. The ypes and
ma e ials o buildings used in u ban a eas a e c i ical o clima e change because
hey di ec ly impac u ban su ace empe a u e, ai quali y, ene gy balance, and
wa e cycles (San amou is, 2015). Fo example, da k-colo ed asphal pa emen s
used on la ge su aces abso b sola ene gy, inc easing he empe a u e o he
mic oclima e. Bo h he unc ion o buildings and he ma e ials used in hei
cons uc ion accoun o ~34% o global ene gy- ela ed CO2 emissions. This
32   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 9: Cemen , S eel and Glass Ma e ials Examples (U l-16; U l-17)
In sho , he use o na u al and a i icial ma e ials in line wi h he
sus ainabili y goals o u ban a eas is c ucial o bo h main aining he ci y’s
ecosys em balance and imp o ing he quali y o social li e. The e o e, u ban
a eas should be de eloped using a combina ion o hese ma e ials o edesigned
o inc ease he esilience o u ban a eas and p o ide social and en i onmen al
bene i s (Baş, 2024).
4. Case S udies
This sec ion ea u es case s udies om a ound he wo ld and Tu key. These
s udies explain clima e change, ma e ial use, and he impac o hese ma e ials
on clima e change. The ypes o s udies conduc ed, and he esul s o hese
s udies a e also explained.
4.1.Pa isOasisSchoolya dP og amme,F ance
The OASIS (Openness, Adap a ion, Sensi iza ion, Inno a ion, and Social
Ties) schoolya d p og am in Pa is add esses he p oblem o u ban hea wa es.
The ci y is p ojec ed o expe ience an a e age empe a u e inc ease o 2 o 4
deg ees Celsius wi hin he nex decade because o clima e change. Consequen ly,
he ci y is expec ed o ace a ious isks, including d ough , loods, se e e
s o ms, and p essu e on hea esou ces, in addi ion o hea wa es. To mi iga e he
nega i e impac s o hea wa es, he p og am in ol es ans o ming schoolya ds

DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . .   33
in o accessible g een spaces o ulne able g oups. This p og am has been
success ully implemen ed h ough en pilo s udies, conduc ed h ough join
design and coo dina ion, and is leading he way in expanding he p og am o he
en i e ci y (Figu e 10).
Figu e 10: A Sample Applica ion Made Wi hin he Scope o he OASIS
Schoolya d P og am in Pa is (U l-18)
The goals o his p og am a e:
• To educe he local hea island e ec in he ci y,
• To ans o m s uden lea ning en i onmen s in o heal hy and s imula ing
en i onmen s,
• To educa e ci y esiden s abou clima e change,
• To c ea e open spaces ha a e sui able and accessible o he ci y’s mos
ulne able popula ions,
• To c ea e mul iple mee ing spaces o encou age cama ade ie and
solida i y wi hin he communi y.
34   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Following he de as a ing hea wa es ha occu ed in 2003 and 2017,
he Municipali y o Pa is, mind ul o he possibili y o a ecu ence o he
same si ua ion in he u u e, has ini ia ed se e al ini ia i es, ecognizing
he unequal igh s o di e en a eas o he ci y and di e en social g oups.
One such p og am is he OASIS (Openness, Ha mony, Responsi eness,
Inno a ion, and Social Bonds) schoolya d g eening p og am. This p og am
is an example o an equi able adap a ion ini ia i e a ge ing he ci y’s mos
ulne able popula ions. I aims o ans o m schoolya ds in Pa is in o g een
spaces accessible o bo h s uden s and local communi ies. These con e ed
spaces a e en isioned as p o iding cooling spaces o g oups ulne able o
hea wa es (child en, he elde ly, people wi h heal h issues, o mo he s wi h
babies). Schoolya ds we e selec ed o he p og am because hey a e e enly
dis ibu ed h oughou he ci y’s neighbo hoods, a e close o ulne able g oups,
and o e po en ial g een and cooling spaces. Ten pilo schoolya ds in Pa is
ha e been con e ed in o g een spaces as pa o he U ban Inno a i e Ac ions
(UIA) OASIS p ojec . Recommenda ions ha could guide he ans o ma ion
o o he schoolya ds ha e been p esen ed as pa o he p og am. In 2018, he
Ci y o Pa is es ed he i s pilo implemen a ion o he OASIS p og am wi h
local s akeholde s o ans o m pa ed, cemen ed, and pa ed schoolya ds in o
g een spaces.
To his end:
· The ege a ion co e in schoolya ds has been inc eased.
· Na u al ma e ials o eco-inno a i e p oduc s ha e been used in
schoolya ds. Ca e was aken o ensu e he ma e ials ha e modula po osi y and
a ligh -colo ed, low-ca bon oo p in subs a e.
· Rainwa e was used o soil i iga ion, wa e games, and school
ga dening.
· Sola -powe ed ai condi ione s and addi ional a i icial ins alla ions
ha e been ins alled o supplemen he cooling unc ion o he schools o educe
ene gy consump ion.
By 2022, 75 schoolya ds ha e been ans o med as pa o he p og am.
The ci y is commi ed o de eloping a s anda dized and adap able me hod o
c ea ing g een spaces o all. An e en was held o p omo e he ans o med
asphal -co e ed schoolya ds o local amilies and use s o all ages (U l-19;
U l-20).
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . .   35
4.2.Clima e-P oo ingSocialHousingLandscapes-London
In 2013, G oundwo k London, one o he en i onmen al egene a ion
cha i ies o he G oundwo k ede a ion, ecei ed LIFE+ unding o i s Clima e
Resilien Social Housing Landscapes p ojec (Figu e 11) in pa ne ship wi h
Hamme smi h and Fulham Council. The p ojec , which concluded in Sep embe
2016, demons a es an in eg a ed app oach o clima e adap a ion in u ban a eas.
I aims o demons a e an in eg a ed app oach o add essing clima e- ela ed and
wide socio-economic challenges in ulne able u ban en i onmen s (U l-21;
U l-22).
Figu e 11: Clima e-P oo ing Social Housing Landscapes (U l-23)
The main objec i es o he p ojec a e:
· De eloping a ans e able me hodology o designing a o dable,
ligh weigh clima e change adap a ion measu es using g een and blue
in as uc u e in social housing landscapes.
· Designing and implemen ing comp ehensi e e o i packages ac oss
h ee di e en ypes o social housing landscapes.
· Implemen ing key measu es h ough employmen p og ams o long-
e m unemployed indi iduals who c ea e local jobs.
· De eloping a se ies o aining modules o housing and g ounds
main enance p o essionals co e ing he p ocu emen sys ems, design, e o i ,
and main enance cycle ela ed o g een in as uc u e and adap a ion.
36   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
· De eloping a ans e able me hodology o engaging local s akeholde s.
This objec i e will enable p ac ical pa icipa ion in adap a ion ac ion plans,
e o i , and main enance ac i i ies wi hin si e-speci ic communi ies.
· Designing an e alua ion me hodology ha will ensu e echnical
pe o mance and social e u n on in es men .
· De eloping in e ac i e e-lea ning ma e ials o in o m local, na ional,
and EU policies, s a egies, and bes p ac ices.
The Clima e- P oo ing Social Housing Landscapes p ojec sough o
deli e holis ic clima e change adap a ion solu ions o h ee social housing
si es in he London Bo ough o Hamme smi h and Fulham. Wi hin hese h ee
si es, g een and blue in as uc u e in e en ions we e implemen ed in a highly
e ec i e, a o dable, and socially accep able manne . The p ojec aimed o
add ess clima e h ea s o u ban a eas, imp o e he o e all quali y o he ci y,
and con ibu e signi ican ly o he quali y o he local en i onmen . The p ojec
employed ligh weigh enginee ing solu ions, including ain ga dens, g een
oo s, ee and sh ub plan ing, low-le el g een oo s, pe meable pa emen s, and
small ca chmen s. These we e implemen ed h ough acc edi ed app en iceship
and employmen p og ams o long- e m unemployed esiden s. Local job
oppo uni ies we e c ea ed (U l-21; U l-22).
4.3.Plan Guides-Tü kiye
In a p ojec i led “Plan Guides,” conduc ed by he Gene al Di ec o a e
o Comba ing Dese i ica ion and E osion unde he Minis y o En i onmen ,
U baniza ion and Clima e Change o he Republic o Tü kiye, a guide will be
p epa ed o he use o clima e- esis an local woody species in u ban landscapes.
This guide aims o s eng hen he clima e adap a ion o g een spaces (U l-24).
In oday’s apidly u banizing wo ld, g een spaces and na u al landscapes in
ci ies a e c ucial o en i onmen al sus ainabili y and human heal h. In addi ion
o p o iding oxygen sou ces o ci ies, hese a eas se e many unc ions, such
as main aining ai low wi hin he ci y, u ilizing open ai , and abso bing ha m ul
gases, dus , and noise. Howe e , i appea s ha he use o na i e plan species in
he es ablishmen o hese u ban g een spaces does no ully e lec biodi e si y.
Conside ing ou ich biodi e si y, he use o na i e plan species adap ed o
en i onmen al condi ions should be expanded in he design and cons uc ion
o u ban a eas as pa o he igh agains clima e change, dese i ica ion, and
e osion. The e o e, choosing na u al species esilien o clima e change in u ban
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . .   37
plan design is c ucial o inc easing u ban ca bon sinks. To his end, “Woody
Plan Guides o Re lec U ban Iden i y and Adap o Clima e Change,” woody
plan guides ailo ed o he clima e and ecological condi ions o each p o ince
in Tü kiye, ha e been p epa ed o con ibu e o e o s o p o ec and s eng hen
u ban g een spaces. The aim is o inc ease g een spaces, p o ec na u al
landscapes, and ensu e ha no only oday bu also u u e gene a ions can g ow
up in a heal hy en i onmen (U l-24).
4.4.Chicago’sG eenAlleyP og am-ABD
Since 2006, he Chicago Depa men o T anspo a ion has been eno a ing
he ci y’s sidewalks using cu ing-edge echnologies and g een pa emen
ma e ials and designs o be e manage s o mwa e and p e en looding. The
agency is also es ing he use o e lec i e su aces o educe he ci y’s hea
island e ec and inc easing he use o ecycled ma e ials in sidewalk epai s.
Chicago’s G een Alley p og am was launched o add ess he p oblem o
s o mwa e pooling in ci y sidewalks and causing looding in su ounding a eas.
This p og am helps achie e he clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion goals
se o h in he Chicago Clima e Ac ion Plan (U l-25).
Chicago’s G een Alley p og am (Figu e 12) is an en i onmen ally iendly
ini ia i e. I aims o c ea e a g eene and mo e sus ainable en i onmen by
e i alizing he ci y’s s ee s. Wi h app oxima ely 3,000 kilome e s o public
s ee ne wo k, Chicago has one o he mos ex ensi e s ee ne wo ks in he
wo ld. While mos o hese s ee s a e no connec ed o he ci y’s s o m sewe
sys em, hey a e also p one o looding. The e o e, he G een S ee s p og am is
designed o imp o e and d ain s o mwa e om he ci y’s s ee s, educe hea ,
and sa e ene gy (U l-26).

38   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 12: Chicago’s G een Alley P og am Examples Applica ion (U l-26)
As pa o his p og am:
· Pe meable pa emen s we e c ea ed o allow ainwa e o il e h ough
he pa emen and low in o he g ound (Figu e 13).
Figu e 13: Pe meable Su ace De ails Used in Chicago’s
G een Alley P og am (U l-26)
· A d ainage sys em was c ea ed o mi iga e looding.
· An unde g ound s o age a ea was c ea ed o s o e enough ainwa e
unde he s ee o accommoda e he sewe sys em uno .
· The hea island e ec was educed by using high-albedo conc e e wi h
a e lec i e su ace.
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . .   39
· Recycled ma e ials (conc e e agg ega e, slag, e c.) we e used (Figu e 14).
· Ene gy-e icien /da k sky ligh ing ix u es we e designed o di ec
lampligh downwa d and ou wa d whe e use ul, a he han upwa d, which
would was e ene gy and con ibu e o gla e and ligh pollu ion (Figu e 14).
· App op ia e slopes we e c ea ed o acili a e d ainage.
Figu e 14: De ails o Recycled Ma e ials Used in Chicago’s
G een Alley P og am (U l-26)
4.5.BedZED–Bedding onZe oEne gyDe elopmen -London
BedZED (Bedding on Ze o Ene gy De elopmen ), he UK’s la ges eco-
illage, is a mixed housing and wo kspace de elopmen . Loca ed in Su on,
sou h London, i has made his o y as he UK’s i s la ge-scale, mixed-use
sus ainable communi y. I has inspi ed low-ca bon, en i onmen ally iendly
housing p ojec s a ound he wo ld. Ini ia ed by BioRegional and designed and
buil by a eam including a chi ec Bill Duns e , BioRegional, he Peabody T us
and A up, i emb aces all aspec s o sus ainable design wi h 100 expe imen al
homes, communi y acili ies o 100 people and wo kspace (1600 m2
wo kspace). I o e s a wide ange o ecological li ing oppo uni ies (Figu e
15). This p ojec was comple ed in 2002. The mul i- ace ed p ojec emains one
o he mos ambi ious ini ia i es in he ield o sus ainabili y (U l- 27; U l-28).
The ounda ions o he BedZED p ojec a e;
· Signi ican ene gy sa ings a e achie ed h ough high insula ion,
ai igh ness, and passi e sola hea ing design. The in eg a ion o sola
pho o ol aic a ays in o he buildings also achie es elec ici y sa ings.
· Be ween 2012 and 2015, elec ici y consump ion was educed by 27%
and na u al gas consump ion by 36%.
40   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
· Signi ican sa ings we e achie ed using wa e -sa ing appliances in he
p ojec .
· The e a e 100 homes occupied by app oxima ely 220 esiden s.
· Due o he high housing densi y, p i a e and sha ed open spaces a e
combined wi h g een oo s. Many homes ha e hei own p i a e ga dens, a la ge
communal play a ea, and a illage squa e.
· The BedZED p ojec has won nume ous awa ds o g een a chi ec u e
and design. I was nomina ed o he S i ling P ize, he UK’s mos p es igious
a chi ec u al awa d, in 2003.
· The homes in he p ojec a e o mixed sizes and owne ship op ions.
BedZED o e s subsidized en (25%), subsidized a o dable home owne ship
(25%), and open ma ke homes (50%).
· Wi h app oxima ely 1,000 m² o wo kspace, BedZED is home o
O cha d Hill College o young people wi h special educa ional needs, he
a chi ec u al i m ZED ac o y ha designed BedZED, and he sus ainabili y
cha i y and social en e p ise Bio egional.
· De eloped by he housing associa ion Peabody T us in pa ne ship
wi h he a chi ec u al i ms Bio egional and ZED ac o y (U l-29).
Figu e 15: BedZED p ojec (U l-29)
DETERMINING TH EFFECT OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICAL MATERIALS USED . . .   41
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, he use o na u al and a i icial ma e ials in u ban a eas
is s a egically impo an in comba ing clima e change. The use o na u al,
pe meable, and e lec i e ma e ials helps main ain mic oclima ic balance in
u ban a eas. They di ec ly impac ca bon emissions and ene gy consump ion,
wo o he e ec s o clima e change, hus mi iga ing i s e ec s. The p ope ies o
hese ma e ials con ibu e o he aes he ic, cul u al, and ecological sus ainabili y
o ci ies. A i icial, impe meable, and low- e lec i e ma e ials di ec ly and
indi ec ly impac clima e change. In ci ies, hey play a signi ican ole in ci ies’
e o s o comba global clima e change and imp o e hei quali y o li e by
in luencing ca bon emissions, he hea island e ec , and ene gy consump ion.
The e o e, bo h na u al and a i icial ma e ials used in u ban a eas de e mine
a ci y’s physical du abili y, i s abili y o comba , adap o, and be ulne able
o clima e change. The e o e, conside ing ecological balance and impac in
ma e ial selec ion in u ban planning is c ucial.
This s udy also p o ides a li e a u e e iew and cla i ies he impac o
na u al and a i icial ma e ials used in u ban a eas on clima e change. The s udy
desc ibes exempla y p ojec s in u ban a eas, highligh ing he ypes o wo k
unde aken and he esul s o hese e o s. In his con ex , he use o na u al and
a i icial ma e ials in u ban a eas is a undamen al ool in comba ing clima e
change. This is clea ly demons a ed in he examples p o ided. The e o e,
local adminis a o s and u ban planne s mus be awa e o he ecological, social,
economic, and cul u al impac s o ma e ials used in he planning and design o
u ban a eas and conside hei impac s.
Re e ences
Akba i, H., Pome an z, M., & Taha, H. (2001). Cool Su aces and Shade
T ees o Reduce Ene gy Use and Imp o e Ai Quali y in U ban A eas. Sola
Ene gy, 70(3), 295-310.
Akadi i, P. O., Chinyio, E. A., & Olomolaiye, P. O. (2012). Design o a
Sus ainable Building: A Concep ual F amewo k o Implemen ing Sus ainabili y
in he Building Sec o . Buildings, 2(2), 126-152.
Baş, G. Ö. (2024). Geleneksel Mima lık Bağlamında Sü dü ülebili Bi
Kalkınma Öne isi: Cunda Adası Ö neği. Ken Akademisi, 17(Sü dü ülebili
İnsani Kalkınma e Ken ), 84-102.
Bay amoğlu, E., & Akıncı, Y. C. (2018). Ken sel Açık Alanla da Dönüşümlü
E kinlik Ya a ıcılığı. Jou nal o In e na ional Social Resea ch, 11(59).
48   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Empi ical esea ch has consis en ly shown ha g een in as uc u e,
pa icula ly u ban pa ks, o e s localized cooling e ec s, educes he mal s ess,
and imp o es human com o (Cai, Yang, Zhang, Xiao, & Xia, 2023; Qiu &
Jia, 2020; Xiao, Piao, Pan, Lee, & Zhao, 2023). Howe e , hese bene i s a e
no spa ially uni o m. Fac o s such as pa k size, o m, ege a i e composi ion,
and su ounding buil densi y signi ican ly in luence he magni ude and spa ial
ex en o cooling (Gunawa dena, Wells, & Ke shaw, 2017; Sun e al., 2020). As
he u ban hea bu den escala es, so does he need o spa ially explici , scalable,
and compa able me ics o assess pa k-based he mal mi iga ion. While land
su ace empe a u e (LST) de i ed om he mal emo e sensing emains a co e
indica o (Voog & Oke, 2003; Weng, Lu, & Schub ing, 2004), he in eg a ion
o addi ional indices such as he Soil-Adjus ed Vege a ion Index (SAVI),
Impe ious Su ace Ra io (ISR), and Buil Co e age Ra io (BCR) enhances he
diagnos ic powe o u ban cooling assessmen s (E dem Okumus & Te zi, 2021;
Guan, Wang, Van Be kel, & Liang, 2023; Y. Zhou, Zhao, Luo, Yi, & Lun, 2025).
Despi e he g owing li e a u e on u ban pa k cooling, exis ing s udies
o en adop a agmen ed analy ical scope— ocusing on singula me ics such
as LST, NDVI, o canopy co e (Gunawa dena e al., 2017; Sala a, Golasi, de
Lie o Volla o, & de Lie o Volla o, 2016). Mos o e look he in e ac ion be ween
s uc u al landscape ea u es and he mal ou comes ac oss a ying spa ial
scales. Mo eo e , quan i a i e assessmen s o spa ial equi y in cooling se ice
dis ibu ion emain unde de eloped, especially in high-densi y u ban con ex s
whe e en i onmen al jus ice conce ns a e mos acu e (Rigolon, 2016; J. Zhang
& Tan, 2023; Zhu e al., 2021).
In addi ion, p e ious modeling app oaches ha e a ely inco po a ed
explainabili y mechanisms such as SHAP (SHapley Addi i e exPlana ions)
o geospa ially s a i ied diagnos ics like Gini coe icien s and Lo enz cu es,
which can unpack bo h he in ensi y and inequali y o mic oclima ic bene i s
(Lundbe g & Lee, 2017; Shih, 2017; Z. Zhang, Cenci, & Zhang, 2024). This
me hodological gap hinde s e o s o a ge clima e adap a ion in es men s
whe e hey a e mos needed.
This s udy p oposes a mul idimensional and spa ially explici amewo k
o diagnosing he mic oclima ic impac o u ban g een in as uc u e in he
İzmi Gul Region, a densely popula ed and mo phologically complex coas al
me opolis in wes e n Tü kiye. The me hodological inno a ion lies in combining
he mal, ege a i e, s uc u al, and equi y me ics wi hin a uni ied spa ial schema.
Pa ks a e analyzed h ough concen ic “donu ” bu e s ex ending 0–500 m, in
50 m inc emen s, enabling he compu a ion o :

REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   49
i. Pa k Cooling In ensi y (PCI): Max–min LST di e ence ac oss zones.
ii. Pa k Cooling Dis ance (PCD): Dis ance a which cooling pla eaus
(<0.1°C/ ing).
iii. Pa k Cooling A ea (PCA): Bu e a ea wi h e ec i e cooling.
i . Buil Co e age Ra io (BCR): A ea-weigh ed impe iousness in bu e
zones.
. Equi y Diagnos ics: Lo enz cu es and Gini coe icien s o cooling
and s uc u al exposu es.
These indica o s a e modeled a bo h pa k and neighbo hood le els using a
combina ion o O dina y Leas Squa es (OLS) and G adien Boos ed Reg ession
T ees (GBRT) wi h SHAP in e p e a ion, cap u ing bo h explana o y powe and
p edic i e insigh .
The s udy is guided by he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
· RQ1: How do pa k size and landscape composi ion join ly shape cooling
in ensi y and cooling a ea?
· RQ2: How does buil densi y and impe iousness (BCR) media e
empe a u e g adien s a ound pa ks?
· RQ3: How is cooling access dis ibu ed ac oss neighbo hoods and
demog aphic g oups?
· RQ4: Which p edic o s mos s ongly in luence PCI and PCI access in
explainable models?
By add essing hese ques ions, he esea ch aims o con ibu e o e idence-
based u ban planning ha is esponsi e o bo h en i onmen al pe o mance and
spa ial jus ice in he e a o clima e c isis.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1.S udya eaandda ase
The s udy a ea encompasses he İzmi Gul Region o wes e n Tü kiye,
a coas al Medi e anean me opolis cha ac e ized by ma ked coas al–inland
he mal g adien s, complex u ban mo phology, and a agmen ed g een
in as uc u e ne wo k. The geog aphic con ex is illus a ed in Figu e 1,
which p esen s a op-le he na ional con ex (Tü kiye), mid-le he b oade
İzmi me opoli an a ea, cen e he dis ic and neighbo hood adminis a i e
bounda ies (n = 237) wi h ele a ion and i e ne wo ks, and bo om-le he
50   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
neighbo hood uni s wi hin he Gul . The op- igh panel displays u ban pa k
loca ions (n = 692), he mid- igh o e lay o pa k bu e ings (n = 6,920), and
he bo om- igh panel p esen s a ue-colo sa elli e basemap de i ed om a
median composi e o Landsa 8–9 image y, p ocessed ia Google Ea h Engine,
using da ase s acqui ed be ween June 1 and Augus 31, 2025.
Da a inpu s include:
· A pa k polygon laye (n = 692) con aining pa k_id, a ea_m2, and a
p io i size classes (Class I–IV), de i ed h ough QGIS a ea measu es and SQL
classi ica ion.
· A donu zone laye comp ising en concen ic bu e s (0–500 m a 50 m
in e als) a ound each pa k, yielding 6,920 ing polygons each wi h median LST,
canopy, SAVI, NDVI, MNDWI, IBI, UTFVI, UHI, zone_a ea, and building_
a ea a ibu es.
· A neighbo hood laye (“mahalle_mas e ”) wi h 237 uni s, con aining
demog aphic indica o s (e.g., o al popula ion, women, age g oups), u ban-
densi y classi ica ion, canopy heigh , and he mal exposu e me ics a
neighbo hood scale.
All spa ial da a we e p ocessed in p ojec ed CRS EPSG:5253, ensu ing
consis en a ea and bu e calcula ions. The me hodological ounda ion builds
on p io wo k emphasizing bu e -based assessmen o pa k cooling e ec s
(Lan, Liu, Huang, Co co an, & Peng, 2022; Sun e al., 2020; Y. Zhou e al.,
2025) , concen ic ing analysis o PCI compu a ion (Vid ih & Med ed, 2013;
Yin, Wang, & Zhang, 2025), and landscape-based u ban he mal modeling
(Okumus & Te zi, 2023; Xu e al., 2022). Such amewo ks a e c i ical o
quan i ying he spa ial oo p in and equi y o ecosys em se ices in apidly
u banizing coas al egions.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   51
Figu e 1: S udy A ea Loca ion Map and Base Laye s
2.2.Pa kClassi ica ionandConcen icDonu Zones
U ban pa ks we e classi ied in o ou size-based ypologies: Class I
(< 1,000 m²), Class II (1,000–5,000 m²), Class III (5,000–10,000 m²), and
Class IV (> 10,000 m²), ollowing es ablished h esholds de i ed om
p io landscape–clima e s udies (Xiao e al., 2023; Zhu e al., 2021). These
classes acili a e examina ion o scale-dependen cooling e ec s and suppo
pe o mance compa isons ac oss o de ed s a a.
To p ecisely quan i y he spa ial ex en and in ensi y o cooling, concen ic
“donu zones” we e gene a ed a ound each pa k bounda y in QGIS using
p ojec ed CRS EPSG:5253 geome y. Bu e s we e c ea ed a 50 m inc emen s
om 0 o 500 m, esul ing in en ings pe pa k and a o al o 6,920 bu e
polygons. Wi hin each ing, zonal s a is ics we e ex ac ed o median land
su ace empe a u e (LST), ege a ion indices (SAVI, NDVI), su ace mois u e
(MNDWI), buil in ensi y (IBI, impe iousness), canopy me ics, UTFVI, UHI,
and geome ic a eas such as zone_a ea and building_a ea.
The Pa k Cooling In ensi y (PCI) was ope a ionalized as he di e ence
be ween he maximum and minimum median LST alues ac oss he en ings
(i.e., Δ°C), e lec ing he maximal he mal g adien associa ed wi h a gi en
pa k (Xiao e al., 2023; Zhu e al., 2021). Pa k Cooling Dis ance (PCD) was
52   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
de ined as he ing dis ance whe e he LST g adien la ened below a h eshold
o 0.1 °C pe ing—a p oxy o he “ i s u ning poin ” beyond which cooling
in luence diminishes subs an ially, as ecommended in emo e-sensing bu e
analyses (Xiao e al., 2023; Y. Zhou e al., 2025; Zhu e al., 2021). Cumula i e
Pa k Cooling A ea (PCA) was calcula ed as he o al bu e a ea up o he PCD
bounda y (m² and ha).
2.3.CoolingandBuil -Fo mMe ics
This s udy adop s h ee in e ela ed cooling me ics—Pa k Cooling
In ensi y (PCI), Pa k Cooling Dis ance (PCD), and Pa k Cooling A ea (PCA)—
supplemen ed by he Buil Co e age Ra io (BCR) o e alua e how pa k ea u es
and su ounding buil o m in luence he mal egula ion.
· Pa k Cooling In ensi y (PCI) is de ined as he di e ence be ween he
maximum and minimum median Land Su ace Tempe a u e (LST) obse ed
ac oss he en concen ic bu e ings (Δ°C). This me ic cap u es he la ges
empe a u e d op a ibu able o pa k in luence (Cai e al., 2023; Zhu e al., 2021).
· Pa k Cooling Dis ance (PCD) ep esen s he adial dis ance (m) om
he pa k bounda y a which he cooling e ec pla eaus: ope a ionally, he i s
bu e dis ance whe e ΔLST dec eases below 0.1 °C ela i e o he inne ing.
I app oxima es he h eshold beyond which cooling becomes negligible (Cai
e al., 2023; Qiu & Jia, 2020; Y. Zhou e al., 2025). Concep ually, his is he
“ i s u ning poin ” in he cooling g adien and is illus a ed schema ically in
Figu e 2.
· Pa k Cooling A ea (PCA) is he cumula i e bu e a ea (m² and ha)
up o he PCD h eshold. PCA quan i ies he spa ial ex en o e ec i e pa k-
in luenced cooling.
· Buil Co e age Ra io (BCR) in each ing is calcula ed as he a ea-
weigh ed a io o building oo p in o bu e zone a ea (i.e., building_a ea/
zone_a ea), exp essed as a ac ion o pe cen age. The in eg a ed BCR me ic
o he pa k is he mean o ing-speci ic BCR alues, weigh ed by zone_a ea.
BCR se es as a unc ional p oxy o impe iousness and ege a ion dis up ion.
The concep ual logic is depic ed in Figu e 2 LST a ia ion as a unc ion
o dis ance om he pa k bounda y, wi h he p ima y cooling g adien (PCI)
declining owa d PCD, while BCR modula es LST ele a ion ac oss he cu e’s
en elope.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   53
These me ics p o ide a spa ially explici amewo k o analyse bo h
he mal magni ude (PCI), ho izon al each (PCD), spa ial ex en (PCA), and
s uc u al esis ance (BCR). They suppo compa a i e analysis ac oss pa k size
classes (Sec ion 3.2), modeling o p edic o a iables (Sec ion 3.6), and linkage
o equi y measu es a neighbo hood le el (Sec ion 3.5).
Figu e 2: Concep ual Schema ic E ec o Pa k Cooling Se ice
2.4.Equi yandExposu eCompu a ion
To e alua e spa ial equi y in access o pa k-based mic oclima ic bene i s,
his s udy calcula es popula ion-weigh ed exposu e me ics a he neighbo hood
le el, suppo ed by Lo enz cu e isualiza ion and Gini coe icien compu a ion.
These measu es aim o quan i y dispa i ies in cooling access ac oss demog aphic
g oups and u ban mo phological con ex s.
Neighbo hood-le el exposu e o pa k cooling se ices is ope a ionalized
h ough PCI access, de ined as he popula ion-weigh ed a e age o pa k
cooling in ensi y (PCI) o all pa ks wi hin a 500 m bu e o he neighbo hood
bounda y. Fo a gi en neighbo hood
i
, he PCI exposu e o g oup
g
(e.g.,
o al popula ion, child en unde 5, women, elde ly o e 65) is calcula ed as:
()
()
()
()
()
g
ij
j Pi
g
ig
i
j Pi
Pop PCI
PCI Pop
Î
Î
´
=
å
å (1)
whe e j
PCI
is he cooling in ensi y o pa k
j
,
()Pi
is he se o pa ks
wi hin 500 m o neighbo hood
i
,
()g
i
Pop is he popula ion coun o g oup
g
in
neighbo hood
i
.

54   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
This compu a ion assumes ha all esiden s wi hin he 500 m se ice a ea
can access he pa k’s cooling bene i , ollowing s anda ds in en i onmen al
equi y li e a u e (Rigolon, 2016).
In addi ion o he mal exposu e, buil co e age a io (BCR) exposu e is
compu ed pe neighbo hood using he same bu e -based app oach. The BCR
is de ined as:
()
()
()
()
()
g
ij
j Pi
g
ig
i
j Pi
Pop BCR
BCR Pop
Î
Î
´
=
å
å (2)
whe e j
BCR
is he a ea-weigh ed buil co e age in he bu e zones o
pa k
j
. Highe alues indica e g ea e s uc u al esis ance o cooling, ypically
associa ed wi h impe ious su aces and dense cons uc ion.
To assess he equi y o he mal exposu e, Lo enz cu es a e gene a ed by
plo ing he cumula i e sha e o popula ion (x-axis) agains he cumula i e sha e
o PCI o LST bene i (y-axis), anked om lowes o highes exposu e. De ia ions
om he 1:1 line indica e inequali y. The Gini coe icien is calcula ed as:
1
0
12 ()G L p dp=-ò
(3)
whe e
()Lp
is he lo enz cu e unc ion. In disc e e o m:
11
1
1 ( )( )
n
kk k k
k
G YY X X
--
=
=- + -
å (4)
whe e
k
X
and
k
Y
a e he cumula i e popula ion and exposu e sha es,
espec i ely, so ed in ascending o de o exposu e. The coe icien anges om
0 (pe ec equi y) o 1 (maximum inequali y). Boo s ap esampling (n = 2,000)
is used o es ima e 95% con idence in e als o Gini alues, ollowing equi y
diagnos ics amewo ks in ecen spa ial jus ice s udies (Rigolon, 2016; Xu,
Wang, & Zhu, 2024; Xue e al., 2019).
2.5.ModelingandValida ion
This s udy employs wo complemen a y modeling app oaches—O dina y
Leas Squa es (OLS) eg ession and G adien Boos ed Reg ession T ees
(GBRT) wi h SHAP in e p e a ion— o assess he ela i e in luence o landscape
con igu a ion and buil - o m p edic o s on cooling ou comes.
Two sepa a e OLS models a e speci ied:
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   55
(i) Pa k-le el Model:

ϳ


∑
;ϰͿ
whe e and a e he cumula i e popula ion and exposu e sha es,
espec i ely, so ed in ascending o de o exposu e. The coe icien anges
om 0 (pe ec equi y) o 1 (maximum inequali y). Boo s ap esampling
(n = 2,000) is used o es ima e 95% con idence in e als o Gini alues,
ollowing equi y diagnos ics amewo ks in ecen spa ial jus ice s udies
(Rigolon, 2016; Xu, Wang, & Zhu, 2024; Xue e al., 2019).
2.5 Modeling and Valida ion
This s udy employs wo complemen a y modeling app oaches—
O dina y Leas Squa es (OLS) eg ession and G adien Boos ed Reg ession
T ees (GBRT) wi h SHAP in e p e a ion— o assess he ela i e in luence o
landscape con igu a ion and buil - o m p edic o s on cooling ou comes.
Two sepa a e OLS models a e speci ied:
(i) Pa k-le el Model:
;ϱͿ
This model es s he hypo hesized ela ionships be ween pa k-scale
p edic o s and PCI magni ude.
(ii) Neighbo hood-le el Model:
∑
;ϲͿ
whe e includes neighbo hood-le el mo phological and
demog aphic a iables (e.g., LST median, UHI, canopy a ea pe capi a,
u ban densi y, pa k supply). Co a ia e selec ion ollows a iable a ailabili y
and p io li e a u e (Xu e al., 2024; W. Zhou, Yu, Zhang, Xu, & Wu, 2025).
He e oskedas ici y-consis en s anda d e o s (e.g., HC1) a e es ima ed o
ensu e obus ness.
To cap u e po en ial non-linea i ies and in e ac ions, G adien
Boos ing Reg ession T ees a e ained o bo h ou come a iables using
p edic o s iden ical o hose in he OLS speci ica ions. A pipeline wi h
median impu a ion o missing alues and one-ho encoding o ca ego ical
a iables is implemen ed. SHAP (SHapley Addi i e exPlana ions) alues
(5)
This model es s he hypo hesized ela ionships be ween pa k-scale
p edic o s and PCI magni ude.
(ii) Neighbo hood-le el Model:
0
_i kk i
k
PCI access X
bbe
=+ +
å
(6)
whe e
ik
X
includes neighbo hood-le el mo phological and demog aphic
a iables (e.g., LST median, UHI, canopy a ea pe capi a, u ban densi y, pa k
supply). Co a ia e selec ion ollows a iable a ailabili y and p io li e a u e
(Xu e al., 2024; W. Zhou, Yu, Zhang, Xu, & Wu, 2025). He e oskedas ici y-
consis en s anda d e o s (e.g., HC1) a e es ima ed o ensu e obus ness.
To cap u e po en ial non-linea i ies and in e ac ions, G adien Boos ing
Reg ession T ees a e ained o bo h ou come a iables using p edic o s iden ical
o hose in he OLS speci ica ions. A pipeline wi h median impu a ion o missing
alues and one-ho encoding o ca ego ical a iables is implemen ed. SHAP
(SHapley Addi i e exPlana ions) alues quan i y he ma ginal con ibu ion
o each p edic o o indi idual obse a ions, yielding a global anking and
dependence cu es (Lundbe g & Lee, 2017; Molna , 2020).
Fi e- old c oss- alida ion (CV) is employed o assess p edic i e
pe o mance. Fo each model, R² (coe icien o de e mina ion) and RMSE ( oo
mean squa ed e o ) a e epo ed as mean and s anda d de ia ion ac oss olds.
The OLS models a e e alua ed o mul icollinea i y using Va iance
In la ion Fac o (VIF), wi h h esholds o VIF < 5 conside ed accep able.
Residual plo s and quan ile–quan ile (Q–Q) plo s a e inspec ed o no mali y
and ou lie in luence. GBRT hype pa ame e s (numbe o ees, lea ning a e,
dep h) a e uned ia g id sea ch using ou -o - old pe o mance on alida ion
spli s. SHAP addi i i y is checked by con i ming ha he sum o indi idual
ea u e con ibu ions equals he di e ence be ween he p edic ed alue and
he model’s baseline expec a ion, consis en wi h T eeExplaine con en ions
(Lundbe g & Lee, 2017). This dual modeling s a egy—linea in e ence ia
OLS and explainable machine lea ning ia SHAP—p o ides bo h s a is ical
igo and p edic i e insigh in o pa k and neighbo hood cooling dynamics.
56   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1.Spa ialBaselines
The pixel-le el maps p esen ed in Figu e 3 depic he spa ial he e ogenei y
o key en i onmen al and mo phological indica o s ac oss he İzmi Gul
Region. These baseline dis ibu ions es ablish he geog aphic con ex o la e
analyses a he pa k and neighbo hood scales.
Panel (a) maps ESA Wo ldCo e land use classi ica ions, e ealing a
dominan mix o buil -up and ag icul u al classes wi hin he u banized co e,
ansi ioning o ege a ed and ba e soils along he ou e pe iphe ies. This
ypological sp ead e lec s he polycen ic g ow h pa e n and ecological
agmen a ion ypical o coas al Medi e anean ci ies.
Panels (b) and (c) show ege a ion indices—SAVI and NDVI, espec i ely.
Bo h maps exhibi ele a ed alues in o es ed hin e lands and la ge pa ks, wi h
clea coas al–inland g adien s. Vege a ion co e age diminishes owa d he u ban
co e, whe e high impe iousness educes pho osyn he ically ac i e su aces.
SAVI, adjus ed o soil e lec ance, shows sligh ly b oade co e age han NDVI
in semi-u ban inge zones.
Figu e 3: Pixel-Le el Spa ial İndica o s o Gul A ea, Panels a–i
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   57
Panel (d) isualizes MNDWI, indica ing su ace we ness and possible
p oximi y o wa e bodies. Ele a ed MNDWI alues a e concen a ed along
s eam co ido s and low-lying dep essions. In con as , Panel (e) displays IBI,
wi h high buil -up in ensi y obse ed in cen al İzmi , Ka abağla , and Çiğli
dis ic s—co esponding o dense mid- ise housing and indus ial land uses.
The mal me ics appea in Panels ( ) h ough (h). Land Su ace Tempe a u e
(LST) in Panel ( ) e eals a dis inc u ban hea island signa u e ac oss he
me opoli an basin, wi h empe a u es ele a ed by 3–5 °C ela i e o ege a ed
uplands. The U ban The mal Field Va iance Index (UTFVI) (Panel g) cap u es
bo h ex eme ho spo s and mic o- a ia ions ied o su ace composi ion. Panel
(h) displays U ban Hea Island (UHI) in ensi y as de ia ion om a ege a i e
baseline, highligh ing he mal inequali y ac oss space.
Finally, Panel (ı) illus a es canopy heigh , de i ed om emo e sensing–
based lida p oxies. T ee canopy is spa ially limi ed and agmen ed, wi h
co e age concen a ed in municipal pa ks, ceme e ies, and s eam-adjacen
co ido s. This dis ibu ion accen ua es he s uc u al de ici o e ical g eening,
especially in high-densi y esiden ial dis ic s.
O e all, he maps e eal s ong spa ial con as s in g eenness, mois u e,
and he mal bu den—wi h clea e idence o coas al–inland and u ban– u al
g adien s. These pa e ns con i m he p esence o mo phological and clima ic
he e ogenei y ha wa an s s a i ied pa k-scale analysis in subsequen sec ions
(see Sec ions 3.2–3.5). Pa k ou lines a e o e laid o con ex , ein o cing hei
ole as spa ial ancho s in he mal egula ion.
3.2.Pa kScale:Dis ibu ionsandClassCompa isons
Figu e 4 p esen s a six-panel diagnos ic summa y o u ban pa k s uc u e
and cooling pe o mance ac oss he İzmi Gul Region. Pa ks a e s a i ied
in o ou size-based classes: Class I (< 1,000 m²), Class II (1,000–5,000 m²),
Class III (5,000–10,000 m²), and Class IV (> 10,000 m²), enabling consis en
e alua ion o scale-dependen pa e ns in pa k a ea, cooling magni ude, spa ial
dis ibu ion, and s uc u al esis ance.
Panel 4a illus a es he equency dis ibu ion o pa k a eas ≤ 10,000 m²,
wi h class h esholds ma ked by dashed e ical lines and in e qua ile
benchma ks anno a ed. Among he 692 pa ks analyzed, Class II (n = 370)
cons i u es he modal ca ego y, while Class IV pa ks— hough ew in numbe
(n = 65)—con ibu e disp opo iona ely o o al g een a ea due o hei size.
Summa y s a is ics by class a e epo ed in Table 1. No ably, he median a ea
inc eases sha ply ac oss classes, om 574 m² in Class I o 18,444 m² in Class IV.
64   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Panel 8b highligh s dispa i ies ac oss u ban densi y classes, e ealing
a mo e complex pa e n. While he Low and Mode a e densi y a eas exhibi
ela i ely high PCI access, he Ve y High densi y class eco ds bo h he lowes
median PCI access and he g ea es in e qua ile ange, sugges ing in e nal
a iabili y and pocke s o ex eme he mal inequi y. This is pa icula ly
p onounced o child en and elde ly, ein o cing conce ns abou he spa ial
misalignmen be ween pa k cooling supply and demog aphic need.
These spa ial and demog aphic con as s a e u he de ailed, which epo s
g oup-le el popula ion o als, mean PCI access, and exposu e pe cen iles (Q25,
Q50, Q75). Despi e ela i ely simila mean PCI access ac oss g oups (~1.27–
1.33 °C), he dis ibu ion is skewed, and median alues all consis en ly below
he mean, signaling ha a majo i y o esiden s a e se ed by below-a e age
cooling pa ks. The elde ly popula ion (65+) shows he highes mean access
(1.33 °C) bu also he wides in e qua ile sp ead, e lec ing spa ial concen a ion
o high-pe o ming pa ks in ewe neighbo hoods.
Toge he , hese indings iden i y a clea he mal equi y de ici in se e al
high-densi y and high- ulne abili y dis ic s. Lo enz and Gini analyses
demons a e ha cooling se ices a e no uni o mly dis ibu ed, and hei
inequi y is compounded by buil - o m ba ie s and popula ion composi ion.
The lowes equi y is obse ed o BCR, whe e dense, impe ious u ban ab ics
pe sis in a eas unde se ed by pa k cooling.
The iden i ica ion o disad an aged g oups and loca ions p o ides a spa ial
logic o p io i izing in e en ions—pa icula ly in cen al and inland zones like
Buca and Ka abağla , whe e small pa ks o e limi ed mi iga ion and ulne able
popula ions a e concen a ed. These insigh s mo i a e he ie ed a ge ing
s a egy p oposed in Sec ion 4.
3.6.Model-BasedExplana ionsandRobus ness
To complemen he bi a ia e analyses and assess he mul i a ia e in luence
o landscape and buil - o m cha ac e is ics on u ban cooling ou comes, his
sec ion p esen s explana o y modeling a bo h he pa k scale and neighbo hood
scale. Two G adien Boos ing Reg esso (GBR) models we e ained o p edic
(i) pa k-le el PCI (Δ°C) and (ii) neighbo hood-le el PCI access (Δ°C), wi h
SHAP (SHapley Addi i e exPlana ions) used o global and local in e p e abili y.
To alida e model consis ency and di ec ional e ec s, esul s a e c oss-checked
agains o dina y leas squa es (OLS) eg ession ou pu s.

REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   65
The pa k-scale model p edic ing PCI achie ed an R² o 0.85 (RMSE =
0.40°C) wi h e i ied SHAP addi i i y and 5- old c oss- alida ed R² = 0.80,
con i ming s ong gene alizabili y. The neighbo hood-scale model p edic ing
PCI access yielded R² = 0.83 (RMSE = 0.22°C) and c oss- alida ed R² = 0.79,
wi h SHAP addi i i y also sa is ied. These pe o mance me ics indica e
high explana o y powe , alida ing he ea u e a ibu ions in subsequen
in e p e a ion.
Figu e 9a displays he SHAP beeswa m plo o he pa k-le el PCI model,
e ealing ha u ban hea me ics—especially UHI and UTFVI—ha e he
g ea es in luence on cooling in ensi y, ollowed by MNDWI, log- ans o med
a ea, and canopy heigh . No ably, impe iousness and BCR exhibi consis en
nega i e con ibu ions, meaning ha highe buil in ensi y wi hin bu e zones
sys ema ically dep esses PCI. Dependence plo s con i m hese associa ions,
e ealing nonlinea sa u a ion e ec s whe e inc easing UHI o canopy leads o
diminishing PCI gains.
Figu e 9b p esen s he neighbo hood PCI access model. The mos in luen ial
p edic o s include mean neighbo hood a ea, NDVI/SAVI, and he mal indices
(UHI, LST). Again, high impe ious co e age and pa k isola ion (low a ea pe
capi a) co espond o educed access. SHAP alues show ha en i onmen al
g eenness exe s a s onge posi i e e ec han ma ginal buil o m indica o s a
he neighbo hood scale, emphasizing s uc u al limi a ions in cooling p o ision
ac oss dense mo phologies.
66   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 9. SHAP Beeswa m and op-3 Dependence Plo s o Pa k and
Neighbo hood Models
To e i y di ec ionali y and app oxima e e ec sizes, OLS eg essions
we e i ed using he same p edic o s (excluding ca ego ical a iables). A he
pa k le el, PCI is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h log(a ea) and
UHI (p < 0.001), while impe iousness has a signi ican nega i e coe icien
(β = –21.95, p < 0.03). BCR su p isingly shows a posi i e e ec (β = 20.20,
p < 0.05), which may e lec mul icollinea i y wi h g eenness indica o s and
wa an s cau ious in e p e a ion.
A he neighbo hood le el, LST is a s ong posi i e p edic o o PCI access
(p < 0.001), whe eas pa k _a ea _sum is nega i ely associa ed (p < 0.01),
po en ially cap u ing sa u a ion e ec s in o e se ed zones. Vege a ion
indica o s (SAVI, NDVI) a e no signi ican a con en ional le els, hough hei
signs a e aligned wi h SHAP con ibu ions.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   67
Ac oss bo h models, he mal load indica o s (UHI, UTFVI) consis en ly
eme ge as dominan d i e s o PCI, a i ming ha pa ks embedded in ho e
mic oclima es exe s onge cooling e ec s. Vege a ion me ics such as canopy
and SAVI exhibi posi i e bu nonlinea con ibu ions, consis en wi h he
obse ed sa u a ion pa e ns in Fig. 6. Buil in ensi y (impe iousness, BCR)
ac s as a s uc u al ba ie o cooling e icacy, pa icula ly a he pa k scale,
while access dynamics a e shaped by spa ial o m and pa k alloca ion densi y a
he neighbo hood scale.
The con e gence o machine lea ning (SHAP) and linea modeling
(OLS) unde sco es he obus ness o indings, pa icula ly he ole o pa k
size, ege a ion, and con ex ual hea s ess in modula ing u ban cooling. These
insigh s se he s age o he planning implica ions de ailed in Sec ion 4.
4. Conclusion and Policy Implica ions
This s udy de eloped a mul idimensional and spa ially explici amewo k
o e alua ing he cooling se ices o u ban pa ks wi hin he İzmi Gul Region—
one o Tü kiye’s mos densely u banized coas al zones. Th ough he in eg a ion
o emo e sensing–de i ed me ics, concen ic bu e -based landscape analysis,
and model-based in e p e a ion, i con ibu es no el insigh s in o how landscape
s uc u e, buil densi y, and demog aphic con ex join ly shape he mal ou comes
a mul iple scales.
Key indings e eal ha pa k size and con ex ual he mal bu den (UHI,
UTFVI) a e he mos powe ul p edic o s o pa k cooling in ensi y (PCI). La ge
pa ks embedded in ho e mic oclima ic zones demons a e s onge he mal
g adien s, pa icula ly when su ounded by lowe impe iousness and highe
ege a i e co e . Con e sely, buil in ensi y—measu ed h ough impe iousness
and BCR—sys ema ically educes cooling capaci y, ein o cing conce ns abou
landscape agmen a ion and ecological isola ion in dense u ban co es (see
Fig. 5).
Neighbo hood-le el esul s unde sco e he une en spa ial and demog aphic
dis ibu ion o cooling access. Equi y diagnos ics indica e ha cooling se ices
a e no equi ably dis ibu ed ac oss dis ic s o demog aphic subg oups.
Vulne able popula ions—pa icula ly child en unde i e and olde adul s—
expe ience bo h lowe mean access and highe exposu e inequali y.
The applica ion o explainable models (SHAP) and OLS diagnos ics
p o ided obus in e p e abili y o key p edic o s ac oss bo h pa k and
neighbo hood scales (Fig. 9). These models a i m ha landscape g eenness
68   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
(SAVI, canopy), mo phological openness, and pa k a ea pe capi a a e posi i ely
associa ed wi h he mal mi iga ion, while buil - o m me ics (impe iousness,
BCR) dep ess cooling e iciency. Impo an ly, he use o bu e -de i ed me ics
(PCI, PCA, PCD) enabled a mo e spa ially sensi i e ep esen a ion o cooling
dynamics han agg ega e LST alone.
These indings suppo se e al c i ical di ec ions o u ban hea mi iga ion
and equi y-o ien ed planning:
(i) Neighbo hoods such as Buca and Ka abağla —iden i ied as ha ing
high ulne abili y bu low PCI access—should be p io i ized o g eening
in e en ions. Mic o-scale augmen a ion o Class I pa ks in hese dis ic s may
p o ide ou sized bene i s i canopy s uc u e and connec i i y a e imp o ed.
(ii) While pa k size is posi i ely associa ed wi h cooling, diminishing
e u ns a e e iden beyond ~10,000 m². Ins ead o expanding a ea alone,
planne s should op imize ege a i e con igu a ion, educe edge agmen a ion,
and main ain bu e openness o enhance PCA and PCI.
(iii) Cooling in e en ions mus be aligned wi h popula ion-weigh ed
ulne abili y me ics, including child and elde ly densi ies. Spa ial diagnos ics
such as Lo enz/Gini analysis should be ins i u ionalized as sc eening ools in
pa k alloca ion and unding p og ams.
(i ) BCR and impe ious su ace me ics—de i ed om high- esolu ion
sa elli e and zoning o e lays—should be included in land-use and o m-based
codes o en o ce cooling-compa ible mo phology.
( ) In e y dense zones whe e la ge pa ks a e in easible, a ne wo k o
small, he mally s a egic g een spaces (cool spo s) may collec i ely achie e
compa able impac i planned o spa ial equi y and mo phological syne gy.
( i) Al hough his s udy uses a peak-season snapsho , long- e m moni o ing
is c i ical o cap u e seasonal a ia ion and esilience h esholds. The use o
pla o ms like Google Ea h Engine and Colab allows o scalable upda es and
in eg a ion o newe senso s (e.g., ECOSTRESS, Sen inel-3).
By uni ying physical mic oclima ic me ics wi h spa ial equi y diagnos ics,
his s udy ad ances bo h he science and p ac ice o u ban hea adap a ion. The
me hods and insigh s p esen ed he e a e applicable o o he coas al me opoli an
egions acing simila challenges o densi ica ion, clima ic s ess, and social
ulne abili y. In eg a ing da a-d i en diagnos ics wi h planning o esigh will
be key o os e ing esilien , li able ci ies in he e a o clima e ola ili y.
REVEALING URBAN COOLING DYNAMICS THROUGH LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE . . .   69
Au ho Con ibu ion and Con lic o In e es Decla a ion In o ma ion
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73
CHAPTER IV
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
THROUGH BLUE-GREEN
INFRASTRUCTURE: A THEORETICAL
AND SYSTEMIC PERSPECTİVE ON
CONTEMPORARY URBANISATION
Be ül KARAİSMAİLOĞLU1, Fa is KARAHAN2,1*
1 Solo Tasa ım e Mühendislik A.Ş.
ORCID: 0009-0009-3521-503X
2 (P o . D .), Depa men o Landscape A chi ec u e,
Facul y o A chi ec u e and Design,
A a ü k Uni e si y, E zu um, Tü kiye
ORCID: 0000-0001-6426-8426
1. In oduc ion
U ban en i onmen s in he wen y- i s cen u y eside a he nexus
o compounding en i onmen al pe u ba ions, socio-economic
ealignmen s, and he elen less accele a ion o u banisa ion. As
ci ies sp awl and densi y, he s ain on ecological subs a a—wa e sys ems,
ege a ion co e , mic oclima ic s abili y—has g own acu e, comp omising
bo h en i onmen al unc ionali y and he s uc u al capaci y o ci ies o sus ain
collec i e well-being. These challenges necessi a e a pa adigma ic u n in u ban
hough and p ac ice, compelling a depa u e om he echnoc a ic seg ega ion
o na u al and buil en i onmen s owa d in eg a i e ecological amewo ks.
Wi hin his ansi ion, blue-g een in as uc u e (BGI) has ma e ialised as
a concep ual and ope a ional pi o , embodying he syn hesis o hyd ological
sys ems (blue) and ege a ed landscapes (g een) in se ice o mul i- unc ional,
in e -scala u ban ecosys ems (Aus in, 2014; Yamaga a and Sha i i, 2018;
1 *Co esponding au ho , i s au ho
80   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
G een Elemen s: These encompass u ban o es s, public pa ks, g een oo s,
ege a ed swales, communi y ga dens, and ecological co ido s. Collec i ely,
hey acili a e u ban cooling, ca bon seques a ion, shading, and ecological
connec i i y o di e se species (Aus in, 2014).
The in eg a ion o hese sys ems yields syne gis ic bene i s ha exceed hei
isola ed con ibu ions. Fo example, ege a ed bu e s along i e s no only il e
u ban uno and educe pollu an loads bu also s abilise i e banks and suppo
ipa ian ecosys ems (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016). Likewise, cons uc ed we lands
in eg a ed in o g een co ido s enhance s o mwa e managemen while imp o ing
he mal com o , aes he ics, and biodi e si y (Yamaga a and Ma uyama, 2016).
Rising Impo ance: O e he pas decade, he ele ance o BGI has g own
apidly due o i s demons a ed e ec i eness in esponding o en i onmen al,
social, and economic u ban challenges. Clima e-induced ex eme e en s such as
looding and u ban hea islands ha e exposed he sho comings o con en ional
g ey in as uc u e, accele a ing he demand o lexible and adap i e al e na i es
g ounded in ecological p ocesses (ICLEI, 2019; Whi e e al., 2021).
On he global s age, key policy ins umen s now p io i ise BGI. The
Eu opean Union’s G een In as uc u e S a egy (2013) ames BGI as cen al o
achie ing biodi e si y, clima e adap a ion, and sus ainable de elopmen a ge s.
The Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals—pa icula ly Goals 11
and 15—also o eg ound he ole o na u e-based in as uc u e in os e ing
inclusi e, esilien , and en i onmen ally sound ci ies (Uni ed Na ions, 2025).
Empi ical e idence subs an ia es hese claims. U ban o es s and we lands
can lowe ambien empe a u es by up o 4°C, mi iga ing hea s ess and educing
ene gy consump ion (Aus in, 2014). G eenways along i e s ha e been shown
o enhance p ope y alues, while accessible blue spaces imp o e men al heal h,
dec ease anxie y, and p omo e s onge communi y ies (Bell e al., 2022; Whi e
e al., 2021). Mo eo e , BGI solu ions such as bioswales and e en ion ponds
can educe peak s o mwa e uno by 40–70%, signi ican ly lowe ing lood
isks (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
Theo e ically, BGI is inc easingly seen as a sys emic planning pa adigm
ha enables ci ies o ansi ion om agmen ed, eac i e measu es o adap i e
and egene a i e ecological s a egies. The mains eaming o BGI in o zoning
codes, mas e plans, and in as uc u e in es men s ma ks a u ning poin in
u ban go e nance and planning cul u e (Yamaga a and Sha i i, 2018; Yamaga a
and Ma uyama, 2016).
Ne e heless, se e al ba ie s hinde widesp ead implemen a ion. These
include ins i u ional agmen a ion, sec o al silos, lack o sus ainable unding

REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   81
mechanisms, and poli ical ine ia (ICLEI, 2019). O e coming such cons ain s
necessi a es c oss-disciplina y collabo a ion, pa icipa o y planning p ocesses,
and he mobilisa ion o inno a i e inance ools like g een bonds o paymen s
o ecosys em se ices (Bell e al., 2022).
In conclusion, blue-g een in as uc u e e lec s a pa adigm shi in u ban
planning—ancho ing sus ainabili y, esilience, and ecological li e acy a he co e
o ci y-making p ocesses. I s componen s ep esen a ne wo k o na u al and
enginee ed sys ems ha collec i ely e ame u ban challenges as oppo uni ies
o egene a i e design and inclusi e de elopmen . The nex sec ion will
a icula e he aims and s uc u e o his chap e , elucida ing i s con ibu ion o
ad ancing bo h heo e ical insigh s and p ac ical applica ions o BGI.
This chap e aims o p o ide a obus heo e ical ounda ion o
unde s anding he ole o blue-g een in as uc u e (BGI) wi hin he e ol ing
pa adigm o u ban sus ainabili y. By syn hesising con empo a y academic
schola ship, in e na ional policy ini ia i es, and ecen empi ical indings, he
chap e endea ou s o unpack he concep ual landscape o BGI and highligh
i s inc easing ele ance as a mul idimensional solu ion o u ban en i onmen al,
social, and economic challenges (Aus in, 2014; Bell e al., 2022).
Speci ically, his s udy pu sues he ollowing in e ela ed objec i es:
1. To c i ically examine he a ionale o in eg a ing blue and g een sys ems
in u ban planning as a means o mi iga e clima e change e ec s, educe u ban
hea island phenomena, add ess biodi e si y loss, and enhance public heal h
ou comes.
2. To ace he concep ual e olu ion o u ban sus ainabili y discou ses,
si ua ing BGI wi hin key global agendas such as he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs) and he New U ban Agenda.
3. To de ine and sys ema ise he co e componen s and unc ions o BGI,
while a icula ing i s heo e ical unde pinnings and i s ans o ma i e po en ial
in os e ing u ban esilience and ecological egene a ion.
By pu suing hese objec i es, he chap e seeks o con ibu e o an en iched
schola ly unde s anding o BGI as a ans o ma i e pa adigm ha anscends
con en ional u ban in as uc u e planning. I posi ions BGI no me ely as a
echnical ix bu as a amewo k ha suppo s he eme gence o ci ies ha a e
ecologically in elligen , socially inclusi e, and spa ially egene a i e.
Ul ima ely, his heo e ical exposi ion se es as a concep ual and empi ical
sca old o u u e esea ch, e idence-based policymaking, and p ac ical
82   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
applica ions. I aspi es o guide u ban de elopmen owa d models ha a e no
only e icien and adap i e bu also equi able, li eable, and en i onmen ally
ha monious—se ing he needs o bo h p esen and u u e gene a ions.
2. Blue-G een In as uc u e: Concep ual F amewo k
2.1.Wha isg eenin as uc u e?
G een in as uc u e (GI) has eme ged as a ans o ma i e planning
pa adigm ha in eg a es na u al and semi-na u al sys ems in o he ab ic o u ban
and egional landscapes o enhance ecological unc ionali y, human well-being,
and socio-economic esilience. Unlike adi ional u ban g eening app oaches,
GI is de ined as a s a egically planned ne wo k o ecosys ems ha deli e s
mul iple bene i s ac oss spa ial and empo al scales (Aus in, 2014; Benedic and
McMahon, 2006).
The Eu opean Commission (2013) de ines g een in as uc u e as
“a s a egically planned ne wo k o na u al and semi-na u al a eas wi h
o he en i onmen al ea u es designed and managed o deli e a wide ange
o ecosys em se ices such as wa e pu i ica ion, ai quali y, space o
ec ea ion and clima e mi iga ion and adap a ion”. This de ini ion highligh s
he mul i unc ionali y o GI, which is cen al o i s inc easing ele ance in
con empo a y planning discou ses.
G een in as uc u e spans mul iple ypologies and spa ial scales,
encompassing:
1. U ban G een Spaces: Pa ks, communi y ga dens, ceme e ies, spo s
ields, and playg ounds, o e ing ec ea ional ameni ies, psychological
es o a ion, and biodi e si y enhancemen (Whi e e al., 2021).
2. S ee G eene y and G een Co ido s:T ee-lined boule a ds, ege a ed
oad medians, and linea pa ks ac as ecological connec o s, imp o e u ban
aes he ics, and egula e mic oclima e (F ey, 1999).
3. U ban Fo es s and Woodlands:La ge o es pa ches p o ide c i ical
ecosys em se ices such as ca bon seques a ion, habi a p o ision, and cul u al
alues (Aus in, 2014).
4. G een Roo s and G een Walls: Ve ical g eening sys ems educe
building ene gy loads, mi iga e u ban hea , and il e ai pollu an s (Sha i i and
Yamaga a, 2016).
5. Ripa ian Vege a ion and We land Bu e s:These ege a ed zones along
wa e bodies il e pollu an s, educe e osion, and suppo aqua ic biodi e si y
(Yamaga a and Sha i i, 2018).
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   83
6. Pe i-U ban Ag icul u e and Allo men s: P oduc i e landscapes such
as o cha ds and communi y a ms suppo ood secu i y, social cohesion, and
pollina o ne wo ks (Bell e al., 2022).
The mul i unc ionali y o GI is e lec ed in i s wide ange o ecosys em
se ices, including:
· Clima e Regula ion h ough e apo anspi a ion and shading (Whi e e
al., 2021),
· Imp o ed Ai and Wa e Quali y by pollu an il a ion (Aus in, 2014),
· Biodi e si y Suppo ia habi a p o ision and connec i i y (Eu opean
Commission, 2013),
· Rec ea ional and Cul u al Se ices such as enhanced men al heal h and
social in e ac ion (Bell e al., 2022).
Success ul GI implemen a ion depends on p inciples such as landscape
connec i i y, mul i unc ionali y, and sys emic in eg a ion. Connec i i y ensu es
ecological lows and esilience, while mul i unc ionali y enables o e lapping
en i onmen al, social, and economic gains. In eg a ion wi h anspo , wa e ,
and ene gy sys ems suppo s syne gis ic planning ou comes (Benedic and
McMahon, 2006; Yamaga a and Ma uyama, 2016).
The Eu opean Union’s G een In as uc u e S a egy (2013) posi ions
GI as a key ins umen o clima e adap a ion, biodi e si y conse a ion, and
g een economic ans o ma ion. GI is also aligned wi h global agendas like he
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals, pa icula ly SDG 3 (Heal h), SDG 6 (Wa e ),
SDG 11 (Ci ies), and SDG 15 (Li e on Land) (Uni ed Na ions, 2025).
Despi e i s es ablished bene i s, GI implemen a ion aces signi ican
challenges: agmen ed go e nance, con lic ing land uses, ins i u ional silos, and
lack o inancial esou ces (ICLEI, 2019). Add essing hese ba ie s calls o
pa icipa o y planning, c oss-sec o al collabo a ion, and inno a i e unding ools
such as g een bonds and paymen s o ecosys em se ices (Bell e al., 2022).
In summa y, g een in as uc u e ep esen s a shi om piecemeal g eening
measu es o s a egically in eg a ed ecological ne wo ks ha suppo u ban
esilience, ecosys em in eg i y, and quali y o li e. The nex sec ion in oduces
blue in as uc u e, de ailing i s hyd ological and ecological unc ions in he
con ex o sus ainable u ban sys ems.
2.2.Wha isbluein as uc u e?
Blue in as uc u e (BI) ep esen s a i al componen o sus ainable u ban
ecosys ems, comp ising he ne wo k o na u al and enginee ed wa e sys ems
84   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
ha deli e hyd ological, ecological, and socio-cul u al se ices. While g een
in as uc u e emphasises e es ial ege a ion and land-based ecological
unc ions, blue in as uc u e add esses he aqua ic ealm, unde pinning he
con inui y o he hyd ological cycle and he heal h o u ban aqua ic ecosys ems.
I s impo ance has g own in pa allel wi h he inc easing challenges o clima e
change, apid u banisa ion, and wa e - ela ed isks in ci ies (Aus in, 2014; Bell
e al., 2022).
Acco ding o he Eu opean Commission (2013), blue in as uc u e is
de ined as “ he s a egically planned and managed ne wo k o na u al and
a i icial wa e bodies and wa e ways ha deli e ecosys em se ices essen ial
o u ban sus ainabili y and esilience”. This de ini ion unde sco es he dual
na u e o BI: i includes bo h na u al sys ems (such as i e s and we lands) and
human-made sys ems (like canals and s o mwa e e en ion basins), wo king
ac oss spa ial scales o suppo ecological in eg i y, egula e u ban hyd ology,
and enhance he quali y o u ban li e (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
BI encompasses a b oad spec um o hyd ological ea u es, including:
1. Ri e s and S eams: Linea eshwa e ecosys ems ha se e as d ainage
co ido s, biodi e si y pa hways, and sou ces o e apo a i e cooling wi hin
dense u ban zones (F ey, 1999).
2. Lakes and Ponds: S a ic wa e bodies ha unc ion as ocal poin s o
ec ea ion, biodi e si y, and s o mwa e s o age (Aus in, 2014).
3. We lands (Na u al and Cons uc ed): C i ical o wa e il a ion, lood
mi iga ion, and habi a p o ision, we lands play a key ole in u ban esilience
(Bell e al., 2022).
4. Canals and U ban Wa e ways: Enginee ed o modi ied wa e channels
ha in eg a e hyd ological unc ion wi h cul u al and aes he ic alue (Eu opean
Commission, 2013).
5. S o mwa e In as uc u e (e.g., bioswales, de en ion ponds): Designed
o egula e su ace uno , educe pollu an loads, and p e en u ban looding
(Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
In ecen yea s, hese componen s ha e become inc easingly cen al o
egene a i e u ban planning app oaches, whe ein wa e is ea ed no me ely as
a haza d o u ili y bu as a li ing sys em embedded in u ban ab ic.
The co e con ibu ion o BI lies in i s abili y o manage u ban wa e cycles
and es o e ecological connec i i y:
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   85
· S o mwa e Regula ion: Th ough de en ion, in il a ion, and delayed
discha ge, BI educes peak lows, minimises lood isks, and alle ia es p essu e
on g ey in as uc u e (Aus in, 2014).
· Wa e Quali y Imp o emen : Na u al ea men p ocesses in we lands
and ipa ian bu e s educe nu ien loads and con aminan s, imp o ing he
ecological s a us o downs eam wa e bodies (Bell e al., 2022).
· Hyd ological Con inui y: Sus aining bo h su ace and subsu ace lows,
BI main ains i al linkages be ween u ban and pe i-u ban ecosys ems, hus
suppo ing biodi e si y and g oundwa e echa ge.
Beyond ecological and echnical bene i s, BI enhances u ban li eabili y
h ough di e se cul u al and public heal h unc ions:
· Rec ea ion and Well-being: Wa e on s, lakesides, and es o ed
i e banks p o ide accessible spaces o exe cise, con empla ion, and communi y
in e ac ion, suppo ing men al and physical heal h (Whi e e al., 2021).
· Place Iden i y and He i age: His o ical wa e bodies o en ca y cul u al
signi icance, ac ing as ancho s o local iden i y and memo y (Bell e al., 2022).
· Mic oclima ic Mode a ion: Open wa e su aces acili a e e apo a i e
cooling, coun e ac ing he hea island e ec in u ban co es and o e ing clima e-
sensi i e design po en ial (Aus in, 2014).
The e is g owing consensus ha maximum en i onmen al and social
bene i is achie ed when blue and g een sys ems a e in eg a ed in o holis ic blue-
g een in as uc u e (BGI) amewo ks. Such in eg a ion allows o syne gis ic
pe o mance—enhancing lood esilience, biodi e si y suppo , and u ban
aes he ics simul aneously (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016; Yamaga a and Sha i i,
2018). The esul ing BGI sys ems a e adap i e, mul i unc ional, and esilien ,
o e ing a pla o m o inno a i e planning unde clima e unce ain y.
Despi e i s bene i s, BI is ulne able o deg ada ion h ough pollu ion,
physical al e a ion (e.g., channelisa ion), and go e nance agmen a ion.
Mo eo e , clima e-induced hyd ological a iabili y has exposed he agili y o
many u ban wa e sys ems (ICLEI, 2019). Tackling hese issues equi es:
· Na u e-Based Solu ions (NbS): Res o a i e p ojec s such as s eam
dayligh ing and u ban we land c ea ion a e gaining ac ion as mul i unc ional
in e en ions (Bell e al., 2022).
· Communi y-Based Go e nance: Co-managemen and ci izen science
ini ia i es can enhance local s ewa dship, inc ease anspa ency, and p omo e
inclusi e access (Whi e e al., 2021).

86   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
· Inno a i e Financing: G een bonds, wa e c edi s, and ecosys em
se ice alua ion mechanisms o e p omising a enues o suppo BI planning
and main enance (Aus in, 2014).
Blue in as uc u e cons i u es he aqua ic backbone o sus ainable u ban
ecosys ems, o e ing indispensable se ices ac oss ecological, hyd ological, and
socio-cul u al dimensions. I s success ul in eg a ion wi h g een sys ems wi hin
BGI amewo ks p esen s a pa hway owa ds clima e- esponsi e, equi able, and
egene a i e ci ies. The ollowing sec ion will elabo a e he heo e ical p inciples
and planning pa adigms ha suppo his in eg a ed app oach.
2.3.Theo e icalFounda ionso In eg a edBlue-G eenSys ems
The concep ual ounda ions o in eg a ed blue-g een sys ems a e ancho ed
in an in e disciplina y syn hesis o ecological, hyd ological, and socio- echnical
heo ies ha collec i ely eimagine he ela ionship be ween u ban o m
and ecological unc ion. These ounda ions in o m he planning, design, and
go e nance o Blue-G een In as uc u e (BGI), aligning u ban de elopmen
goals wi h he p inciples o esilience, adap abili y, and egene a i e sus ainabili y
(Aus in, 2014; Yamaga a and Sha i i, 2018).
Landscape ecology se es as a co e heo e ical pilla , o e ing spa ially
explici models o unde s and how ecological p ocesses a e shaped by he
con igu a ion o blue and g een spaces. The seminal pa ch-co ido -ma ix model
de eloped by Fo man and God on (1986) concep ualises landscapes as mosaics
in which ecological unc ions depend on he connec i i y and a angemen o
dis inc elemen s. This model has been pa icula ly in luen ial in BGI planning,
whe e ecological co ido s (e.g., ipa ian bu e s, g eenways) a e in eg a ed
wi h aqua ic sys ems o acili a e species mo emen , hyd ological lows, and
he mal egula ion (Benedic and McMahon, 2006). Such spa ial connec i i y is
now ecognised as essen ial o main aining biodi e si y and mi iga ing habi a
agmen a ion in densely u banised en i onmen s.
U ban esilience heo y ames ci ies as complex adap i e sys ems ha
mus na iga e a ange o shocks and s esses. In his con ex , BGI con ibu es by
enhancing bo h abso p i e and ans o ma i e capaci ies. I does so by:
1. P o iding Redundancy and Func ional Di e si y: Redundan and
mul i unc ional BGI elemen s—such as s o mwa e we lands o g een oo s—
o e pa allel pa hways o se ice deli e y, educing ulne abili y o single-
poin ailu es (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   87
2. Ca alysing U ban T ans o ma ion:P ojec s such as i e dayligh ing,
g een-blue boule a ds, and coas al es o a ion no only se e ecological pu poses
bu also ac as ca alys s o u ban e i alisa ion, o en ans o ming unde used o
deg aded zones in o ib an , inclusi e public spaces (Bell e al., 2022).
This aligns wi h he shi owa ds ans o ma i e esilience, whe e sys ems
a e no me ely p ese ed bu imp o ed in esponse o c isis o change (Yamaga a
and Ma uyama, 2016).
The Millennium Ecosys em Assessmen (2005) es ablished a global
amewo k ha ca ego ises ecosys em se ices in o p o isioning, egula ing,
suppo ing, and cul u al domains. BGI p o ides a pla o m h ough which hese
se ices can be deli e ed syne gis ically in u ban con ex s. Fo example:
· U ban we lands embedded wi hin pa klands egula e s o mwa e
( egula ing se ices),
· Se e as habi a s o amphibians and bi ds (suppo ing se ices),
· P o ide cul u al and educa ional alue (cul u al se ices),
· And e en con ibu e o wa e p o ision in decen alised sys ems
(p o isioning se ices) (Aus in, 2014).
This amewo k suppo s ou come-o ien ed planning by making he
mul iple bene i s o na u e-based in as uc u e angible o policymake s and
he public alike.
BGI is ope a ionalised wi hin he b oade Na u e-Based Solu ions
pa adigm, as endo sed by he Eu opean Commission. He e, BGI is no a me e
physical sys em, bu a ehicle o sol ing u ban challenges while p omo ing
biodi e si y and socio-en i onmen al jus ice. The heo e ical oo s o NBS lie
in ecological enginee ing, adap i e go e nance, and co-p oduc ion, highligh ing
he need o collabo a i e, knowledge-in eg a ed, and eedback- esponsi e
planning p ocesses (Eu opean Commission, 2015). BGI’s na u e-de i ed
in e en ions—like bioswales, loodplain es o a ion, o cons uc ed we lands—
exempli y he NBS app oach in ac ion.
F om a sys ems inno a ion pe spec i e, BGI ep esen s a “niche
inno a ion” challenging dominan g ey in as uc u e pa adigms. Acco ding
o socio- echnical ansi ions heo y, sus ainable ans o ma ion a ises when
no el con igu a ions—like in eg a ed BGI—in e ac wi h exis ing egimes and
g adually eshape ules, ins i u ions, and use p ac ices (Sha i i and Yamaga a,
2016). BGI’s up ake depends on policy alignmen , s akeholde ne wo ks,
88   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
and long- e m in es men , especially in con ex s whe e igid in as uc u e
legacies p e ail.
E ec i e BGI go e nance demands adap i e co-managemen —an
app oach ha blends scien i ic knowledge wi h local insigh s, allows o
con inuous moni o ing and lea ning, and emphasises lexibili y ac oss
ins i u ional le els. This pa icipa o y model enhances legi imacy, equi y, and
pe o mance by engaging communi ies in planning, main enance, and decision-
making (Yamaga a and Ma uyama, 2016). I acknowledges he complexi y o
managing na u e in ci ies and shi s he ocus om op-down con ol o sha ed
esponsibili y.
Ci ies a e inc easingly iewed h ough he lens o u ban me abolism,
whe ein esou ce lows—ene gy, wa e , ma e ials—a e unde s ood in analogy
o na u al sys ems. Sys ems hinking complemen s his by highligh ing eedback
loops, syne gies, and unin ended consequences. BGI con ibu es by es o ing
na u al wa e cycles, eusing uno , suppo ing nu ien e en ion, and educing
he ecological oo p in o u ban in as uc u e (ICLEI, 2019). The closing
o esou ce loops h ough BGI has been shown o bols e u ban esilience,
pa icula ly unde clima e s ess.
The combined heo e ical pe spec i es ou lined abo e in o m a sui e o
ope a ional p inciples guiding BGI planning and implemen a ion:
· Connec i i y: Physical and ecological linkages ac oss spa ial and
ins i u ional scales.
· Mul i unc ionali y: Simul aneous deli e y o ecosys em se ices
h ough single in e en ions.
· Redundancy and Di e si y: Di e se sys em elemen s o p e en single-
poin ailu e and enhance adap abili y.
· Adap i e Managemen : Con inuous lea ning h ough eedback and
e idence-based adjus men .
· Pa icipa o y Go e nance: Co-designed, inclusi e, and anspa en
decision-making o suppo social equi y (Bell e al., 2022).
The in eg a ion o landscape ecology, esilience heo y, ecosys em
se ices, and socio- echnical sys ems hinking p o ides a obus concep ual
ounda ion o BGI. These in e locking amewo ks posi ion BGI no only as
an in as uc u al solu ion bu as a ans o ma i e planning pa adigm capable o
media ing he ela ionship be ween u banisa ion and na u e. By ope a ionalising
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   89
hese heo ies h ough design and policy, BGI con ibu es o he de elopmen o
ci ies ha a e adap i e, inclusi e, and en i onmen ally cohe en .
3. S udies on Blue-G een In as uc u e in The Las Decade
O e he pas decade, blue-g een in as uc u e (BGI) has ga ne ed
inc easing a en ion wi hin u ban planning, en i onmen al science, and policy
discou ses as a pi o al s a egy o enhancing u ban sus ainabili y and esilience.
BGI ep esen s a pa adigm shi om con en ional g ey in as uc u e owa ds
ecologically in eg a ed sys ems ha p io i ise mul i unc ionali y, adap abili y,
and ecosys em-based solu ions. This e olu ion has been p opelled by escala ing
conce ns o e clima e change, biodi e si y loss, u ban hea islands, and g owing
demands o inclusi e and li eable u ban spaces (Kabisch e al., 2017; Yin e
al., 2022).
BGI di e s undamen ally om adi ional g ey in as uc u e, which is
ypically enginee ed o single-pu pose unc ions such as wa e con eyance,
lood de ence, o anspo a ion. In con as , BGI sys ems a e designed o p o ide
o e lapping ecological, hyd ological, and socio-cul u al se ices, making hem
pa icula ly aluable in add essing complex u ban challenges. Componen s such
as u ban o es s, bioswales, ain ga dens, g een oo s, pe meable pa emen s,
and es o ed wa e ways simul aneously egula e mic oclima es, enhance
biodi e si y, manage s o mwa e , and os e social in e ac ion (He e al., 2020;
Cillie s e al., 2021).
Recen empi ical s udies ha e inc easingly demons a ed BGI’s
e ec i eness in deli e ing sus ainable u ban de elopmen ou comes. Fo
ins ance, esea ch has shown ha u ban we lands and g een co ido s can
signi ican ly educe su ace uno and imp o e wa e quali y, pa icula ly du ing
ex eme wea he e en s (Yin e al., 2022). Simila ly, g een oo s and e ical
ege a ion sys ems ha e been linked o measu able educ ions in ambien u ban
empe a u es, con ibu ing o he mi iga ion o he u ban hea island e ec (He
e al., 2020). Mo eo e , he in eg a ion o BGI in high-densi y en i onmen s
has also p o en o inc ease p ope y alues and a ac long- e m in es men
(Cillie s e al., 2021).
BGI’s con ibu ion o ecosys em se ices has been widely ecognised.
By es o ing hyd ological cycles and p omo ing biodi e si y, blue-g een
sys ems o e p o isioning (e.g., clean wa e ), egula ing (e.g., lood con ol),
suppo ing (e.g., soil o ma ion), and cul u al (e.g., aes he ic and ec ea ional)
se ices. Impo an ly, hese bene i s a e no con ined o he ecological ealm;
96   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
u ban hea islands. To maximise i s e ec i eness, comp ehensi e planning,
s akeholde collabo a ion, and obus e alua ion sys ems a e indispensable. The
ollowing sec ion explo es BGI’s ole in managing u ban lood isk—a pa allel
and in e linked clima e challenge in he e a o apid u banisa ion.
3.3.Flood iskmanagemen
Flooding ep esen s one o he mos p essing na u al haza ds acing u ban
a eas wo ldwide, exace ba ed by clima e change, apid u banisa ion, and he
p oli e a ion o impe ious su aces (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016). T adi ional
g ey in as uc u e app oaches, such as conc e e d ainage channels and
unde g ound sewe sys ems, o en ail o p o ide lexible and adap i e esponses
o inc easingly equen and in ense plu ial, lu ial, and coas al looding e en s
(Aus in, 2014; ICLEI, 2019). In his con ex , blue-g een in as uc u e (BGI)
has eme ged as a na u e-based solu ion o e ing mul i unc ional bene i s o
u ban lood isk managemen .
BGI mi iga es lood isks h ough se e al in e connec ed hyd ological
mechanisms:
1. Runo a enua ion and in il a ion: Vege a ed su aces such as g een
oo s, ain ga dens, and pe meable pa emen s educe su ace uno by enhancing
in il a ion and e apo anspi a ion p ocesses (Whi e e al., 2021; Zölch e al.,
2018).
2. S o mwa e e en ion and de en ion: Cons uc ed we lands, de en ion
ponds, and bioswales cap u e and empo a ily s o e s o mwa e , educing peak
lows and delaying uno en y in o d ainage ne wo ks (Li e al., 2020).
3. Channel na u alisa ion and loodplain es o a ion: Res o ing i e
channels and econnec ing i e s o hei loodplains inc eases s o age capaci y
and educes downs eam lood peaks (Bell e al., 2022).
4. Hyd ological connec i i y: In eg a ed BGI sys ems main ain and
enhance na u al hyd ological pa hways, mi iga ing he dis up ion caused by
u ban de elopmen (Eu opean Commission, 2015; Mee ow and Newell, 2017).
Recen s udies highligh he measu able bene i s o BGI in e en ions:
· G een oo s: Resea ch in Tokyo demons a ed ha ex ensi e g een
oo sys ems can educe s o mwa e uno by 50–80% du ing ain all e en s,
con ibu ing o d ainage ne wo k elie (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
· Cons uc ed we lands: Li e al. (2020) epo ed ha we land sys ems in
Wuhan’s Sponge Ci y p og amme a enua ed s o mwa e peak lows by up o
60%, while imp o ing wa e quali y by educing nu ien and sedimen loads.

REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   97
· U ban s eam es o a ion: In he Uni ed S a es, Benedic and McMahon
(2006) ound ha es o ed s eams wi h ipa ian bu e s inc eased in il a ion,
s abilised banks, and educed lood damage o adjacen p ope ies.
· In eg a ed sys ems: Tan e al. (2019) assessed Singapo e’s ABC Wa e s
P og amme, concluding ha bioswales, e en ion ponds, and na u alised canals
collec i ely educed u ban lood equency and imp o ed communi y lood
esilience.
The lood mi iga ion pe o mance o BGI depends on se e al spa ial and
echnical a iables:
· Scale and dis ibu ion: Small-scale dis ibu ed sys ems such as ain
ga dens and g een oo s collec i ely con ibu e o signi ican uno educ ions,
while la ge in e en ions like we lands p o ide lood s o age (Eu opean
Commission, 2013).
· Connec i i y: Linking BGI elemen s ac oss ca chmen s enhances
hyd ological con inui y, ensu ing cumula i e lood mi iga ion bene i s (Aus in,
2014).
· Topog aphy and soil condi ions: The e ec i eness o in il a ion-based
measu es depends on si e-speci ic cha ac e is ics such as soil pe meabili y and
slope g adien s (Li e al., 2020; Zölch e al., 2018).
· Clima e adap a ion in eg a ion: Designing BGI sys ems o accommoda e
p ojec ed inc eases in ain all in ensi y ensu es long- e m unc ionali y (ICAE,
2019).
Beyond lood mi iga ion, BGI p o ides signi ican addi ional ad an ages:
· Wa e quali y imp o emen s: Vege a ed swales and we lands il e
pollu an s, enhancing downs eam aqua ic ecosys em heal h (Bell e al., 2022;
Hun e al., 2008).
· Biodi e si y habi a s: We lands and ipa ian zones suppo di e se lo a
and auna, enhancing u ban ecological ne wo ks (Whi e e al., 2021).
· Rec ea ional and aes he ic alue: S o mwa e pa ks and na u alised
wa e ways o e communi y spaces, inc easing public accep ance o lood
managemen in e en ions (Ning e al., 2023).
· Ca bon seques a ion: Vege a ion in BGI sys ems cap u es ca bon
dioxide, con ibu ing o clima e mi iga ion e o s (Aus in, 2014; Demuze e e
al., 2014).
98   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Implemen ing e ec i e BGI-based lood managemen equi es mul i-le el
go e nance mechanisms:
· C oss-sec o al collabo a ion: In eg a ing u ban planning, wa e
managemen , landscape a chi ec u e, and public heal h sec o s is essen ial o
mul i unc ional sys em design (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
· Policy amewo ks: The EU Floods Di ec i e encou ages he adop ion
o na u al wa e e en ion measu es, p omo ing BGI in eg a ion in lood isk
managemen plans (Eu opean Commission, 2015; EC, 2020).
· Communi y engagemen : Pa icipa o y design enhances local owne ship,
main enance, and ensu es in e en ions align wi h communi y needs and alues
(Bell e al., 2022; Kabisch e al., 2016).
Despi e i s ad an ages, BGI aces implemen a ion cons ain s:
· Land a ailabili y: U ban densi ica ion limi s space o la ge-scale BGI
ins alla ions such as we lands and e en ion ponds (Zölch e al., 2018).
· Main enance equi emen s: Vege a ed sys ems equi e egula
managemen o e ain unc ionali y, necessi a ing dedica ed unding and
ins i u ional a angemen s (Li e al., 2020).
· Pe o mance unce ain y: Va iabili y in ain all pa e ns and clima e
change impac s in oduce unce ain y in BGI e ec i eness, equi ing adap i e
managemen (Whi e e al., 2021; Demuze e e al., 2014).
Key a eas o u he in es iga ion include:
· Long- e m moni o ing: E alua ing he pe o mance and ecosys em
se ice co-bene i s o BGI o e ime o in o m e idence-based planning (Sha i i
and Yamaga a, 2016).
· In eg a ion wi h digi al echnologies: Using sma senso s and eal- ime
moni o ing o op imise BGI pe o mance and main enance (Bell e al., 2022).
· Economic alua ion: Quan i ying he ull economic bene i s o BGI,
including a oided lood damage cos s and co-bene i s, o s eng hen in es men
cases (Eu opean Commission, 2015; Kabisch e al., 2016).
· Equi y conside a ions: Ensu ing BGI-based lood managemen
in e en ions do no displace ulne able popula ions o exace ba e social
inequali ies (Ning e al., 2023).
3.4.Socialbene i s:well-beingandheal h
Beyond hei en i onmen al and economic unc ions, blue-g een
in as uc u e (BGI) sys ems o e p o ound social bene i s, signi ican ly
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   99
enhancing human well-being, public heal h, and social cohesion wi hin
u ban en i onmen s. Con empo a y u ban planning inc easingly ecognises
ha in eg a ing na u e-based solu ions in o ci yscapes con ibu es o holis ic
sus ainabili y by os e ing heal hy, equi able, and li eable communi ies (Bell e
al., 2022; Whi e e al., 2021).
P omo ion o physical ac i i y: U ban g een and blue spaces p o ide sa e,
accessible en i onmen s o physical mo emen , including walking, cycling,
and in o mal spo s ac i i ies. Se e al s udies ha e epo ed ha p oximi y o
such en i onmen s co ela es posi i ely wi h inc eased physical ac i i y and
educed p e alence o obesi y and associa ed non-communicable diseases,
including ca dio ascula condi ions and diabe es (Ning e al., 2023; Aus in,
2014; Jennings e al., 2016).
Reduc ion o ai pollu ion- ela ed heal h isks: Vege a ion wi hin BGI
sys ems, pa icula ly u ban ees, il e s ai bo ne pollu an s such as NO₂ and
PM2.5, educing espi a o y and ca dio ascula isks. Li e al. (2020) showed
ha ee canopies in dense u ban en i onmen s imp o ed local ai quali y
signi ican ly, bene i ing child en and elde ly popula ions especially (Eu opean
Commission, 2013; WHO, 2021).
Mi iga ion o hea - ela ed mo bidi y: BGI con ibu es o mode a ing u ban
mic oclima es h ough shade and e apo anspi a ion, hus educing he incidence
o hea s ess and ela ed heal h eme gencies, especially in ma ginalised
neighbou hoods lacking access o cooling in as uc u e (Sha i i and Yamaga a,
2016; Zölch e al., 2018).
U ban na u e exposu e suppo s men al esilience and cogni i e heal h:
1. S ess educ ion: Access o g een and blue spaces educes co isol
le els and lowe s he ac i a ion o he sympa he ic ne ous sys em, esul ing in
measu able educ ions in anxie y and physiological s ess (Whi e e al., 2021;
B a man e al., 2019).
2. Mood enhancemen : Daily con ac wi h na u al en i onmen s is
associa ed wi h highe le els o happiness, li e sa is ac ion, and educed
symp oms o dep ession (Bell e al., 2022; Houlden e al., 2018).
3. Cogni i e es o a ion: Na u e acili a es a en ion es o a ion and enhances
cogni i e pe o mance, pa icula ly in child en and s uden s, by mi iga ing men al
a igue and inc easing ocus (Gascon e al., 2016; Ning e al., 2023).
The BlueHeal h p ojec , an in e disciplina y s udy on heal h bene i s o
aqua ic en i onmen s, demons a ed ha e en sho du a ions o exposu e o
100   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
blue spaces—such as 20 minu es in u ban wa e on s—led o measu able
imp o emen s in psychological well-being (Bell e al., 2022).
BGI can se e as a ca alys o enhanced social ela ionships and
communi y-based sus ainabili y:
· Public ga he ing spaces: Blue-g een elemen s such as pa ks, es o ed
canals, and s o mwa e we lands o en se e as enues o es i als, communi y
e en s, and in o mal mee ings, ein o cing neighbou hood iden i y (Aus in,
2014; Jennings e al., 2016).
· Equi y and inclusi i y: BGI, when planned inclusi ely, ensu es ha
ma ginalised o low-income popula ions—o en dep i ed o access o p i a e
g een a eas—can bene i om public en i onmen al ameni ies (Eu opean
Commission, 2015; Haase e al., 2017).
· Pa icipa o y planning: In ol ing local communi ies in he design
and main enance o BGI enhances social capi al, s eng hens s ewa dship, and
imp o es he long- e m sus ainabili y o such sys ems (Bell e al., 2022; Kabisch
e al., 2016).
U ban na u e is o en in used wi h deep cul u al meanings:
· Place a achmen : G een and blue en i onmen s ein o ce esiden s’
sense o belonging and emo ional connec ion o place, especially when embedded
wi hin local adi ions and u ban memo y (Scannell and Gi o d, 2017; Ning e
al., 2023).
· He i age conse a ion: BGI can e i e his o ical landscapes, such as
es o ed i e s o a chaeological si es in eg a ed in o pa ks, p ese ing cul u al
na a i es and enhancing u ban iden i y (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
Though no always ca ego ised unde social heal h, BGI’s economic
ad an ages di ec ly a ec socie al wel a e:
· P ope y alue inc eases: Well-main ained g een and blue spaces
inc ease adjacen p ope y alues, a ac ing in es men and imp o ing u ban
egene a ion e o s (Li e al., 2020; Tzoulas e al., 2007).
· Job c ea ion: BGI de elopmen suppo s employmen in cons uc ion,
main enance, and en i onmen al moni o ing, pa icula ly h ough local g een
economy ini ia i es (Aus in, 2014).
· Heal hca e cos sa ings: Heal hie u ban popula ions educe s ain on
heal hca e sys ems, enabling edi ec ed in es men s in educa ion, housing, o
social se ices (Whi e e al., 2021).
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   101
Pe sis en spa ial and socio-economic inequali ies hinde uni e sal access
o BGI bene i s:
· Unequal Access: U ban egions wi h high e hnic di e si y o po e y
o en ha e ewe high-quali y public g een spaces, exace ba ing heal h dispa i ies
(Bell e al., 2022; Haase e al., 2017).
· G een gen i ica ion isks: While BGI imp o es neighbou hood
aes he ics and li eabili y, i may unin en ionally uel gen i ica ion, displacing
low-income esiden s unless housing policies and social sa egua ds a e in place
(Gould and Lewis, 2016; Ning e al., 2023;).
E ec i e BGI go e nance hus equi es sys emic a en ion o social equi y,
pa icipa o y mechanisms, and edis ibu i e planning s a egies.
To ensu e he sus ained deli e y o BGI’s social bene i s, u he wo k
should ocus on:
· Longi udinal heal h impac assessmen s ha mo e beyond c oss-
sec ional s udies and ack he e ec s o na u e exposu e o e ime (Sha i i and
Yamaga a, 2016; WHO, 2021).
· Inclusi e design amewo ks ha e lec cul u al di e si y and
communi y-speci ic needs in BGI design (Eu opean Commission, 2015; Kabisch
e al., 2016).
· In eg a ion wi h heal h policy, ea ing BGI as a componen o p e en i e
public heal h in as uc u e and ensu ing in e sec o al alignmen (Whi e e al.,
2021; B a man e al., 2019).
4. Success ul İmplemen a ion Examples F om Tü kiye and The Wo ld
The implemen a ion o blue-g een in as uc u e (BGI) exhibi s signi ican
a iabili y ac oss spa ial, cul u al, and go e nance domains, o e ing nuanced
insigh s in o he ad ancemen o u ban sus ainabili y and esilience. As ci ies
con end wi h he escala ing consequences o clima e change, accele a ed
u banisa ion, ecological deg ada ion, and widening socio-economic inequali ies,
BGI has gained p ominence as an adap i e and in eg a i e planning s a egy. I s
mul i ace ed design combines hyd ological egula ion and ecological es o a ion
wi h angible social, economic, and cul u al gains, posi ioning i as a compelling
al e na i e o mono- unc ional g ey in as uc u e solu ions (Aus in, 2014; Bell
e al., 2022).

102   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
This sec ion analyses ep esen a i e case s udies om China, he Ne he lands,
and Tü kiye, illus a ing how BGI has been concep ualised, ins i u ionalised,
and ope a ionalised wi hin di e se u ban con ex s. These examples encompass
bo h op-down s a e-led ini ia i es and bo om-up communi y-d i en p ojec s,
unde sco ing he e sa ili y o BGI as a ool o en i onmen al emedia ion and
u ban egene a ion. In line wi h con empo a y u ban heo y, such in e en ions
e lec a ansi ion om echnoc a ic-mode nis pa adigms o mo e plu alis ic
and ela ional app oaches o u ban space (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
Mo eo e , hese cases illumina e enabling condi ions c i ical o success ul
implemen a ion— anging om obus policy amewo ks and c oss-sec o al
unding models o pa icipa o y design p ocesses and long- e m main enance
go e nance. While con ex -speci ic challenges pe sis —including egula o y
agmen a ion, poli ical ine ia, and land-use p essu es— ecu ing hemes
such as ecological connec i i y, inclusi i y, and adap i e go e nance o e a
ans e able ounda ion o upscaling BGI in e en ions ac oss egions. These
con e gences esona e wi h pos -s uc u al u banism heo ies, which ad oca e
o luid, ne wo ked, and co-p oduced u ban sys ems in con as o igid,
hie a chical planning adi ions.
4.1.TianjinEco-Ci y,China(TianjinEko-Ken ,Çin)
Tianjin Eco-Ci y ep esen s one o he mos emblema ic a emp s o
cons uc a model o sus ainable u banism in he Global Sou h h ough s a e-
d i en in e na ional coope a ion. Ini ia ed in 2008 by he go e nmen s o China
and Singapo e, he p ojec is si ua ed app oxima ely 40 km om cen al Tianjin
on a p e iously ma ginal and en i onmen ally deg aded landscape, cha ac e ised
by saline-alkaline soils, de elic sal ields, and con amina ed hyd ological
sys ems (Yamaga a and Sha i i, 2018). The p ojec ’s ambi ion was o showcase
a eplicable, scalable, and en i onmen ally ha monious u ban de elopmen
model wi hin China’s accele a ing u ban expansion ajec o y.
G ounded in he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), Tianjin Eco-
Ci y’s mas e plan a icula es in eg a ed a ge s ha encompass en i onmen al
ehabili a ion, enewable ene gy deploymen , sus ainable mobili y, and
social inclusi i y. Cen al o his ision is he implemen a ion o blue-g een
in as uc u e (BGI) as an in as uc u al amewo k ha media es be ween
u ban o m and ecological p ocesses.
Among he mos s iking in e en ions in Tianjin Eco-Ci y is he
egene a ion o o e 2.6 squa e kilome es o deg aded we land ecosys ems,
p ominen ly including he c ea ion o Qingjing Lake and he e i alisa ion o he
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   103
Ji Canal. These es o ed wa e bodies now se e as ecological il e s, educing
nu ien concen a ions and pu i ying u ban uno be o e i s ein oduc ion in o
municipal ne wo ks (Li e al., 2020). Func ioning as hyd ological bu e s, hey
simul aneously mi iga e lood isks and suppo clima ic egula ion, enhancing
isual and expe ien ial quali ies o he u ban landscape.
The mas e plan employs g een in as uc u e o spa ially in eg a e u ban
dis ic s h ough ex ensi e ecological co ido s. These co ido s connec
esiden ial zones, pa ks, and wa e bodies o o m a esilien ecological ne wo k.
The inse ion o u ban o es s enhances ai quali y, ca bon seques a ion, and
he mal com o , while os e ing biodi e si y o bo h lo a and auna (Yamaga a
and Ma uyama, 2016). As nodes o ecological and social ac i i y, hese co ido s
also suppo non-mo o ised mobili y h ough shaded walking and cycling pa hs,
ein o cing sus ainabili y h ough modal shi (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
Tianjin Eco-Ci y inco po a es WSUD p inciples a mul iple scales h ough
bioswales, ain ga dens, g een oo s, and pe meable su aces. These sys ems a e
no me ely s o mwa e solu ions; hey unde pin a pa adigm shi owa d adap i e
u banism ha seeks o align u ban me abolism wi h na u al hyd ological lows.
By add essing uno , g oundwa e echa ge, and mic oclima ic esilience,
WSUD ope a es as bo h a echnical and symbolic in e en ion (Aus in, 2014;
Bell e al., 2022).
Beyond echnical pe o mance, BGI in Tianjin p omo es human well-
being h ough na u e-based ec ea ional in as uc u es such as boa dwalks,
bi dwa ching pla o ms, and in e p e i e ails. These spaces se e as pedagogical
landscapes, acili a ing en i onmen al educa ion and biophilic connec ions ha
os e psychological esilience and communi y cohesion (Whi e e al., 2021).
BGI has subs an ially enhanced land alues and ca alysed in es men
in g een inno a ion clus e s. The Eco-Ci y now a ac s high- echnology
en e p ises ocused on sus ainabili y and clima e adap a ion, ans o ming he
a ea in o a egional cen e o g een g ow h (Li e al., 2020). New employmen
oppo uni ies in landscape managemen , ecological moni o ing, and eco- ou ism
u he exempli y he syne gis ic economic po en ial o BGI (Bell e al., 2022).
The ins i u ional design o Tianjin Eco-Ci y e lec s complex mul i-scala
go e nance, wi h collabo a i e mechanisms spanning na ional, municipal,
and p i a e ac o s. Public-p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs), en i onmen al bonds,
and cen al go e nmen subsidies cons i u e he p ima y inancial a chi ec u e
suppo ing ecological in as uc u e (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016). Such
a angemen s unde sco e he ole o hyb id go e nance models in sus aining
long- e m u ban ecological ans o ma ions.
104   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Despi e i s isiona y ou comes, he Eco-Ci y aces signi ican challenges.
Fi s , he long- e m ecological in eg i y o es o ed we lands is ulne able
o u ban enc oachmen and luc ua ing hyd ological egimes, necessi a ing
con inuous adap i e managemen (Yamaga a and Ma uyama, 2016). Second,
he equi able dis ibu ion o bene i s—pa icula ly among low-income and
mig an popula ions— emains a pe sis en go e nance issue (Bell e al., 2022).
Key lessons de i ed om Tianjin include:
· The inco po a ion o BGI om he ou se o u ban design enables
mul i unc ionali y and sys emic in eg a ion.
· Cohe en , mul i-le el go e nance s uc u es a e essen ial o ensu ing
inancial sus ainabili y and long- e m main enance.
· Linking ecological es o a ion wi h g een economic agendas enhances
he legi imacy, scalabili y, and socie al accep ance o BGI ini ia i es.
Tianjin Eco-Ci y hus exempli ies he applica ion o BGI as a d i e o
egene a i e u banism, me ging ecological epai wi h inno a ion-led g ow h.
I s planning e hos aligns wi h con empo a y pos -g ow h and ela ional u ban
heo ies, o e ing a compelling model o ci ies con on ing he con e ging
c ises o he An h opocene (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1: Gene al View o he Sino-Singapo e F iendship Pa k in Tianjin
Eco-Ci y, Designed By G an Associa es; An U ban Pa k Example İn eg a ing
Wa e Landscapes and G een In as uc u e Elemen s (G an Associa es, 2017)
REASSESSING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH BLUE-GREEN . . .   105
4.2.Ro e damWa e Squa e,Ne he lands
Ro e dam Wa e Squa e (Ben hemplein) epi omises an inno a i e
syn hesis o blue-g een in as uc u e (BGI) wi h adap i e u ban design,
s a egically deployed o mi iga e lood isk while enhancing he quali y and
mul i unc ionali y o u ban public space. Posi ioned wi hin Ro e dam—an
u ban pionee in clima e-adap i e wa e managemen — he squa e eme ged
om he b oade Ro e dam Clima e Ini ia i e and was o icially inaugu a ed
in 2014. I s concep ualisa ion di ec ly esponds o escala ing plu ial looding
caused by in ensi ied p ecipi a ion and ageing d ainage sys ems, pa icula ly in
compac , impe ious u ban dis ic s (Eu opean Commission, 2015).
P e iously an unde u ilised pa ed lo adjacen o se e al seconda y schools,
he si e was eimagined as a pa icipa o y and mul i unc ional landscape h ough
close collabo a ion be ween u ban designe s, local go e nmen , he Ro e dam
Wa e Boa d, and he local communi y. The in e en ion exempli ies how
ecologically sensi i e in as uc u e, when embedded wi hin communi y-d i en
design p ocesses, can anscend i s echnical unc ion o os e socio-cul u al
engagemen , clima e esilience, and spa ial equi y (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
S o mwa e de en ion h ough hyb id land use: Th ee la ge dep essions
unc ion as empo a y e en ion basins du ing ain all e en s, oge he
accommoda ing app oxima ely 1.7 million li es o s o mwa e . These basins
emain d y unde no mal condi ions and a e designed o accommoda e public
ac i i ies: a pe o mance amphi hea e, a spo s cou , and an in o mal play
a ea. This hyb idisa ion o g ey and g een in as uc u e aligns wi h u ban land
op imisa ion p inciples, acili a ing unc ional lexibili y wi hou comp omising
hyd aulic capaci y (Aus in, 2014).
Hyd ological anspa ency and public engagemen : Rainwa e om
su ounding oo ops is isibly channelled ia s ainless-s eel gu e s and open
condui s in o he basins. This anspa ency o wa e low ins ils en i onmen al
li e acy, ein o cing he co-dependence be ween u ban o m and hyd ological
cycles. I exempli ies he concep o “hyd o-u banism,” whe eby wa e p ocesses
become legible and in eg a ed wi hin daily li e (Sha i i and Yamaga a, 2016).
Aes he ics and biodi e si y co-bene i s: Blue- iled su aces, a is ic ligh ing
elemen s, and plan ed edges os e isual and ecological ichness, enhancing he
si e’s expe ien ial and habi a alue. While p ima ily enginee ed o lood isk
educ ion, he squa e also suppo s biodi e si y co ido s and p omo es biophilic
u banism, ein o cing men al well-being and en i onmen al consciousness (Tan
e al., 2019).
112   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
by 2050 (Eu opean Commission, 2019). In pa allel, Tü kiye’s 12 h De elopmen
Plan (2024–2028) unde sco es he signi icance o ecological in as uc u e and
clima e- esilien u banism, highligh ing BGI as a s a egic ool o educing
disas e isks, inc easing g een space pe capi a, and p omo ing sus ainable
ou ism and li eabili y in ci ies (Minis y o De elopmen o he Republic o
Tü kiye, 2023).
F om a clima e ac ion pe spec i e, BGI suppo s bo h mi iga ion and
adap a ion goals. The Na ional Clima e Change Adap a ion S a egy and Ac ion
Plan (2021–2030) o Tü kiye p io i ises he implemen a ion o na u e-based
in as uc u e o manage u ban hea islands, lood isks, and wa e sca ci y while
enhancing biodi e si y and public heal h ou comes (Minis y o En i onmen ,
U banisa ion and Clima e Change, 2021a). Fu he mo e, Tü kiye’s Long-Te m
Clima e S a egy, which a ge s ne -ze o emissions by 2053, includes BGI as a
key enable in deca bonising he u ban sec o and imp o ing ecosys em se ices
(Minis y o En i onmen , U banisa ion and Clima e Change, 2021b).
On a global scale, he Pa is Ag eemen and he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable
De elopmen bo h call o in eg a ed solu ions ha combine en i onmen al
conse a ion wi h human de elopmen . BGI di ec ly con ibu es o se e al
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), including SDG 11 (Sus ainable Ci ies
and Communi ies), SDG 13 (Clima e Ac ion), and SDG 15 (Li e on Land)
(Uni ed Na ions, 2015a). Addi ionally, he Sendai F amewo k o Disas e
Risk Reduc ion iden i ies ecosys em-based app oaches as c i ical o educing
exposu e and ulne abili y o na u al haza ds, u he ein o cing he alue o
BGI in enhancing u ban esilience (Uni ed Na ions O ice o Disas e Risk
Reduc ion [UNDRR], 2015).
In his con ex , BGI mus no longe be ega ded as a pe iphe al o deco a i e
elemen in u ban design. I should be embedded sys ema ically wi hin spa ial plans,
zoning egula ions, and in as uc u e in es men po olios. This shi equi es
s ong poli ical will, in e sec o al coo dina ion, public engagemen , and long-
e m moni o ing. As u banisa ion accele a es amid wo sening clima e condi ions,
BGI o e s a cohe en , scien i ically g ounded, and e hically esponsible pa hway
owa d mo e adap i e, inclusi e, and egene a i e u ban u u es.
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119
CHAPTER V
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN
INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE
URBAN LANDSCAPES WITH URBAN
AGRICULTURAL GARDENS
Me e TEMİZ TOPSAKAL 1, Eli SAĞLIK 2
1(Ass . P o . D .), Canakkale Onsekiz Ma Uni e si y,
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
O cid: 0000-0002-6662-4399
2(Assoc. P o . D .), Canakkale Onsekiz Ma Uni e si y,
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
O cid: 0000-0002-5230-3869
1. In oduc ion
The ci y is among he complex and mul i-laye ed s uc u es shaped by
human in e en ion (Tu u and Özgü , 2018; Sağlık and Ye işi , 2023).
The e o e, beyond being me ely a physical se lemen , i is conside ed
as a mul i-laye ed sys em shaped by human in e en ion, whe e social, cul u al,
economic, and ecological p ocesses a e in e wined (Le eb e, 1991; Ba y,
2007; Topsakal Temiz and Sağlık, 2024). This s uc u e necessi a es conside ing
ci ies no only in he con ex o spa ial o ganiza ion, bu also as nodes o poli ical-
ecological and p oduc ion ela ions. Le eb e’s heo ies o “ he p oduc ion o
space” (1991) and Ha ey’s “u ban ans o ma ion” (2012) p o ide a socio-
spa ial unde s anding o he ans o ma ions u ban s uc u es unde go o e ime.
The ac ha ci ies ha e he capaci y o e olu iona y adap a ion, change
and econs uc ion h oughou he his o ical p ocess (Gandy, 2005) makes
hem esilien o ecological and echnological h ea s as well as socio-poli ical
changes. Howe e , despi e his e olu iona y esilience, con empo a y ci ies
ace c ises such as global clima e change, en i onmen al deg ada ion, and ood
insecu i y. Especially in oday’s wo ld, whe e u banisa ion is apidly inc easing,
120   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
ci ies’ connec ions wi h na u e a e weakening; his si ua ion causes signi ican
dis up ions in na u al sys em p ocesses such as mic oclima e egula ion, ood
p oduc ion, na u al disas e isk educ ion, and habi a con inui y (G imm e al.,
2008; Se o e al., 2012).
The apidly g owing popula ion wo ldwide equi es a eassessmen o
he spa ial o ma ion o u ban a eas, usage pa e ns in hese egions, and u ban
dwelle s’ ood access p ac ices (Acke man e al., 2014). In addi ion o his
demog aphic end, he apid u banisa ion p ocess aking place wo ldwide is
conside ed one o he mos challenging adminis a i e and spa ial issues acing
oday’s ci ies and aises signi ican conce ns in e ms o sus ainabili y. In his
ega d, e o s o build sus ainable ci ies also equi e he implemen a ion o
he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), which a e accep ed a he local,
egional and global le els. This app oach plays a undamen al ole in p o ec ing
he en i onmen al, social and economic well-being o u u e gene a ions.
Today, u ban esea ch app oaches ci ies as mul i-laye ed sys ems wi h
e olu iona y quali ies a he han e alua ing hem as s a ic and one-dimensional
s uc u es. In his ein, esea ch has shi ed owa d de eloping in e disciplina y
and holis ic app oaches cen e ed on complex adap a ion p ocesses (McPhea son
e al., 2016). These app oaches equi e he de elopmen o comp ehensi e
s a egies ha include b oad objec i es such as educing ulne abili y in u ban
planning, es ablishing sus ainable ood sys ems, and c ea ing li ing spaces ha
a e in eg a ed wi h na u e.
The ein eg a ion o ci ies wi h na u e wi hin he amewo k o
sus ainabili y b ings o wa d mo e inclusi e and communi y-based solu ions
h ough in es men s in echnical in as uc u e. Among hese solu ions, u ban
ag icul u e s ands ou as bo h an applica ion ool o na u e-based app oaches
and a componen o mul i unc ional u ban landscapes. Conside ed wi hin his
con ex , u ban ag icul u e p ac ices, as a key componen o sus ainable u ban
de elopmen , o e mul i ace ed con ibu ions such as ensu ing ood secu i y,
imp o ing u ban landscapes, making g een in as uc u e esilien o clima e
change, and inc easing social in e ac ion (Kemeç, 2024). These measu es
make conc e e con ibu ions o educing ca bon emissions and imp o ing he
quali y o li e o ci y dwelle s (IPCC, 2022). Along wi h local go e nmen s,
u ban esiden s a e also ac i ely in ol ed in he p ocess h ough indi idual o
communi y-based ini ia i es, con ibu ing o he widesp ead adop ion o hese
p ac ices (E nwein, 2014).
Global clima e change and apid u baniza ion p ocesses ha e deepened he
s uc u al and en i onmen al p essu es ha ci ies ace, making he cons uc ion
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . .   121
o sus ainable and esilien u ban sys ems a p io i y agenda (IPCC, 2022). In
his con ex , na u e-compa ible planning app oaches ha e gained inc easing
impo ance; g een in as uc u e and na u e-based solu ions, in pa icula , ha e
become p ominen s a egic ools a he u ban scale (Eu opean Commission,
2015). G een in as uc u e is an app oach ha o e s a ious en i onmen al
and social bene i s in u ban and u al a eas h ough he planning o a ne wo k
sys em o semi-na u al a eas wi h high ecological alue (Tzoulas e al., 2007).
Na u e-based solu ions a e adop ed as mul i ace ed design and planning
app oaches ha aim o de elop esilience agains he clima e c isis in ci ies,
while also combining ecological, social and aes he ic unc ions (Kabisch e al.,
2016; Raymond e al., 2017).
In ecen yea s, in e es in u ban ag icul u e and u ban ga dening has
inc eased signi ican ly in bo h u ban planning policies and academic s udies
(Ba hel e al., 2015). Behind his end lie en i onmen al and social c ises
such as pandemic p ocesses a ec ing he global scale, inc easing d ough isk
and clima e change (Se o e al., 2012). Many local go e nmen s, pa icula ly
in Wes e n coun ies, a e de eloping s a egies o p omo e ood p oduc ion
in u ban and pe i-u ban a eas. In his ega d, ga dening ac i i ies ha eme ge
on a ious scales, anging om indi idual ini ia i es o communi y-based
ini ia i es, and some imes ou side o icial planning sys ems, b ing o he o e
he need o de elop mo e sys ema ic and go e nance-based policies o u ban
ga dening (E nwein, 2014).
U ban ag icul u e ac i i ies s and ou o he bene i s hey p o ide in e ms
o ood secu i y, sus ainable u banisa ion and biodi e si y unde he umb ella o
na u e-based solu ions (O sini e al., 2013). As pa o his app oach, u ban a ming
ga dens p o ide nume ous bene i s anging om local ood p oduc ion o social
in e ac ion and clima e adap a ion (Lo ell, 2010; Opi z e al., 2016). The s a ing
poin o he esea ch is o comp ehensi ely examine u ban ag icul u e ga dens,
one o he na u e-based app oaches, a he heo e ical le el. In his con ex , he
aim is o e eal he mul idimensional unc ions o hese p ac ices wi hin he u ban
sys em and o e alua e hei ela ionship wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(SDGs). Thus, i will be possible o assess he place and impo ance o u ban
ag icul u e ga dens and g een in as uc u e in u ban sus ainabili y policies om
an in eg a ed pe spec i e. In line wi h he s a ed objec i e, his s udy seeks o
answe he ollowing undamen al esea ch ques ions:
How can we in e p e he place o u ban ag icul u al ga dens and g een
in as uc u e wi hin he mul i-laye ed ne wo k o ela ionships ha shape
u ban sys ems?
128   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
p ima ily ocuses on inc easing ood supply, while in de eloped coun ies, hese
p ac ices a e p ima ily ocused on ensu ing access o heal hy, high-quali y ood
o disad an aged g oups (Powe , 1999).
U ban a ming p ac ices se e o p omo e social in e ac ion and solida i y
alongside ood p oduc ion. Va ious s udies show ha such ac i i ies con ibu e
o he es ablishmen o social bonds be ween indi iduals and ha , o e ime,
hese indi iduals can de elop a ious pa ne ships and o m o ganised s uc u es
such as coope a i es. In pa icula , sha ed p oduc ion a eas such as communi y
and school ga dens, a me s’ ma ke s, and di ec ma ke ing s a egies such
as a m- o-school ood supply b ing oge he indi iduals o di e en ages,
cul u es, and e hnic backg ounds, c ea ing inclusi e and in e ac i e social
en i onmen s. In his p ocess, us -based ela ionships be ween p oduce s and
consume s can be es ablished, suppo ing economic secu i y on a social scale.
Addi ionally, in a eas whe e u ban ag icul u e is p ac ised, posi i e social
alues such as social capi al, mu ual us , sha ing, social secu i y, and a sense
o belonging de elop, and iendships a e o med among indi iduals (Kau man
and Bailkey, 2000).
U ban ag icul u e p ac ices, al hough no p ima ily aimed a comme cial
gain, ha e he po en ial o o e a ious economic bene i s. In pa icula , hanks
o p oduce ma ke s and communi y-suppo ed ag icul u e sys ems, p oduce s
can inc ease hei income h ough ad an ages such as sho e anspo dis ances
and educed packaging equi emen s (He bach, 1998). U ban ag icul u e educes
he main enance cos s o public spaces, ans o ms abandoned o unde u ilised
a eas in o p oduc i e spaces, and inc eases local employmen oppo uni ies.
In si ua ions whe e comme cial p oduc ion is no a p io i y, u ban
ag icul u al a eas s and ou as peace ul and p oduc i e spaces whe e indi iduals
can spend hei ee ime. U ban ag icul u e con ibu es o socialisa ion and
men al well-being. Especially hose es ablished in abandoned o dys unc ional
u ban a eas, hese ga dens hold signi ican po en ial o spa ial imp o emen
and social ans o ma ion. Many communi y ga dens ha e been es ablished on
o me land ill si es o abandoned plo s, he eby e i alising en i onmen ally
deg aded a eas and imp o ing he quali y o u ban spaces (Moskow, 1999). Such
ini ia i es s eng hen neighbou hood ela ions and enhance communi y sa e y.
4. Examples o U ban Ag icul u e Ga dens om he Wo ld
Many ci ies a ound he wo ld ha e de eloped u ban ag icul u e p ac ices.
Wi hin he scope o he esea ch, u ban ag icul u al ga dens loca ed in 12
di e en egions we e examined (Figu e 3).

THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . .   129
Figu e 3: Di e en Regions Whe e U ban Ag icul u e is Done
Ha ana is one o he success ul ci ies ha se e as an example in he con ex
o u ban ag icul u e p ac ices. Following he collapse o he So ie Union, he
economic c isis ha Cuba en e ed in o led he cen al go e nmen o seek sel -
su icien solu ions o ood p oduc ion. The O ganopónicos sys em (Figu e
3.a), de eloped wi hin his amewo k, p oduces 3.4 million onnes annually
ac oss app oxima ely 14,000 hec a es in he capi al ci y o Ha ana, mee ing
app oxima ely 90% o he ci y’s esh ege able needs (Al ie i e al., 1999).
130   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
In De oi , abandoned land ha eme ged a e he economic collapse has
been epu posed o u ban ag icul u e. App oxima ely 1,400 communi y ga dens
and u ban ag icul u e a eas ha e been c ea ed h oughou he ci y (Figu e 3.b);
hese ini ia i es aim o suppo access o heal hy ood, pa icula ly in low-
income a eas. Ci il socie y-based p ojec s such as he Michigan U ban Fa ming
Ini ia i e (MUFI) ha e demons a ed e ec s ha s eng hen social solida i y in
addi ion o ensu ing ood secu i y (Colasan i, Hamm and Li jens, 2012).
Wi h he suppo o he Pa is Ci y Council, he app oxima ely 14,000 m²
ag icul u al p ojec (Figu e 3.c) es ablished on he oo o Pa is Expo Po e de
Ve sailles s ands ou as one o Eu ope’s la ges u ban ae oponic p oduc ion
sys ems. In his sys em, plan s a e nou ished wi h nu ien s in an ai o mis
en i onmen wi hou he need o soil, and wa e consump ion is 90% less han
in s anda d ag icul u e. Wi h a daily p oduc ion capaci y o app oxima ely 1
onne o esh ui and ege ables, his acili y no only s eng hens local ood
cycles bu also signi ican ly minimises ca bon emissions caused by logis ics.
(Na u e U baine, 2023).
Singapo e has u ned o high- ech e ical and oo op a ming sys ems
o o e come land cons ain s. Mo e han 12 mode n a ming acili ies buil in
he 2020s (Figu e 3.d) ocus on au oma ion and e iciency, wi h p oduc ion
capaci ies aimed a mee ing he ood needs o mo e han 90% o he coun y’s
popula ion. These high-e iciency sys ems op imise wa e and land use h ough
hyd oponic and ae oponic echnologies, he eby educing he ca bon oo p in
associa ed wi h logis ics in he ood supply chain (Mok e al., 2020).
The Kleinga enkolonie sys em (Figu e 3.e), which p ese es he
adi ional ga dening cul u e in Be lin, comp ises app oxima ely 800 colonies
wi h mo e han 75,000 plo s. App oxima ely 30% o hese a eas a e alloca ed
o ood p oduc ion, while he emainde is used o ec ea ional and aes he ic
pu poses. Ga dens p o ide ci y esiden s wi h he oppo uni y o engage in
indi idual a ming while also enhancing he aes he ic quali y o he landscape
and con ibu ing o he u ban ab ic (Haase and Gae a, 2023).
The ‘G owing Unde g ound’ p ojec implemen ed in London (Figu e
3. ) is an inno a i e u ban ag icul u e ini ia i e de eloped o u ilise unused
in as uc u e elemen s in he ci y. This unde g ound g eenhouse, loca ed in an old
ai aid shel e and spanning app oxima ely 528 m², uses hyd oponic p oduc ion
echniques suppo ed by LED ligh ing sys ems o p oduce app oxima ely 60
onnes o ege ables annually (Benke and Tomkins, 2017).
The G eenThumb p og amme implemen ed in New Yo k Ci y s ands
ou as one o he mos comp ehensi e ini ia i es suppo ing communi y-based
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . .   131
u ban ag icul u e (Figu e 3.g). As o 2014, he e we e 586 communi y ga dens
egis e ed in he p og amme, and i is epo ed ha he numbe has eached o e
700 ga dens and u ban a m a eas h oughou he ci y. These ga dens ha e become
pa icula ly widesp ead in a eas wi h high le els o social in e ac ion, such as
school en i onmen s and social housing a eas (Reynolds and Cohen, 2016).
In Tokyo, he ‘u ban a mland leasing ac ’ law, which came in o e ec in 2018,
p o ides legal suppo o oo op a ming p ojec s. In line wi h his egula ion,
ice ield ga dens es ablished on he oo s o high- ise buildings such as Roppongi
Hills se e bo h o con inue adi ional ag icul u al cul u e and o acili a e u ban
dwelle s’ con ac wi h na u e (Figu e 3.h) (Hosaka and Sa o, 2019).
Since 2007, he local go e nmen o Mexico Ci y has been implemen ing
an impo an policy in he ield o u ban ag icul u e by suppo ing oo op
ga den ini ia i es. Unde his p og amme, mo e han 3,000 people ha e ecei ed
oo op ga den g an s (Figu e 3.i), and ag icul u al p ojec s ha e been expanded
in public spaces such as schools and hospi als (Dieleman, 2017).
The ci y o Cu i iba has adop ed u ban ag icul u e as a s a egy ocused
on social inclusion and educa ion, es ablishing 147 u ban ga dens (Figu e 3.j)
co e ing an a ea o app oxima ely 17 hec a es wi hin he ci y. Fo y-se en o
hese ga dens a e communi y ga dens, which p o ide bo h economic and ood-
based con ibu ions o low-income g oups, pa icula ly h ough he p oduc ion
o o ganic ege ables and ui s (FAO, 2014).
Roo a ming p ac ices, which a e becoming widesp ead in Shanghai,
o e impo an oppo uni ies o sus ainable u ban ag icul u e despi e in ense
u banisa ion. Facili ies such as he 4,600 m² Yiyun oo op ga den (Figu e 3.k)
in he ci y p oduce peppe s, eggplan s, and o he ege ables, and i is known
ha he e a e mo e han 20 such mode n a ms (Nie, Kiminami and Yagi, 2022).
Designed in collabo a ion wi h he Jiwah Indigenous communi ies in
Sydney’s Sou h E eleigh dis ic , his p ojec opened a 500 m² oo op ga den
(Figu e 3.l) in 2023, making i he i s Indigenous-owned and cul u ally ocused
oo op a m in Aus alia. This a ea is equipped wi h adi ional ‘bush oods,’
edible and medicinal na i e plan s, as well as o iginal species ha supply he
communi y ki chen (Co ke y e al., 2020).
In ou coun y, his o ical ga den a eas s and ou among examples o u ban
ag icul u al ga dens. The His o ical Yedikule Ga dens in Is anbul, in pa icula ,
a e one o he mos p ominen examples in his ield, bo h o hei cul u al
he i age alue and o he mul i ace ed unc ions hey o e o he ci y. Simila ly,
he Kuzguncuk Ga den and he ga den a ea a ound he Piyalepaşa Mosque a e
among he p oduc ion a eas wi h his o ical con inui y and ep esen he legacy
132   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
o u ban ag icul u e p ac ices om he pas o he p esen . In his ega d, i is
ecommended ha he exis ing emains o hese his o ical ga dens be p ese ed
as pa o he cul u al landscape he i age, e- unc ionalised, and e alua ed as
u ban ag icul u al a eas. Addi ionally, es au an -ga den models ha in eg a e
ood p oduc ion wi h consump ion wi hin he ci y demons a e he g owing
p e alence o on-si e p oduc ion and consump ion and highligh new o ms
o u ban ag icul u e. Such ini ia i es con ibu e bo h o suppo ing sus ainable
ood sys ems and o inc easing social awa eness (Öcal, 2019).
5. Compa a i e Analysis o U ban Ag icul u al Ga dens
Ci ies in es iga ed o u ban ag icul u al ga dens exhibi di e se p o iles
in e ms o scale, managemen , and pu pose. When compa ed, he examples o
Ha ana and Pa is a e la ge-scale ins i u ional p ojec s, while De oi and Be lin
a e mo e based on g ass oo s communi y mo emen s. In addi ion, clima ic
and geog aphical di e ences ( opical s. empe a e clima e, soil e ili y, e c.)
shape p oduc ion models. These examples demons a e ha u ban ag icul u e
is a lexible ield o applica ion ha akes di e en o ms depending on local
condi ions and social needs. Table 2 compa es he use o echnology, socio-
economic, ecological, and ood secu i y con ibu ions, as well as pa icipa ion
le els, o u ban ag icul u e ga dens a ound he wo ld.
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . .   133
Table 2: Compa a i e Analysis o U ban Ag icul u e Ga dens in he Wo ld
Ci y
(Coun y)
Technology
Use
Socio-Economic
Con ibu ion
Ecological
Con ibu ion
Con ibu ion
o Food
Secu i y
Ha ana
(Cuba)
Low (o ganic,
adi ional)
Pos -unemploymen
p oduc ion and local
economy
Pes icide- ee
p oduc ion Ve y high
De oi
(USA)
Medium
(classical
ga dening)
Food access and
employmen in poo
neighbo hoods
T ans o ma ion
o acan lo s High
Pa is
(F ance)
High
(ae oponics,
oo op
a ming)
Food, educa ion, and
job oppo uni ies o
u bani es
Reduc ion o
u ban hea island
e ec
High
Singapo e
High
(au oma ed
sys ems)
Reducing ood
impo s and s a egic
p oduc ion
Reduc ion in
ca bon emissions Ve y high
Be lin
(Ge many)
Low-Medium
( adi ional)
Hobby ga dening,
neighbo hood and
amily p oduc ion
Con ibu ion o
g een a eas Medium
London
(UK)
High
(hyd oponics,
LED sys ems)
Educa ion, awa eness,
u ban p oduc ion
Reduc ion o
ca bon oo p in Medium
New Yo k
(USA) Medium
Neighbo hood-
based socio-cul u al
ne wo ks
Con ibu ion
o g een
in as uc u e
Medium-High
Tokyo
(Japan)
High (sma
sys ems)
Co po a e employee
engagemen and
awa eness
Roo op g eening
and biodi e si y Medium
Mexico
Low-Medium
(simple
sys ems)
P oduc ion and
ood access in poo
neighbo hoods
Adap a ion o
u ban clima e Medium-High
Cu i iba
(B azil) Medium Income suppo ,
women’s employmen
Pes icide- ee
a eas Medium-High
Shanghai
(China)
High ( e ical,
oo op
a ming)
Sus ainable
p oduc ion in u ban
companies
Ca bon cap u e,
ai pu i ica ion High
Sydney
(Aus alia) Medium
Indigenous
p oduc ion and
cul u al con ibu ions
Conse a ion o
endemic species Low-Medium

134   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
6. U ban Ag icul u e and Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
U ban ag icul u e con ibu es o many o he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals. Acco ding o he Food and Ag icul u e O ganisa ion’s
2030 Agenda, u ban ag icul u e p o ides mul i ace ed con ibu ions in a ious
a eas, om ood secu i y o clima e esilience, as shown in Figu e 4.
Figu e 4: The Rela ionship Be ween U ban Ag icul u e and Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals
SDG No1 – No Po e y: U ban ag icul u al ga dens educe li ing cos s
by enabling low-income indi iduals o p oduce hei own ood. They can se e
as an economic suppo mechanism, especially o indi iduals li ing on he
po e y line. They inc ease access o basic needs by ensu ing ood secu i y. In
addi ion, ag icul u al ac i i ies c ea e employmen oppo uni ies h ough labou
equi emen s.
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . .   135
SDG No2 – Ze o Hunge : U ban ag icul u e is an e ec i e ool in he
igh agains hunge by inc easing access o esh and nu i ious ood. Local
p oduc ion sho ens ood chains and educes ood was e. P ac ices such as
communi y ga dens can mee he nu i ional needs o disad an aged g oups in
pa icula . This con ibu es o ood jus ice.
SDG No3 – Good Heal h and Well-being: U ban ga dens p omo e heal hy
ea ing wi h esh, seasonal and pes icide- ee oods. Physical ac i i ies such as
ga dening ha e a posi i e impac on bo h physical and men al heal h. Reduced
s ess and con ac wi h na u e a e also bene icial o men al heal h. They
con ibu e o he o e all imp o emen o public heal h.
SDG No4 – Quali y Educa ion: Okul bahçele i e eği im odaklı a ım
p ojele i, çocukla a doğ udan a ım, çe e e sü dü ülebili lik konula ında
deneyim kazandı ı . Bu sayede öğ enme sü eci daha ka ılımcı e somu hale
geli . Gıda e ekoloji emelli mü eda la des ekleni . Eği ici bahçele , disiplinle
a ası öğ e ime olanak anı .
SDG No5 – Gende Equali y: U ban ag icul u e enables women’s economic
and social empowe men by encou aging hei pa icipa ion in p oduc ion. When
women’s access o knowledge, seeds and land is inc eased, gende equali y
imp o es. Women’s coope a i es and communi y-based ga dens con ibu e o
his goal.
SDG No6 – Clean Wa e and Sani a ion: Planning i iga ion me hods used
in u ban ag icul u e wi h na u e-based and wa e -sa ing sys ems suppo s his
goal. P ac ices such as g ey wa e use and ainwa e ha es ing a e highligh ed.
Sus ainable wa e managemen is di ec ly ela ed o heal hy ood p oduc ion. I
also p ese es he soil-wa e balance.
SDG No7 – A o dable and Clean Ene gy: The use o enewable ene gy in
u ban ag icul u e can be encou aged h ough sola -powe ed i iga ion sys ems
o ene gy-e icien g eenhouse applica ions. Lowe ing he cos o ene gy access
inc eases he p oduc ion capaci y o small-scale p oduce s. I also has he e ec
o educing he ca bon oo p in . P oduc ion cycles can be in eg a ed wi h
sus ainable ene gy sys ems.
SDG No8 – Decen Wo k and Economic G ow h: U ban ag icul u e
c ea es en ep eneu ship, employmen and economic dynamism h ough local
p oduc ion and sales ne wo ks. Job oppo uni ies a ise o women, young people
and disad an aged g oups. Social en e p ises and coope a i e-based models can
be suppo ed. I p o ides economic di e si y in ood sys ems.
136   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
SDG No9 – Indus y, Inno a ion and In as uc u e: In eg a ing ag icul u al
echnologies in o u ban a eas (e.g. sma a ming sys ems, hyd oponics,
ae oponics) suppo s inno a ion. T ans o ming p oduc ion a eas in ci ies in
a way ha is compa ible wi h in as uc u e con ibu es o sus ainable u ban
de elopmen . Food p oduc ion and echnological de elopmen s can be b ough
oge he . This c ea es a ounda ion o local ood inno a ion.
SDG No10 – Reduced Inequali ies: U ban ag icul u e se es as a means
o social inclusion o he poo and ma ginalised communi ies. I educes
inequali ies by p o iding disad an aged g oups wi h he igh o p oduce and
eed hemsel es. I p o ides socio-economic suppo o ulne able g oups such
as mig an s, he elde ly and people wi h disabili ies. I c ea es equal oppo uni ies
wi hin ci ies.
SDG No11 – Sus ainable Ci ies and Communi ies: U ban ga dens, local
ood p oduc ion, g een space c ea ion and s eng hening communi y ela ions
a e in eg al pa s o sus ainable u ban li ing. Vacan and unused spaces a e
ans o med in o p oduc i e a eas. Social capi al is p oduced along wi h ood.
U ban esilience is inc eased.
SDG No12 – Responsible Consump ion and P oduc ion: Local p oduc ion
educes esou ce was e and lowe s ene gy consump ion in p ocesses such as
anspo a ion and packaging. Seasonal and needs-based p oduc ion-consump ion
cycles a e c ea ed. Ci cula p ac ices such as compos ing and was e managemen
a e suppo ed. Food awa eness and consump ion esponsibili y inc ease.
SDG No13 – Clima e Ac ion: U ban ag icul u e de elops esilience o
clima e change h ough local p oduc ion models ha educe ca bon emissions.
Plan ing con ibu es o ca bon seques a ion. The hea island e ec is educed by
soil co e . En i onmen al impac can be educed h ough sus ainable p ac ices.
SDG No14 – Li e Below Wa e : Reducing pes icide use in ag icul u e and
suppo ing o ganic p oduc ion helps p o ec aqua ic li e by p e en ing wa e
pollu ion. Imp o ing u ban wa e cycles indi ec ly a ec s ma ine and lake
ecosys ems. I is impo an o educe he amoun o ag icul u al chemicals ha
seep in o he wa e . U ban ag icul u e o e s an al e na i e p oduc ion model in
his ega d.
SDG No15 – Li e on Land: Ag icul u al a eas wi hin ci ies can be pa o
ecological co ido s, p o iding habi a s o pollina o s, bi ds and o he wildli e.
U ban li ing in ha mony wi h na u e is achie ed h ough p oduc ion sys ems
ha suppo biodi e si y. Ga dens p o ide an oppo uni y o p ese e local plan
species and con ibu e o main aining he na u al balance wi hin ci ies.
THE NEW SIDE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: MULTIPURPOSE . . .   137
SDG No16 – Peace, Jus ice and S ong Ins i u ions: Communi y ga dens
s eng hen social cohesion by inc easing social in eg a ion and inclusi eness.
Coope a ion and solida i y de elop in sha ed p oduc ion a eas. Food access
jus ice con ibu es o social peace. Pa icipa o y and anspa en managemen
models encou age local go e nance.
SDG No17 – Pa ne ships o he Goals: U ban ag icul u e equi es
coope a ion be ween municipali ies, uni e si ies, ci il socie y o ganisa ions and
he p i a e sec o . Th ough join p ojec s and hyb id go e nance models, he
SDGs can be implemen ed mo e e ec i ely. Global knowledge sha ing and he
in eg a ion o local p ac ices should be suppo ed.
All 17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) a e indi ec ly ela ed
o u ban ag icul u e h ough di e en hemes, while SDG 2 (Ze o Hunge ),
SDG 6 (Clean Wa e and Sani a ion), SDG 12 (Responsible Consump ion and
P oduc ion), SDG 13 (Clima e Ac ion) and SDG 15 (Li e on Land) s and ou as
goals ha di ec ly co e u ban ag icul u e (Figu e 5).
Figu e 5: Sus ainable De elopmen Goals Tha Di ec ly
Include U ban Ag icul u e
U ban ag icul u e p ac ices suppo ood secu i y by inc easing access
o esh and heal hy ood o he u ban poo (SDG 2), while also con ibu ing
o clean wa e use by p o iding wa e e iciency h ough echniques such as
ainwa e ha es ing and d ip i iga ion (SDG 6). Th ough he local p oduc ion-
consump ion cycle, ood was e and anspo a ion- ela ed en i onmen al
bu dens a e educed (SDG 12), ca bon oo p in s a e lowe ed, and u ban clima e
adap a ion is achie ed h ough inc eased g een spaces (SDG 13). Addi ionally,
by con e ing abandoned o idle a eas in o g een p oduc ion si es, ecosys em
es o a ion and biodi e si y conse a ion a e achie ed, he eby suppo ing
e es ial li e (SDG 15). Thus, u ban ag icul u e se es as a comp ehensi e
ool o ans o ming ci ies in o mo e esilien , equi able, and sus ainable places
wi hin he amewo k o he 2030 Agenda.
240   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Kı ıkkale U ban Fo es has se ed a dual unc ion: p o ec ing na u e and
o e ing ec ea ional oppo uni ies o ci y esiden s. In 2010, ope a ional igh s
we e ans e ed o he Kı ıkkale Municipali y o 49 yea s unde a p o ocol wi h
he Gene al Di ec o a e o Fo es y. Howe e , due o a lack o main enance and
in es men by he municipali y, he a ea became neglec ed and unde u ilized.
By he 2020s, he con ac was no enewed, and he land was e u ned o he
Di ec o a e o Fo es y, which ini ia ed a 20-yea lease ende o p i a e sec o
managemen . The con ac was awa ded o he Associa ion o Public Employees
wi h Disabili ies, based in Anka a, which became he new ope a o in he mid-
2020s. The u ban o es , ega ded by Kı ıkkale esiden s as a “b ea hing space”
in he ci y’s no he n sec ion, is being e i alized unde new managemen wi h a
balanced conse a ion-use app oach.
Na u al Landscape Fea u es o he U ban Fo es A ea
Kı ıkkale U ban Fo es encompasses oughly 40 ha o g een space
designa ed o ec ea ion and conse a ion (Republic o Tu key Kı ıkkale
Go e no ship, 2025). The si e occupies he in e io o he Cen al Ana olian
Pla eau a ~700m, a ansi ional zone be ween he semia id con inen al
condi ions o Cen al Ana olia and he mo e humid Black Sea in luence (Beck e
al., 2018; Göğüş e al., 2017). Local elie is mode a ely dissec ed wi h hills and
slopes, while he bed ock belongs o he Cen al Ana olian C ys alline Complex
(Kı şehi block), cha ac e ized by widesp ead La e C e aceous in usi e sui es
anging om g ani ic o alkaline composi ions (e.g., monzoni e–syeni e),
e lec ing a well-documen ed syncollisional o pos -collisional magma ic
e olu ion (İlbeyli, 2004; Kadıoğlu, Dilek, Güleç, and Foland, 2003). F om a
geohaza d s andpoin , he p o ince is si ua ed in a mode a e- o-high seismic-
haza d se ing unde Tü kiye’s 2018 p obabilis ic na ional map and lies in he
b oade in luence a ea o ac i e aul sys ems such as he No h Ana olian Faul
and nea by Sey e, Keskin, Ka akeçili, and Kı ıkkale–Sungu lu zones (AFAD,
2018; Akbaş, Sönmeze , and Işık, 2015).
The Kı ıkkale egion exhibi s a semi-a id con inen al clima e: win e s a e
cold and o en snowy, while summe s a e long, ho , and d y (Beck e al., 2018).
Long- e m obse a ions o Kı ıkkale ci y indica e a mean Janua y empe a u e
o 0.5 °C, a mean July empe a u e o 24.3 °C, and a e age July daily maxima
a ound 31.1 °C; mean mon hly p ecipi a ion sums o ≈ 383 mm y ⁻¹, e lec ing
o e all a idi y and equen summe d ough (Tu kish Me eo ological Se ice
[MGM], 2025).
The soil cha ac e is ic is p ima ily composed o b own s eppe soils o med
o e olcanic bed ock. These soils a e ich in lime and mine als, esul ing in

ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . .   241
ela i ely high ag icul u al p oduc i i y. In addi ion o he olcanic-de i ed
soils o he ugged e ain, allu ial soils a e also p esen in he sou he n pa s o
he p o ince along s eam beds. These allu ial laye s o m e ile su aces on
la e a eas. The limi ed ain all and p e ailing d yness signi ican ly a ec soil
o ma ion (İlbeyli, 2004; Kadıoğlu e al., 2003)
The cu en ege a ion co e in he u ban o es has been la gely es ablished
h ough a i icial a o es a ion. Following na ionwide a o es a ion policies
ini ia ed in he 1950s in Tu key, ba en lands ou side ag icul u al use in Kı ıkkale
we e o es ed o p e en soil e osion, p o ec wa e esou ces, and enhance
en i onmen al quali y. This a o es a ion cu bed de o es a ion and aimed o
inc ease biodi e si y in he u ban landscape. Today, dominan ee species
include coni e s such as ed pine, wi h occasional b oadlea species like oak,
sui able o he local ecology. Ac oss Kı ıkkale, lo is ic syn heses epo 1,326
plan axa wi h 156 endemics (U ke , 2021), while he cu en adminis a i e
in en o y main ained by he Minis y lis s 1,398 axa and 168 endemic plan
species, e lec ing upda es om ongoing su eys (Republic o Tü kiye Minis y
o Ag icul u e and Fo es y, 9 h Regional Di ec o a e, 2020). Two na ow-
ange, local endemics a e well documen ed: Campanula ki ikkaleensis (Dönmez
and Güne , 1994) and Gundelia ana olica, o iginally desc ibed om Delice
(Kı ıkkale) and subsequen ly e i ied cy ologically (Fı a , 2016; Genç and
Fı a , 2019). The p o ince’s ege a ion is domina ed by I ano-Tu anian s eppe
elemen s—sh ubs such as A emisia spp. and As agalus spp., he baceous
axa including An hemis/Ma ica ia, Men ha, Peganum ha mala, U ica, and
Thymus, and ui ing sh ubs like Rubus and Rosa— o ming seasonally dynamic
habi a mosaics (Dönmez, 2002).
Kı ıkkale U ban Fo es unc ions as a wildli e e uge wi hin he u ban ab ic.
P o incial biodi e si y accoun s documen 36 mammal species, 3 amphibians,
14 ep iles, 12 eshwa e ish, and 281 bi d species o Kı ıkkale (Republic o
Tü kiye Minis y o Ag icul u e and Fo es y, 9 h Regional Di ec o a e, 2020).
Among hese a e species o conse a ion conce n, including mammals such as
badge , o e , g ea e ho seshoe ba , g ound squi el, and je boa; ep iles such as
he Eu opean pond u le and spu - highed o oise; and bi ds including he g ea
bus a d (O is a da), Egyp ian ul u e (Neoph on pe cnop e us), e uginous
duck, and Eu opean olle (Republic o Tü kiye Minis y o Ag icul u e and
Fo es y, 9 h Regional Di ec o a e, 2020). Moni o ing in he p o ince ocuses
on oe dee , lynx, and o e among mammals, and on impe ial eagle, g ea
bus a d, bea ded ul u e, and Eu opean pond u le, e lec ing local p io i ies
o h ea ened axa (Republic o Tü kiye Minis y o Ag icul u e and Fo es y,
242   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
9 h Regional Di ec o a e, 2020). No ably, he g ea bus a d and Egyp ian ul u e
a e assessed as globally h ea ened on he IUCN Red Lis , unde sco ing he
impo ance o p o ec ing habi a and ligh co ido s wi hin and a ound he u ban
o es (Bi dLi e In e na ional, 2023; Bi dLi e In e na ional, 2024).
Cul u al Landcape Fea u es o he U ban Fo es A ea
The o es has he basic in as uc u e and acili ies o suppo na u e-based
ac i i ies. The imp o emen s ha e included one acili y building, an a i icial
pond, h ee cabins o secu i y, wo public es ooms, walking and jogging
ails, picnic ables, a baske ball cou , and a pa king a ea (Figu e 2). Addi ional
elemen s include a i e wa ch owe , scenic iewpoin , playg ounds, picnic
shel e s, oun ains, a wa e ank, secu i y hu s, ash bins, and in o ma ional
signage (Figu e 3). These acili ies a e designed o suppo ac i i ies such as
hiking, unning, picnicking, and ou doo spo s. T ails and pa hs wi hin he
o es accommoda e bo h indi idual and g oup na u e excu sions.
Figu e 2: Pho os F om The U ban Fo es Baske ball Cou , Fi e
Wa ch owe , Scenic Poin (Image sou ce by he au ho s, 2024)
Cu en ly, he u ban o es is closed o isi o s due o ongoing main enance
and eno a ion. The new ope a o con inues es o a ion e o s, including
landscape eo ganiza ion, epai o acili ies, and enhanced sa e y. The ul ima e
goal is o eopen he si e as a sa e, o de ly, and a ac i e ec ea ional a ea and o
in eg a e i in o he ci y’s g een in as uc u e. In doing so, he o es will se e
bo h as a e ea o u ban esiden s and as a con ibu o o Kı ıkkale’s long- e m
ecological and social sus ainabili y.
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . .   243
Figu e 3: Pho os F om The U ban Fo es Playg ounds, Picnic Tables,
Walking T ail, Foun ain (Image sou ce by he au ho s, 2024)
The SWOT analysis was employed as an in eg a i e, diagnos ic ool o
syn hesize e idence om he li e a u e e iew and he Kı ıkkale U ban Fo es
case s udy. I dis inguishes S eng hs, Weaknesses om Oppo uni ies, Th ea s
and o ganizes indings h ough a design-s uc u e iewpoin encompassing
spa ial layou and zoning, ci cula ion, edge and bu e condi ions, blue–g een
sys ems, plan ing and canopy s uc u e, ameni ies and accessibili y, sa e y/
way inding, and ope a ions/go e nance (Table 2).
244   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Table 2: SWOT analysis o he Kı ıkkale u ban o es
S eng hs Weaknesses
• S a egic loca ion jus no h o he ci y;
~40 ha con iguous g een space (good
scale o mul i- unc ionali y).
• Unde -main enance/closu e his o y
damaged acili ies, low us , “neglec ed”
image.
• Exis ing basic in as uc u e: ails,
picnic uni s, cou s, iewpoin s, i e
owe , signage ounda ion o build on.
• Accessibili y gaps: limi ed ba ie - ee
ou es, une en/e oded pa hs, way inding
inconsis encies, da k spo s a nigh .
• Mic oclima e bene i s om ee co e
in a semi-a id se ing; opog aphic
a ie y c ea es scenic nodes.
• Ameni y dis ibu ion une en; shade,
sea ing, wa e poin s no aligned wi h
desi e lines / high-use nodes.
• Biodi e si y con ex : p o ince-le el
ichness (endemics, p o ec ed bi ds)
s ong educa ion & in e p e a ion
po en ial.
• Edge exposu e o adjacen se lemen s;
weak ege a ed bu e s; sa e y
pe cep ions his o ically poo .
• Legal/adminis a i e ecogni ion as an
u ban o es ; new ope a o commi ed o
ehabili a ion.
• Da a gaps: no ecen , sys ema ic isi o
coun s, canopy % baseline, o species lis
o he si e; weak moni o ing ou ine.
• Public iden i y as a “b ea hing space”
o he ci y’s no h clea social manda e.
• Wa e managemen : limi ed blue-g een
ea u es; localized e osion; pond/di ch
condi ion unce ain.
Oppo uni ies Th ea s
• Re-opening phase = policy window
o eposi ion he si e wi h na u e-based
solu ions and g een-in as uc u e
upg ades.
• Clima e s esso s (hea , d ough ) and
wild i e isk in a semi-a id con inen al
clima e.
• Pa ne ships wi h local uni e si ies/
NGOs o moni o ing, s ewa dship,
ci izen science, and in e p e a ion
(endemic species, bi ds).
• U ban enc oachmen / in o mal uses
a edges; andalism and li e ing i
o e sigh lapses.
• Mobili y in eg a ion: connec o ci y
walking/bike ne wo ks and ansi ; sa e
app oaches and ga eways.
• Funding ola ili y o con ac
pe o mance isk unde hi d-pa y
ope a ion.
• Inclusi e p og amming: ou doo
class ooms, guided walks, accessible
loops b oadens use base and equi y.
• Pes s/disease and in asi e species
p essu es on plan a ion-domina ed
s ands; e osion on s eep pa hs.
• G an eligibili y: clima e adap a ion,
biodi e si y, accessibili y, and you h
engagemen unding s eams.
• Regula o y/adminis a i e shi s and
mul i-agency coo dina ion ic ions slow
deli e y.
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . .   245
• B anding & eco ou ism: bi dwa ching,
geology/ lo a hemes; QR-based
in e p e i e sys em.
• Seismic haza d con ex highe
s anda ds needed o s uc u es/u ili ies.
S eng hs
Kı ıkkale U ban Fo es ’s mos salien asse is i s s a egic loca ion
immedia ely no h o he u ban co e and i s con iguous 40ha oo p in , which is
la ge enough o suppo a mul i unc ional p og am while emaining legible and
manageable. A basic sui e o acili ies p ima y pa hs, picnic uni s, iewpoin s,
child en’s play, a cou , i e owe , signage and u ili ies p o ides a pla o m
o inc emen al upg ading a he han g een ield in es men . In a semi-a id
con inen al se ing, exis ing canopy al eady yields measu able mic oclima ic
bene i s (shade, e apo anspi a i e cooling) and he si e’s opog aphic a ie y
c ea es scenic nodes o es and in e p e a ion. A he egional scale, high
e eb a e and lo is ic ichness (including endemics and globally h ea ened
bi ds) unde pins s ong po en ial o educa ion, s ewa dship, and na u e-based
ec ea ion. Finally, o mal ecogni ion as an u ban o es and he p esence o a
new ope a o c ea e an adminis a i e pa hway o coo dina ed imp o emen ,
while he si e’s epu a ion as a “b ea hing space” signals clea social demand.
Weaknesses
The legacy o unde -main enance and in e mi en closu e has deg aded
asse s, supp essed isi a ion, and weakened public us . Accessibili y is une en:
ba ie - ee loops a e incomple e; slopes, e oded segmen s and in o mal desi e
lines complica e ci cula ion and nigh - ime legibili y is limi ed by da k spo s
and inconsis en way inding. Ameni y p o ision (sea ing, shade, d inking wa e ,
oile s) is no ye aligned wi h ac ual mo emen pa e ns o hea exposu e, lowe ing
com o du ing peak seasons. Edge condi ions owa d adjacen se lemen s emain
po ous and isually exposed, eeding sa e y conce ns. F om a managemen
pe spec i e, key baselines a e missing ecen isi o coun s, canopy co e ,
species lis s, and ou ine condi ion audi s cons aining adap i e managemen .
S o mwa e and small wa e ea u es equi e a en ion, wi h localized e osion
and unce ain pond pe o mance indica ing he need o blue–g een e o i s.
Oppo uni ies
The ansi ion o new managemen and he e-opening plan c ea e a policy
window o eposi ion he o es using con empo a y g een-in as uc u e and
na u e-based solu ions cooling co ido s, pe meable su aces, ain ga dens, and
laye ed bu e s deli e ing co-bene i s o ec ea ion, biodi e si y, and clima e
esilience. S ong p ospec s exis o pa ne ships wi h local uni e si ies,

246   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
schools, and NGOs o co-p oduce moni o ing, ci izen science, and in e p e a ion
lowe ing cos s while aising engagemen . Mobili y in eg a ion is ano he le e
o malized ga eways, sa e pedes ian app oaches, bike pa king and connec ions
o ci y pa hs can b oaden access wi hou expanding ca dependence. Inclusi e
p og amming guided walks, ou doo class ooms, accessible loops can ebalance
equi y ou comes and di e si y he use base. The si e is also well-placed o
ex e nal unding ied o adap a ion, biodi e si y, accessibili y, and you h
engagemen , and i can build a dis inc i e iden i y a ound bi dwa ching, geology,
and s eppe– o es eco one hemes.
Th ea s
Clima ic s esso s hea wa es, p olonged summe d ough s, and ele a ed
wild i e isk pose di ec p essu es on isi o com o , sa e y, and ege a ion
pe o mance. U ban enc oachmen , andalism, and li e ing emain c edible
isks along exposed edges i o e sigh lapses. Financial ola ili y o unde -
pe o mance in a hi d-pa y ope a ing model could delay main enance cycles
o s all upg ades. Ecologically, pes /disease ou b eaks and in asi e species
may exploi homogeneous o s essed plan ings, while s eep segmen s emain
e osion-p one i use in ensi ies wi hou ail ha dening. Finally, he p o ince’s
seismic con ex implies highe design and cons uc ion s anda ds o s uc u es
and u ili ies, adding cos and coo dina ion complexi y ac oss agencies.
Implica ions o design and managemen
An immedia e, design-led esponse should con e weaknesses in o nea -
e m gains while bu e ing key h ea s: (i) make he o es sa e and legible i s
( epai he p ima y loop, p une o sigh lines, add node/ ou e ligh ing, s anda dize
signage, s a ga eways); (ii) deli e a con inuous accessible loop wi h equen
shaded es poin s and complian acili ies; (iii) expand shade and mic oclima e
pe o mance wi h canopy in ill and small s uc u es a hea ho spo s; (i ) so en
edges wi h laye ed ege a ed bu e s and o malized en ies; ( ) implemen blue–
g een e o i s o s abilize d ains and upg ade he pond; ( i) embed habi a ea u es
and in e p e a ion (deadwood e en ion whe e sa e, nes ing/ oos ing elemen s,
QR-enabled hema ic ails); and ( ii) launch a ligh - ouch moni o ing p og am
( isi o coun s, canopy %, ail condi ion, inciden s) wi h a qua e ly communi y
o um. Taken oge he , hese mo es le e age he si e’s s eng hs and oppo uni ies
o add ess long-s anding weaknesses and imp o e esilience o he p incipal h ea s.
4.Conclusion
This chap e assessed he Kı ıkkale U ban Fo es h ough a comp ehensi e
e iew o he u ban o es li e a u e and a si e speci ic case analysis o i s na u al
ASSESSING THE CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE KIRIKKALE . . .   247
and cul u al landscape ea u es. Es ablished ia a o es a ion in 2006 and
ex ending o e app oxima ely 40 ha on he Kı şehi Massi , he si e cons i u es
a mic oclima ic e uge wi hin a semi-a id s eppe con ex . I s ugged opog aphy,
olcanic subs a es, and egionally ich lo a and auna including locally endemic
axa p o ide a obus ecological baseline capable o suppo ing mul i unc ional
ecosys em se ices and di e se ec ea ional uses.
F om a design s andpoin , he o es al eady possesses ounda ional
in as uc u e (pa hs, picnic uni s, spo s cou , iewpoin s, and basic u ili ies),
indica ing la en capaci y o public bene i . Howe e , his o ical unde -
main enance, cons ained ameni y di e si y, pe cei ed sa e y de ici s a he pe i-
u ban edge, and limi ed uni e sal accessibili y ha e a enua ed u ilisa ion and
diminished use us . The SWOT analysis makes explici his con igu a ion o
asse s and liabili ies, while also iden i ying a a ou able policy window: he
ecen managemen ansi ion and empo a y closu e o eno a ion enable
eposi ioning o he o es ’s design, ope a ions, and s ewa dship.
Finally, his inqui y is in en ionally quali a i e and design- ocused.
Fu u e esea ch should in eg a e sys ema ic use coun s and sa is ac ion
su eys, accessibili y audi s, de ailed lo is ic/ aunal in en o ies, canopy and
su ace- empe a u e mapping, and li e-cycle cos ing o main enance egimes.
Such empi ical ex ensions would enable s onge causal in e ence be ween
design choices and ou comes, and would suppo i e a i e, e idence-in o med
adjus men s o e ime. Taken oge he , hese measu es posi ion he Kı ıkkale
U ban Fo es o e ol e om an unde -pe o ming g een asse in o a lagship,
mul i unc ional u ban o es g ounded in sa e y, inclusi i y, ecological in eg i y,
and du able communi y pa ne ship.
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Benedic , M. A., and McMahon, E. T. (2006). G een in as uc u e: Linking
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needs space: A me a-analysis o ac o s de e mining in a-u ban biodi e si y
a ia ion. Ecology Le e s, 18, 581–592. Access Add ess (25.07.2025): h ps://
onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/epd /10.1111/ele.12427
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doi.o g/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00013-0
Chiesu a, A. (2004). The ole o u ban pa ks o he sus ainable ci y.
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.landu bplan.2003.08.003
Cozens, P., and Lo e, T. (2015). A e iew and cu en s a us o C ime
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Ana olia: Campanula ki ikkaleensis (Campanulaceae). Ka aca A bo e um
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Ana olia_G_komagenensis_G_coleme ikensis_G_cilicica_and_G_ana olica
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h ps://doi.o g/10.13128/ca yologia-250
Gobs e , P. H. (2001). Visions o na u e: Con lic and compa ibili y in
u ban pa k es o a ion. Landscape and U ban Planning, 56(1–2), 35–51. Access
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Göğüş, O. H., Pysklywec, R. N., Şengö , A. M. C., and Gün, E. (2017).
D ip ec onics and he enigma ic upli o he Cen al Ana olian Pla eau.
256   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
In pa icula , du ing win e mon hs, empe a u es can d op as low as -30°C.
P ecipi a ion ends o be mo e equen in he sp ing and all. In he highe
pa s o he egion, snow all is signi ican , and he snow co e emains o a
long pe iod. These clima e ea u es ha e a de e mining e ec on he egion’s
ecosys em and ag icul u al ac i i ies (Topuz and Ka abulu , 2021). Howe e ,
due o mic oclima ic condi ions, di e en clima e ypes can be obse ed in
ce ain pa s o he egion. Fo example, he Iğdı Plain exhibi s cha ac e is ics
simila o he Medi e anean clima e (Özçağla , 2003).
The EAB is one o he iches egions in Tü kiye in e ms o plan
di e si y (Gümüş, 2007). Flo is ically, i belongs o he I an-Tu an lo is ic
egion (Yene and Ak, 2021). Due o i s loca ion in he I an-Tu an lo a egion,
s eppe ege a ion is widesp ead. Howe e , o es ed a eas a e also ound in high-
al i ude egions (Gümüş, 2007). The o es s in he egion consis mainly o Sco s
pine in he no heas , while oak o es s domina e he highe moun ainous and
pla eau a eas. In he lowe plains, s eppe plan s a e common, while in highe
al i udes, moun ain meadows and alpine ege a ion a e p esen . Pa icula ly
in he E zu um-Ka s sec ion, ich meadow ecosys ems a e in luenced by
summe ain all (Yene and Ak, 2021). Addi ionally, he Sa ıkamış a ea and i s
su oundings a e no able o hei ich o es ed a eas. Abou 35% o he plan
species in he egion belong o he I an-Tu an, 14% o Eu ope Sibe ia, and 2% o
he Medi e anean phy ogeog aphical egions. The numbe o endemic species
is 62, which cons i u es 9% o he o al lo a (Gümüş, 2007).
Acco ding o he Tü kiye Plan s Da a Se ice (TUBIVES), he e a e 4,296
plan axa in he egion (Öze e al., 2020). Howe e , his numbe has inc eased
o e ime. A pa o he s eppe in he egion consis s o bo h he baceous and
woody o chamaephy e (low sh ub) ege a ion. In he he baceous s eppe, species
like S ipa sp. and B omus sp. a e ound in abundance. In he chamaephy e s eppe,
many species o As agalus and Acan holimon play an impo an ole. In he high
moun ain a eas, alpine meadows a e p esen , ea u ing b igh ly colo ed plan s
such as Campanula iden a a and Gen iana e na. These a eas a e lo is ically
e y he e ogeneous (Mu a geldie e al., 2000).
The EAB is one o he egions in Tü kiye wi h he iches lo a, holding
g ea signi icance in e ms o o namen al plan po en ial and endemic plan
species (Ko kmaz and Tu gu , 2014). The egion’s geog aphical and clima ic
di e si y allows o he a ie y o plan species and he de elopmen o endemic
species. The egion is pa icula ly ich in bulbous, hizoma ous, and ube ous
plan s, wi h species om amilies such as Ama yllidaceae, Aspa agaceae,

POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . .   257
Colchicaceae, I idaceae, Liliaceae, and O chidaceae being used as o namen al
plan s. One o he mos impo an o namen al plan s in he egion is he c own
impe ial (F i illa ia impe ialis), belonging o he Liliaceae amily, which is
equen ly used in landscaping applica ions (Fı a e al., 2015). The egion’s
high al i ude and ugged e ain con ibu e o he o ma ion o a ious ecological
niches, enabling he g ow h o di e se o namen al plan s. Endemic plan s ha
g ow in moun ainous a eas no only o e aes he ic alue as pa o he na u al
landscape bu also ha e he po en ial o be cul i a ed as o namen al plan s.
Ana olia’s geog aphy, loca ed a he in e sec ion o h ee di e en
phy ogeog aphical egions, is home o a ound 3,800 endemic plan species.
A signi ican po ion o hese species is ound in he Eas e n Ana olia Region
(Çelik, 2017). Fo example, a s udy conduc ed in he Dumanlı Moun ains
wi hin he bounda ies o E zincan p o ince iden i ied 112 endemic plan axa.
Mos o hese endemic species belong o he As e aceae, Ca yophyllaceae,
B assicaceae, Lamiaceae, and Fabaceae amilies. The gene a wi h he highes
numbe o endemic species include Silene, Tanace um, Onosma, As agalus,
and Hype icum (Ko kmaz and Onkaş, 2024). The endemic plan s in he egion
no only se e as indica o s o biological di e si y bu also ha e g ea po en ial
as medicinal, a oma ic, and o namen al plan s. Species o he Alchemilla genus,
commonly known as “lion’s paw” in he local communi y, a e widely used in
adi ional medicine and a e alued o de ma ological and cosme ic pu poses
(Mu a han, 2018).
2. Plan s in he s udy a ea and hei loca ion
The p ima y ma e ial o his s udy consis s o 20 plan axa na u ally ound
in he EAB (Figu e 1), which a e selec ed o he esea ch (Table 1). Fi e o
hese plan s a e endemic. Fo his s udy, 20 plan axa wi h high o namen al
plan po en ial we e chosen om he baceous axa sui able o use in open g een
a eas. The selec ed axa we e de e mined by e iewing sou ces such as Tekin
(2005), Tekin (2007), TUBIVES (2004), and Da is (1965-1985). The selec ed
plan axa and hei loca ions a e p esen ed in Table 1.
258   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 1: Eas e n Ana olia Region and The 14 P o inces in This Region
Table 1: Taxa Examined in The S udy and Thei Loca ions in
The Eas e n Ana olia Region
Species Loca ions
Acan holimon b ac ea um a . b ac ea um Hakka i, Van
Acan holimon hypochae um Ağ ı, E zincan
Ae hionema ibe ideum E zincan
And osace illosa A dahan, E zincan, E zu um, Hakka i, Van
As agalus xylobasis a . xylobasis Ağ ı
As e amellus subsp. ibe icus Ağ ı, E zincan, E zu um
A abis ca ducho um Bi lis, Van
Campanula ledebou iana Ağ ı, E zu um, Ka s, Van
F i illa ia impe ialis Bi lis, Hakka i, Van
I is spu ia subsp. musulmanica E zincan, E zu um, Iğdı , Hakka i, Ka s,
Muş, Van
Melampy um a ense Iğdı , E zu um, Tunceli
Myoso is alpes is subsp. alpes is Bi lis, E zu um, Iğdı , Hakka i, Ka s, Tunceli
Sal ia b ac ea a Elazığ, E zu um
Sal ia ae hiopis Ağ ı, Elazığ, E zu um, Mala ya
Sapona ia p os a a a . cal e ii E zu um, Ka s
Tanace um ko schyi Bi lis, Hakka i, Muş, Van
Thymus mig icus Ağ ı, Bi lis, Ka s, Muş, Van
Ve onica caespi osa Bi lis, Van
Ve onica o ien alis ssp. o ien alis Van
Ve onica pe sica Iğdı
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . .   259
Addi ionally, he loca ions o he 20 axa s udied on a p o incial basis a e
shown in Figu e 2, and images o he examined axa a e p esen ed in Figu e 3.
Figu e 2: Loca ions o 20 Taxa Examined in The Eas e n Ana olia
Region On a P o incial Basis
260   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 3: Images o 20 Taxa Examined in The Eas e n Ana olia Region
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . .   261
2.1.Gene alcha ac e is icso plan  axa
In his s udy, da a on plan axa such as smell, ag ance, lowe densi y,
lowe ing ime, lowe colo , lowe ing pe iod, li e o m, habi a , endemism,
e e g een, and o m a e ga he ed om a ious li e a u e sou ces and he ba ium
eco ds. These da a a e p esen ed in de ail in Table 2.
3. Weigh ed sco ing me hod
The weigh ed sco ing me hod is a selec ion echnique used o e alua e
geno ypes based on speci ic cha ac e is ics, pa icula ly in plan b eeding
s udies. In his me hod, selec ion c i e ia a e i s de ined, and each c i e ion
is assigned an impo ance o alue sco e by he b eede . Each geno ype is
hen sco ed acco ding o hese c i e ia, and a o al sco e is calcula ed. The
geno ypes wi h he highes sco es a e conside ed supe io (Sönmez e al.,
2015). The weigh ed sco ing me hod is widely used ac oss a ious p o essions
and disciplines, especially in pe o mance e alua ion and selec ion p ocesses.
By assigning di e en weigh s o speci ic c i e ia, his me hod ensu es ha
e alua ions a e made mo e objec i ely and ai ly. The he weigh ed sco ing
me hod is e ec i ely used in ields such as ag icul u e, educa ion, and public
pe sonnel managemen . The me hod allows o mo e objec i e and ai esul s
by conside ing he weigh s assigned o he e alua ion c i e ia (Kı an, 2015).
In his s udy, 10 di e en c i e ia o 20 axa we e subjec ed o he weigh ed
sco ing me hod. The c i e ia e alua ed in he s udy a e shown in Table 3.

262   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Table 2: Gene al Cha ac e is ics o he Taxa Examined Wi hin he Scope o he S udy
12345678910 11 12
Acan holimon b ac ea um
a . b ac ea um
No Dense June-Augus Pink Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas No Dwa 1,2,3
Acan holimon
hypochae um
No Dense July-Augus Pink Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas Yes Dwa 3
Ae hionema ibe ideum No Dense May-June Pink Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas No Dwa 3
And osace illosa Yes Dense May-Sep embe Whi e Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas No Dwa 123
As agalus xylobasis a .
xylobasis
No Middle May-July Pink Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas, Yes Sp eading 1,2,3
As e amellus subsp.
ibe icus
No Middle June-Augus Pu ple Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas, Fo es s No Sp eading 1,2,4
A abis ca ducho um No Dense Augus Whi e Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas Yes Dwa 1,2,4
Campanula ledebou iana No Middle July-Augus Blue Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas Yes Dwa 1,2,4
F i illa ia impe ialis Yes Middle Ma ch-May O ange Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas No Ve ical 1,2,3
I is spu ia subsp.
musulmanica
No Middle May-July Pu ple Pe ennial he b Sh ubs, Maquis, We lands No Ve ical 3
Melampy um a ense No Middle June-Oc obe P ink Annual Rocky a eas, Fields, Sh ubs, Maquis No Ve ical 1,2,3
Myoso is alpes is subsp.
alpes is
No Low Ap il-Augus Blue Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas, Fields No Sp eading 1,2,3
Sal ia b ac ea a Yes Dense May-July P ink Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas, Fields, Sh ubs, We lands No Ve ical 1,2,3
Sal ia ae hiopis Yes Dense May-Augus Whi e Annual, Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas, S eppes, Fields No Dwa 1,2,3
Sapona ia p os a a a .
cal e ii
No Middle Ap il-July P ink Pe ennial he b Fields No Sp eading 3
Tanace um ko schyi No Low July-Augus Whi e Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas No Ve ical 1,2,3
Thymus mig icus Yes Dense June-July Pink Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas No Dwa 1,2,3
Ve onica caespi osa No Middle May-Augus Blue Pe ennial he b Rocky a eas, S eppes Yes Sp eading 4
Ve onica o ien alis ssp.
o ien alis
No Dense Ap il-July Pu ple Pe ennial he b
Rocky a eas, Fields, Sh ubs, Maquis,
Fo es s
No Sp eading 1,2,3
Ve onica pe sica Yes Middle
Janua y-Decembe
Pu ple Annual Fields No Sp eading 1,2,3
Re e ences
Fo m
Species
Flowe ing pe iod
Smell
Flowe
dens i y
Flowe ing ime
Flowe
colo
Li e o m
Habi a
Ende mi s m
* (1: Da is, 1965–85; 2: Tübi es, 2004, 3: Tekin, 2005; 4: Tekin, 2007)
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . .   263
Table 3. Pa ame e s Examined Wi hin he Scope o he Weigh ed Ra ing
Me hod o Gene al Ou doo O namen al Plan Use and The Sco e Values o
These Pa ame e s
Pa ame e s Maximum poin s o
be awa ded E alua ion s eps Poin s o be awa ded
acco ding o classes
Smell 5
Ve y dense 5
No mal 3
Ligh 1
None 0
Flowe densi y 15
Wi hou lowe s 0
Low 5
Middle 10
Dense 15
Flowe ing ime 15
Au umn 12
Summe 8
Sp ing 4
Win e 15
Flowe colou 15
Whi e 5
Red 10
Blue 15
Pu ple 12
Yellow 5
O ange 7
Pink 3
G een 1
Flowe ing
pe iod 15
0-2 mon h 6
3-4 mon h 9
5-6 mon h 12
6+ mon h 15
Li e o m 5
Annual 1
Biennial 3
Pe ennial he b 5
Habi a 5
S eppes e c. 4
We meadows 2
Fo es clea ings and
oak g o es 3
Rocky, s ony, d y
a eas 5
264   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Endemism 5 Yes 5
No 0
Fo m 10
Ve ical 2
Sca e ed 4
Sp eading 8
Dwa 10
E e g een 10 Yes 10
No 5
4. Weigh alues o axa
The weigh ed a ing esul s anged be ween 420 and 855 poin s. The axon
wi h he highes sco e was Campanula ledebou iana, wi h 855 poin s. O he axa
wi h high sco es included Ve onica o ien alis ssp. o ien alis (830) and Ve onica
caespi osa (825). The lowes sco e was eco ded o Tanace um ko schyi (420).
O he axa wi h low sco es we e Sapona ia p os a a a . cal e ii (565) and
As agalus xylobasis a . xylobasis (595) (Figu e 4).
Figu e 4: The Weigh ed Ra ing Sco es o The 20 Examined Taxa
POTENTIAL ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FOR ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE . . .   265
5. Ecological landscape designs and use o na u al plan s in open g een
a eas
Ecological landscape designs can be c ea ed in open g een a eas using
na i e plan axa. When b ough in o cul i a ion and used in open g een spaces,
na i e plan axa wi h high o namen al po en ial o e many ad an ages. Since
hese plan s a e less a ec ed by egional clima e ex emes, hei main enance
cos s a e ela i ely low. In addi ion, na i e plan species ha equi e less pes icide
applica ion also ha e lowe wa e consump ion compa ed o exo ic species (Yücel
and E ken, 2023); Hel and e al., 2006). Na i e plan s a e well-adap ed o local
en i onmen al condi ions, which makes hem mo e esilien and less dependen
on addi ional esou ces such as wa e and e ilize s. A s udy conduc ed in Qa a
highligh ed ha cu en landscape p ac ices ely hea ily on exo ic species, which
equi e in ensi e i iga ion and soil modi ica ions. The au ho s ecommended
he use o na i e plan s o p omo e sus ainabili y and biodi e si y in u ban a eas
(Riche e al., 2016). Inco po a ing na i e plan s in o u ban g een spaces also
signi ican ly inc eases local biodi e si y. A compa a i e s udy on na i e and non-
na i e plan s in u ban ho icul u e showed ha na i e species suppo highe
di e si y o local auna, con ibu ing posi i ely o ecosys em heal h (Ta aglia e
al., 2024). Mo eo e , na i e plan species play an impo an ole in suppo ing
pollina o popula ions. Wa son e al. (2022) ound ha plan species ichness
and sunligh exposu e in pollina o ga dens inc eased pollina o isi a ion,
emphasizing he alue o di e se na i e plan ings in u ban landscapes.
In addi ion o hei unc ional ad an ages, na i e plan axa a e also widely
used in open g een spaces due o hei aes he ic con ibu ions such as colo ,
o m, habi a , and ag ance. In eg a ing na i e plan species in o open g een
a eas enhances bo h he isual a ac i eness and ecological alue o u ban
landscapes. These species, which a e adap ed o local clima es and soils, o en
display a a ie y o colo s, ex u es, and o ms ha con ibu e o dynamic
and seasonally changing landscapes. Fo example, a s udy on plan ing design
in u ban open g een a eas emphasized ha he ca e ul use o colo con as s
in plan composi ions posi i ely a ec s isual quali y and iewe s’ aes he ic
sa is ac ion, con ibu ing o he o e all beau y and ha mony o g een spaces
(Yılmaz e al., 2018).
One o he na i e species na u ally g owing in Eas e n Ana olia (Tü kiye)
is Campanula ledebou iana, which is sui able o use in ock ga dens and
g een oo s due o i s compac o m, abili y o h i e in ocky and s ony a eas,
and i s dis inc i e lowe colo . This species is pa icula ly a ac i e hanks o
272   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Beyond i s economic epe cussions, he pandemic also ad e sely a ec ed
he social and psychological well-being o ou is s, esul ing in diminished us
and educed loyal y owa d he ou ism sec o (Üs ün and Özçi çi, 2020; Nong
and Ha, 2021). Heigh ened isk pe cep ion and adhe ence o p o ec i e measu es
eme ged as c i ical de e minan s o a el beha io . Acco ding o global epo s,
in e na ional a el declined by 65% in 2020, by 85% in 2021, and by 51% in
2022 (URL-5, URL-6, URL-7, URL-8).
Despi e hese challenges, he pandemic also p esen ed an oppo uni y
o eassess and o i y he ou ism sec o wi h a iew owa d long- e m
sus ainabili y. In esponse, ini ia i es such as he “Sa e Tou ism Ce i ica e”
we e in oduced o ebuild consume con idence and alle ia e a ele s’ anxie y
(URL-3; Çizel e al., 2021).
In he pos - es ic ion e a, he e has been a g owing emphasis on al e na i e
o ms o ou ism, including socially dis anced a el and indi idualized holiday
expe iences (Acune and E gin, 2022; Alpago and Oduncu, 2020; I ano e
al., 2020; Kı ılcım, 2020; Özal ın, 2020). Consequen ly, con en ional g oup
accommoda ions such as ho els and hos els ha e inc easingly been eplaced
by indi idualized lodging op ions like en s, camping-ca a ans, and p i a e
illas (Düzgün, 2021). To espond o e ol ing expec a ions ela ed o physical
dis ancing, hygiene, and sus ainabili y, he ou ism sec o has bo h in oduced
new ends and adap ed exis ing ones. One no able eme ging o m o ou ism in
his con ex is glamping.
The pandemic has also p esen ed an oppo uni y o eassess and s eng hen
he ou ism sec o wi h a ocus on sus ainabili y. In esponse, he “Sa e Tou ism
Ce i ica e” was de eloped o ebuild con idence in he sec o and o educe
ou is s’ anxie ies (URL-3; Çizel e al., 2021).
Glamping, sho o “glamo ous camping,” is a o m o luxu y camping
ha combines com o wi h imme sion in na u al se ings. O igina ing in he
la e 20 h cen u y, glamping accommoda ions we e ini ially designed o allow
a luen a ele s o s ay in he wilde ness—pa icula ly du ing A ican sa a i
ou s—wi hou sac i icing he com o s o mode n li e (Boscoboinik and
Bou gua d, 2011). This ype o ou ism appeals o indi iduals who may be
eluc an o engage in adi ional camping due o conce ns abou com o o lack
o ameni ies.
Glamping accommoda ions ypically ea u e high-end u nishings,
com o able beds, s ylish in e io s, p i a e ba h ooms wi h showe s o ba h ubs,
and access o elec ici y and in e ne . Beyond com o , glamping also emphasizes

DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   273
en i onmen al esponsibili y by inco po a ing eco- iendly ma e ials and
p ac ices. In his ega d, glamping aligns well wi h he p inciples o eco- ou ism
and e lec s a g owing end in sus ainable a el.
F om a his o ical pe spec i e, glamping ou ism bea s esemblance o
adi ional nomadic dwellings such as he Oba used by Tu kic ances o s, he
Tipi o Na i e Ame icans, he Ge o he Mongols, and he Boz Üy o he
Ky gyz people (E dem e al., 2018). These ypes o accommoda ions ep esen
cul u ally oo ed s uc u es ha concep ually b idge he gap be ween adi ional
camping and con empo a y glamping expe iences. Figu e 1 illus a es examples
o accommoda ion uni s commonly used in glamping ou ism.
As a esul o he COVID-19 pandemic, he g owing demand o na u e,
pe sonal space, and sus ainable a el op ions has ans o med glamping ou ism
in o a highly sough -a e end ha e ec i ely add esses hese eme ging needs
(Google T ends, 2023). Glamping o e s ou is s a sa e, physically dis anced,
and secluded expe ience, he eby minimizing he isk o i us ansmission.
Figu e 1: Types o Glamping Tou ism Accommoda ion (URL-10; URL-11)
A s udy by C aig and Ka abas (2021) epo ed ha he p e e ence o
glamping inc eased om 21.4% in 2019 o 45.9% in he pos -pandemic pe iod.
Simila ly, da a om he Google T ends sea ch engine show ha in e es in he
e m “glamping” ose signi ican ly du ing and a e he pandemic compa ed o
he p e-pandemic pe iod (Figu e 2).
274   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Figu e 2: G aph o The In e es in The Te m “Glamping” in
The Wo ld in The Las 5 Yea s (URL-12)
Globally, sea ch in e es was mos p ominen in Slo enia, ollowed by
I eland, he Uni ed Kingdom, Colombia, and New Zealand (Figu e 3).
Figu e 3: In ensi y o Sea ches o “Glamping” By Region in
The Wo ld and The Top Coun ies (URL-12)
In his con ex , conside ing he balance o supply and demand in he ou ism
sec o , glamping has eme ged as an a ac i e and inc easingly p ominen o m
o ou ism. Howe e , local pe cep ions o glamping ou ism a y conside ably.
While some iew glamping as a componen o sus ainable ou ism closely
connec ed o na u e (Vo o niko e al., 2019; Š eimikienė e al., 2020; Me iç
e al., 2021), o he s exp ess conce ns abou i s po en ial en i onmen al impac s
and he deg ada ion o na u al a eas (Yıldı ım and E kılıç, 2019; Uğu , 2020;
Ese and Akgündüz, 2021). Simila ly, al hough some belie e ha glamping
con ibu es o he local economy and employmen (Gülen e al., 2022; Çelik İlal,
2023), o he s ea ha i may nega i ely a ec local cul u e and social s uc u es
(Hossin, 2016; Pu i, 2019).
Gi en hese di e ging iews, i is essen ial o assess local communi ies’
a i udes owa d glamping ou ism. Unde s anding hese a i udes is c i ical no
only o ensu ing he sus ainabili y o ou ism p ac ices bu also o sa egua ding
he well-being o local popula ions. The pe spec i es o local esiden s help
iden i y he socio-economic and en i onmen al impac s o ou ism, inc ease
he accep ance o ou ism- ela ed p ojec s, boos he local economy, enhance
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   275
communi y sa is ac ion, and in o m policy-making p ocesses aligned wi h
local needs and alues. The e o e, measu ing local a i udes plays a i al ole in
e ec i e ou ism planning and managemen .
The Sus ainable Tou ism A i ude Scale (SUS-TAS), de eloped by Choi
and Si akaya (2005), is a widely ecognized ins umen designed o measu e
esiden s’ a i udes owa d sus ainable ou ism. I has been employed in
nume ous s udies o e alua e s akeholde pe cep ions and suppo sus ainable
ou ism de elopmen (Hsu e al., 2020; Jeelani e al., 2022; S ojano ić e al.,
2021). O e he yea s, esea che s ha e e alida ed and adap ed he scale,
emphasizing i s ele ance in cap u ing di e se communi y pe spec i es (Yu e
al., 2009). Th ough his ool, hos communi ies ha e been classi ied acco ding o
hei le els o suppo o sus ainable ou ism, p o iding aluable insigh s in o
local a i udes ac oss di e en con ex s.
Wi hin his amewo k, he p esen s udy aims o assess he a i udes o local
esiden s owa d glamping ou ism in T abzon P o ince, bo h be o e and a e
he COVID-19 pandemic. This was achie ed by adap ing he SUS-TAS scale
speci ically o he con ex o glamping and pandemic- ela ed changes in ou ism
demand, pa icula ly in ligh o g owing in e na ional isi o in e es in he egion.
2. Ma e ial and Me hod
This s udy builds upon he o iginal SUS-TAS amewo k in oduced by
Choi and Si akaya (2005), adap ing i o examine glamping ou ism wi hin he
con ex o he COVID-19 pandemic. To his end, wel e new i ems ela ed o
glamping and he pandemic we e inco po a ed, and he exis ing 44 i ems we e
e ised acco dingly. The inal e sion o he ques ionnai e consis ed o 56 i ems
g ouped unde se en dis inc ac o s. I was adminis e ed o a sample o 100
local esiden s, wi h each i em a ed on a 5-poin Like scale.
The ques ionnai e also collec ed demog aphic in o ma ion, including
gende , age, income, occupa ion, and educa ion le el. The se en measu ed ac o s
we e: Pe cei ed Social Cos s (PSC), En i onmen al Sus ainabili y (ES), Long-
Te m Planning (LP), Pe cei ed Economic Bene i s (PEB), Communi y-Cen e ed
Economy (CCE), Visi o Sa is ac ion (VS), and Communi y In ol emen (CI).
The ac o s uc u e was e ined h ough Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA).
Da a analysis included equency dis ibu ions o demog aphic p o iling;
he Kaise -Meye -Olkin (KMO) measu e and Ba le ’s es o sphe ici y o
assess he adequacy o he da ase o ac o analysis; and C onbach’s alpha
o e alua e in e nal consis ency eliabili y. Pa ame ic es s (ANOVA and
276   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
independen samples - es s) we e employed o no mally dis ibu ed a iables,
while non-pa ame ic es s (Mann-Whi ney U and K uskal-Wallis H) we e used
o a iables ha did no mee he no mali y assump ion.
3. Findings
3.1.F equencyDis ibu ionAnalysis
O he pa icipan s, 54% iden i ied as emale and 46% as male. Rega ding
age dis ibu ion, 41% we e be ween 25–34 yea s old, 27% we e aged 18–24,
18% we e 35–44, and 14% we e 45 yea s o olde . In e ms o educa ional
a ainmen , 57% held an unde g adua e deg ee, while 21% had comple ed
pos g adua e educa ion.
Wi h espec o income le els, 27% o esponden s epo ed ea ning
be ween 15,001–35,000₺, and 25% epo ed incomes anging om 1–8,500₺.
Conce ning occupa ional s a us, 35% we e employed in he p i a e sec o , and
28% iden i ied as s uden s (Table 1).
Table 1: F equency Dis ibu ion Analysis
Demog aphic Va iables (%) Demog aphic Va iables (%)
Age
18-24 27
Educa ion
S a us
P ima y/Seconda y
School 5
25-34 41 High School 17
35-44 18 License 57
45 and o e 14 Pos g adua e 21
Income
Le el
No Income 22
P o ession
Public pe sonnel 26
1-8.500 ₺ 25 P i a e Sec o 35
8.501-15.000 ₺ 22 S uden 28
15.001-35.000 ₺ 27 O he 11
35.001 ₺ and o e 4
Gende Female 54
Male 46
3.2.KMOandBa le Tes
Acco ding o he esul s o he Kaise -Meye -Olkin (KMO) and Ba le ’s
Tes o Sphe ici y, he KMO alue was 0.75, indica ing an adequa e le el o
sampling adequacy. Ba le ’s es esul was s a is ically signi ican (χ² =
1941.414, p < 0.001), con i ming he sui abili y o he da a o ac o analysis.
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   277
3.3.Explo a o yFac o Analysis(EFA)
Gi en he in e ela ed and co ela ed na u e o he se en iden i ied
ac o s, he oblique o a ion me hod “Di ec Oblimin” was employed du ing
he Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA). As a esul , he analysis was p ima ily
in e p e ed based on he “Pa e n Ma ix” ou pu . In his ma ix, h ee i ems
wi h ac o loadings below 0.30 we e sequen ially emo ed om he analysis.
Addi ionally, i ems ha loaded on o mul iple ac o s wi h a loading di e ence
o less han 0.10 we e also excluded. Following hese adjus men s, EFA was
e-applied.
Ini ially, he ques ionnai e consis ed o 56 i ems ac oss se en ac o s based
on he o iginal SUS-TAS. A e he EFA p ocess, he ins umen was e ised o
include 37 i ems g ouped unde se en ac o s. The o iginal SUS-TAS ac o s—
“En i onmen al Sus ainabili y (ES),” “Long-Te m Planning (LP),” “Communi y
In ol emen (CI),” “Visi o Sa is ac ion (VS),” “Pe cei ed Economic Bene i s
(PEB),” “Communi y-Cen e ed Economy (CCE),” and “Pe cei ed Social Cos s
(PSC)”—we e es uc u ed based on newly iden i ied co ela ions. The e ised
ac o s we e enamed as ollows: “Long-Te m En i onmen al Planning (LEP),”
“Pe cei ed Economic Bene i s (PEF),” “Pe cei able Social Cos s (PSC),”
“Communi y Engagemen (CI),” “Visi o Sa is ac ion (VS),” “Long-Te m Risk
Planning (LRP),” and “Communi y-Cen e ed Economy (CCE)”.
The cumula i e explana o y powe o he e ised model was calcula ed as
60.53% (Table 2).

278   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Table 2: Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA)
Fac o s and
S a emen s
Fac o
Loadings
Eigen alue
Explana o y Va iance
Ra io (%)
Fac o s and
Exp essions
Fac o
Loadings
Eigen alue
Explana o y Va iance Ra io
(%)
LEP
9,3 25.15
CI
ES5 0,704 CI1 0,778 2,01 5.45
ES12 0,698 CI2 0,768
ES10 0,678 VS
1,79 4.84
ES8 0,655 VS4 0,654
ES9 0,649 VS1 0,651
ES11 0,643 CCE2 0,616
ES6 0,633 VS2 0,547
LP1 0,615 CCE6 0,533
ES7 0,603 CCE4 0,504
LP4 0,561 LRP
1,59 4.32
LP3 0,558 LUP2 0,766
LP6 0,541 ES1 0,645
PEF
3,61 9.77
CCE
1,29 3.50
PEB2 -0,75 CCE1
CI5
CCE3
CCE5
-0,749
-0,586
-0,584
-0,436
PEB3 -0,732
PEB4 -0,73
PEB1 -0,727
PEB6 -0,667
PEB5 -0,622
PSC
2,77 7.48
PSC6 0,849
PSC7 0,764
PSC5 0,74
PSC1 0,682
PSC2 0,583
SUS-TAS 60.53
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   279
3.4.C onbachAlpha
C onbach’s alpha analysis was conduc ed o assess he in e nal consis ency
o he newly de eloped se en ac o s. All indi idual ac o s, as well as he
o e all SUS-TAS scale, demons a ed accep able eliabili y le els (Table 3).
Table 3: Reliabili y Analysis (C onbach alpha)
Fac o s and SUS-TAS Numbe o
S a emen s
C onbach
Alpha
Long- e m en i onmen al planning (LEP) 12 0,887
Long- e m planning (LP) 6 0,844
Pe cei able social cos s (PSC) 5 0,803
Communi y engagemen (CI) 2 0,753
Visi o sa is ac ion (VS) 6 0,781
Long- e m isk planning (LRP) 2 0,617
Communi y-cen e ed economy (CCE) 4 0,767
SUS-TAS 37 0,879
3.5.No malDis ibu ionAnalysis
Acco ding o Table 4, each o he se en indi idual ac o s demons a ed
a non-no mal (i.e., non-pa ame ic) dis ibu ion (p < 0.05), whe eas he o e all
scale (SUS-TAS) ollowed a no mal dis ibu ion (p > 0.05). Acco dingly, non-
pa ame ic s a is ical es s we e employed o analyses in ol ing he se en
indi idual ac o s, while pa ame ic es s we e applied o analyses based on he
o e all SUS-TAS scale.
Table 4: No mal Dis ibu ion Analysis
Fac o Codes LEP LUP PSC CI VS LRP CCE SUS-TAS
Kolmogo o
Simi no
S a is ic 0,16 0,12 0,12 0,16 0,12 0,25 0,13 0,06
P0,000 0,001 0,002 0,000 0,002 0,000 0,001 0,200
3.6.Mann-Whi neyUandIndependen Samples -Tes
Acco ding o he esul s o he Mann–Whi ney U es , no s a is ically
signi ican di e ences we e ound be ween male and emale pa icipan s in
hei esponses o he ollowing ac o s: Long-Te m En i onmen al Planning
(LEP) (P = 0.9), Long-Te m Planning (LP) (P = 0.4), Awa eness o Sus ainable
Managemen (ASM) (P = 0.3), Communi y In ol emen (CI) (P = 0.4), Pe cei ed
Social Cos s (PSC) (P = 0.3), Local Resou ce P o ec ion (LRP) (P = 0.5), and
Communi y-Cen e ed Economy (CCE) (P = 0.4).
Fu he mo e, esul s om he Independen Samples -Tes also indica ed
no signi ican gende di e ences in o e all sco es o he Sus ainable Tou ism
A i ude Scale (SUS-TAS), as p esen ed in Table 5.
280   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Table 5: Mann-Whi ney U and Independen Samples Tes o SUS-TAS Scale and I s
Sub-Fac o s Acco ding o “Gende ” Va iable
Mann-Whi ney U (Non-pa ame ic)
Dependen Va iable Independen Va iable N X
Mean o Ranks Sum o Ranks UZ P
LEP Female 54 1,47 50,12 2706,5 1222 -0,14 0,9
Male 46 1,52 50,95 2343,5
LP Female 54 1,86 52,7 2848 1121 -0,8 0,4
Male 46 1,78 47,9 2202
PSC Female 54 2,44 47,9 2584 1099 -1,0 0,3
Male 46 2,65 53,6 2466
CI Female 54 2,94 52,5 2835 1134 -0,8 0,4
Male 46 2,83 48,2 2215
VS Female 54 1,79 47,9 2587 1102 -1,0 0,3
Male 46 1,87 53,5 2463
LRP Female 54 1,54 48,6 2624 1139 -0,8 0,5
Male 46 1,73 52,8 2427
CCE Female 54 2,00 52,8 2853 1116 -0,9 0,4
Male 46 1,86 47,8 2197
Independen Samples Tes (Pa ame ic)
Dependen Va iable Independen Va iable N X
F Tes
SD P
SUS-TAS Female 54 1,86 0 -0,445 98 0,7
Male 46 1,89
X
: A i hme ic mean
F: Signi icance be ween g oups (F- alue)
T: Tes
U: Mann-Whi ney U
Z: S anda d sco e (Z-sco e)
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   281
Acco ding o Table 6, he LEP (P = 0.30), PSC (P = 0.37), CI (P = 0.85),
VS (P = 0.19), and LRP (P = 0.15) ac o s did no exhibi s a is ically signi ican
di e ences ac oss age g oups. Howe e , signi ican di e ences we e iden i ied
in he LP (P = 0.04) and CCE (P = 0.02) ac o s based on pa icipan s’ age
g oups. To de e mine which speci ic age g oups con ibu ed o hese di e ences,
pos -hoc analyses we e conduc ed o bo h he LP and CCE a iables.
Gi en ha he LP and CCE ac o s displayed non-pa ame ic dis ibu ions,
Tamhane’s T2 pos -hoc es was employed o mul iple g oup compa isons. The
analysis e ealed a signi ican di e ence be ween he 18–24 and 35–44 age
g oups o he CCE ac o (P = 0.028). In con as , no signi ican di e ences
we e obse ed be ween age g oups in he LEP ac o . Simila ly, o he o e all
SUS-TAS sco e (P = 0.28), no s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e ound
ac oss age g oups.
288   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
One-way analysis o a iance (Pa ame ic)
Dependen
Va iable
Independen
Va iable X
SS N Sum o
Squa es SD Mean o
Squa es P
SUS-TAS
No Income 2,03 0,33 22
0,842 4 0,211 0,19
1-8.500 ₺ 1,87 0,24 25
8.501-15.000 ₺ 1,76 0,40 22
15.001-35.000 ₺ 1,84 0,40 27
35.001 ₺ and o e 1,93 0,76 4
4. Discussion and Conclusion
The LEP (Long-Te m En i onmen al Planning) ac o comp ises 12
s a emen s and accoun s o app oxima ely 25% o he o al a iance in he
s udy. The C onbach’s alpha coe icien o his ac o was calcula ed as 0.887,
indica ing a high le el o in e nal eliabili y. When compa ing he esponses o
women (X
 = 1.47) and men (X
 = 1.52), no s a is ically signi ican di e ence
was obse ed, despi e he ac o exhibi ing a ia ion ac oss demog aphic
s uc u es. These esul s sugges ha bo h emale and male pa icipan s possess
a compa able le el o awa eness ega ding long- e m en i onmen al planning in
he ou ism sec o .
Howe e , a signi ican di e ence was ound be ween public sec o
employees and s uden s (P = 0.01). While he mean sco es o public pe sonnel
and o he occupa ional g oups we e ela i ely simila , he esponses o p i a e
sec o employees and s uden s also displayed close alues. Based on hese
indings, i can be in e ed ha indi iduals employed in he public sec o
and o he occupa ional g oups ha e g ea e expec a ions o sus ainable and
en i onmen ally ocused planning compa ed o hose in he p i a e sec o o
s uden popula ion.
Al hough occupa ional g oups exhibi ed some a ia ion, no s a is ically
signi ican di e ences we e ound ac oss educa ion le els. On he o he hand,
income-based analysis e ealed ha pa icipan s wi h no income (X
 = 1.68) and
hose ea ning 35,001 o mo e (X
 = 1.67) demons a ed ela i ely lowe in e es
and conce n o long- e m en i onmen al planning, compa ed o o he income
g oups in he s udy (1.39 < X
 < 1.48).
The LP (Long-Te m Planning) ac o consis s o six sub-i ems and explains
app oxima ely 9.8% o he o al a iance in he s udy. The eliabili y analysis
o his ac o yielded a C onbach’s alpha o 0.844, indica ing a high le el o
in e nal consis ency. In Bedük’s (2019) s udy, he same six i ems we e g ouped

DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   289
unde he LP ac o as a esul o Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA), suppo ing
he cu en ac o s uc u e. The C onbach’s alpha in ha s udy was 0.903, which
is highe han he eliabili y coe icien ob ained in he p esen s udy. Howe e ,
conside ing he di e ence in sample sizes—457 in Bedük’s s udy compa ed o
100 in he cu en esea ch—i is easonable o p edic ha he eliabili y alue
may inc ease p opo ionally wi h a la ge sample size.
Addi ionally, he C onbach’s alpha alue may a y depending on he
cul u al cha ac e is ics o he egion whe e he esea ch is conduc ed and he
pa icipan s’ in e p e a ion o he su ey i ems. When examining he LP ac o ,
which displayed a dispe sed dis ibu ion, no s a is ically signi ican di e ence
was ound be ween emale pa icipan s (X
 = 1.86) and male pa icipan s (X

= 1.78) (P = 0.4).
Simila ly, Bedük’s (2019) s udy also epo ed no signi ican gende
di e ence ega ding he LP ac o , wi h mean sco es o X
 = 4.74 o women
and X
 = 4.75 o men (P = 0.06). In con as o he gende a iable, a signi ican
di e ence was obse ed ac oss age g oups (P = 0.04). Howe e , pos -hoc analysis
ailed o iden i y which speci ic age g oups accoun ed o his di e ence, as no
s a is ically signi ican pai wise compa ison eme ged. Fu he mo e, a signi ican
di e ence was ound be ween s uden s and o he occupa ional g oups (P =
0.048). Ne e heless, gi en he bo de line p- alues o bo h age and occupa ion
a iables, i can be in e ed ha he esul s may a y wi h a la ge sample size.
The explana o y powe o he PSC (Pe cei ed Social Cos s) ac o was
calcula ed as 7.48%, and i comp ised i e sub-i ems. The eliabili y coe icien
o his ac o was 0.803, indica ing a high le el o in e nal consis ency. When
compa ed o he eliabili y alue epo ed in Akbaş’s (2019) s udy (X
 = 0.711),
he PSC ac o in he cu en s udy demons a es g ea e eliabili y. This sugges s
ha local pa icipan s in he p esen s udy ha e a mo e cohe en and consis en
pe cep ion o social cos s han hose in he p e ious s udy by Akbaş.
Wi h espec o gende , no s a is ically signi ican di e ence was ound
be ween emale (X
 = 2.44) and male pa icipan s (X
 = 2.65) (P = 0.3). These
esul s indica e ha pe cep ions o social cos s among local people do no a y
based on gende . Addi ionally, he pa icipan composi ion in A cıku and
Demi bulu ’s (2016) s udy was simila o ha o he p esen esea ch. Howe e ,
hei s udy did no include any demog aphic cha s o da a ables speci ically
ela ed o he PSC ac o , which limi s di ec compa ison wi h he cu en indings.
The Communi y In ol emen (CI) ac o , as iden i ied h ough Explo a o y
Fac o Analysis (EFA), accoun s o 5.45% o he o al a iance and consis s
290   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
o wo i ems. The C onbach’s alpha coe icien o his ac o was calcula ed
as 0.753, indica ing an accep able le el o in e nal consis ency. In compa ison,
Jeelani e al. (2022) iden i ied ou i ems unde he CI ac o and epo ed a
highe eliabili y coe icien o 0.81. Al hough he numbe o i ems and he
eliabili y sco e in he cu en s udy a e lowe , he esul s emain wi hin an
accep able ange. No ably, he CI ac o indings om Jeelani e al.’s s udy align
mo e closely wi h he TQ ac o esul s in he cu en esea ch.
No s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e obse ed in CI sco es be ween
emale (X
 = 2.94) and male (X
 = 2.83) pa icipan s (P = 0.4). Simila ly, no
signi ican di e ences we e ound ac oss o he demog aphic a iables, including
age, occupa ion, educa ion le el, and income. These indings sugges ha local
communi y pa icipa ion in ou ism is pe cei ed in a ela i ely uni o m and
mode a e manne among indi iduals esiding in T abzon.
As a esul o EFA, he Visi o Sa is ac ion (VS) ac o eme ged om
six i ems o iginally associa ed wi h he “Visi o Sa is ac ion” (VS) and
“Communi y-Cen e ed Economy” (CCE) dimensions o he SUS-TAS scale.
This ac o accoun s o 4.84% o he o al a iance. The eliabili y coe icien
was calcula ed as 0.753, indica ing s ong in e nal consis ency. No signi ican
di e ences we e ound be ween women (X
 = 1.79) and men (X
 = 1.87) (P = 0.3),
no we e he e any s a is ically signi ican di e ences ac oss o he demog aphic
a iables (p > 0.05). The lack o a ia ion may be a ibu ed o egional o
cul u al endencies among he local popula ion o T abzon, such as a p e e ence
o consensus o eluc ance o exp ess c i ical iews.
The Long-Te m Risk Planning (LRP) ac o , which is no p esen in he
o iginal SUS-TAS scale, consis s o wo i ems—one d awn om he Long-Te m
Planning (LP) ac o and one om he En i onmen al Sus ainabili y (ES) ac o .
These i ems sha e a common heme o sus ainable planning and p epa edness
o po en ial isks such as he COVID-19 pandemic. The LRP ac o accoun s o
4.32% o he o al a iance, wi h a C onbach’s alpha alue o 0.617— he lowes
eliabili y sco e among all ac o s in his s udy. While s ill wi hin accep able
limi s, he low eliabili y is likely due o he limi ed numbe o i ems.
Rega ding pa icipan esponses, no signi ican di e ence was ound
be ween women (X
 = 1.54) and men (X
 = 1.73), sugges ing ha bo h
gende s simila ly suppo long- e m and isk-sensi i e planning in ou ism. A
s a is ically signi ican di e ence was obse ed among occupa ional g oups (P =
0.045); howe e , pos -hoc analysis ailed o iden i y speci ic g oup di e ences.
Consequen ly, his esul is in e p e ed as inconclusi e, and no eliable di e ence
be ween occupa ional g oups ega ding he LRP ac o can be con i med.
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   291
The CCE (Communi y-Cen e ed Economy) ac o was de i ed by
combining ou i ems o iginally associa ed wi h he “Communi y-Cen e ed
Economy” (CCE) and “Communi y In ol emen ” (CI) ac o s om he o iginal
scale. The explana o y powe o his ac o was calcula ed as 3.5%. The
C onbach’s alpha alue o he CCE ac o was ound o be 0.767, indica ing
an accep able le el o in e nal consis ency. As wi h he o he six ac o s, no
s a is ically signi ican di e ence was obse ed be ween male and emale
esponden s (P = 0.4).
Howe e , signi ican di e ences we e iden i ied ac oss age g oups
wi hin he PSC (Pe cei ed Social Cos s) ac o . Speci ically, esponses a ied
signi ican ly be ween he 18–24 age g oup (X
 = 2.23) and he 35–44 age
g oup (X
 = 1.64). These esul s sugges ha indi iduals aged 35–44 in he
local communi y o T abzon a e gene ally mo e suppo i e o employmen
oppo uni ies ela ed o glamping ou ism, whe eas hose aged 18–24 exhibi
mo e hesi a ion and ambi alence.
Compa ing he ac o s and i ems iden i ied in his s udy wi h exis ing
li e a u e is c ucial. The p esen s udy yielded se en ac o s and 37 i ems
ollowing Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA). In he li e a u e, he numbe and
s uc u e o ac o s and i ems a y conside ably. Fo ins ance, Bedük (2019)
iden i ied six ac o s and 39 i ems; Pamukçu e al. (2023) epo ed i e ac o s
and 21 i ems; and Ayazla (2017) ou lined se en ac o s and 23 i ems. These
di e ences highligh ha ac o s uc u es and i em composi ions can a y
depending on he egion whe e he s udy is conduc ed, he cul u al con ex o he
pa icipan s, egional u ili a ian cha ac e is ics, and le els o public awa eness.
Consequen ly, he applica ion o he SUS-TAS scale in di e se geog aphic
and cul u al con ex s enhances he scale’s adap abili y, con ibu es o i s
e inemen , and suppo s i s b oade gene alizabili y.
In he s udy conduc ed among local esiden s o T abzon, pa icipan s
gene ally esponded wi h “Disag ee” o “Undecided” o i ems wi hin he
Communi y In ol emen (CI) and Pe cei ed Social Cos s (PSC) ac o s. These
esponses indica e ha local esiden s do no ully suppo he idea o in ol ing
e e y indi idual in he communi y in ou ism- ela ed ac i i ies. No ably, an
undesi able pe cep ion eme ged among pa icipan s, pa icula ly in ela ion o
he s a emen s p esen ed unde he CI ac o .
This pe cep ion appea s o s em om he ph asing o ce ain i ems ha
may ha e been misin e p e ed. Speci ically, one i em in he CI ac o could be
pe cei ed as ad oca ing o he in ol emen o all local esiden s in ou ism,
which may no align wi h pa icipan s’ iews. In con as , in Bedük’s (2019)
292   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
s udy, esponses o he CI ac o p edominan ly anged be ween “Ag ee”
and “S ongly Ag ee,” suppo ing he in e p e a ion ha i em wo ding can
signi ican ly in luence pe cep ion.
Rega ding he PSC ac o , indings sugges ha pa icipan s belie ed
ou ism con ibu es o en i onmen al deg ada ion, nega i ely impac s he
quali y o li e o local esiden s, and leads o undesi able c owding in he ci y.
Howe e , mos pa icipan s esponded wi h “Undecided” o hese s a emen s,
indica ing unce ain y o ambi alence.
A no able excep ion was ound among pa icipan s aged 25–34, who ended
o disag ee wi h he PSC i ems o ga e esponses leaning owa d “Undecided.”
When compa ed o Bedük’s (2019) s udy, whe e pa icipan s s ongly ag eed
wi h PSC s a emen s, i can be in e ed ha he ph asing o he PSC i ems
in he p esen s udy may ha e been pe cei ed as ambiguous. Consequen ly,
pa icipan s may ha e esponded based on hei indi idual awa eness le els and
unde s anding o ou ism impac s.
The indings o he s udy indica e ha while local communi ies alue long-
e m en i onmen al planning, hei unde s anding o sus ainabili y in ou ism
emains unde de eloped. The analysis highligh s a need o solu ion-o ien ed
app oaches ocusing on sus ainabili y and local pa icipa ion. Fu u e s udies
a e encou aged o examine pos -COVID-19 ou ism ends in g ea e dep h and
o p omo e inc eased engagemen om ou ism businesses in such esea ch
e o s. The esul s also unde sco e he necessi y o es ablishing sus ainabili y-
ocused policies wi hin he ou ism sec o and de eloping s a egies o ensu e
mo e ac i e in ol emen o local communi ies.
The s udy u he concludes ha he demand o sa e aca ion expe iences
and he empo a y suspension o ou ism ac i i ies du ing he pandemic ha e
heigh ened he public’s longing o na u e and na u al en i onmen s. I was
ound ha awa eness o glamping ou ism is pa icula ly low among local
esiden s, wi h he concep o en mispe cei ed as me ely “weekend ge aways
in bungalow houses.” In e es in glamping ou ism in he T abzon egion has
no kep pace wi h i s global pos -pandemic ise, which may be a ibu ed o
a gene al lack o amilia i y wi h na u e-based o al e na i e ou ism models.
This limi ed awa eness may also be in luenced by he egion’s geog aphical
cha ac e is ics and he exis ing spa ial dis ibu ion o u al housing, which
al eady o e s physical dis ancing ad an ages.
In he ace o u u e isks such as pandemics, i is essen ial o au ho i ies
o implemen mo e e ec i e c isis managemen s a egies and o de elop
app op ia e planning amewo ks and p o ocols. Ensu ing coope a ion be ween
DETERMINING LOCAL PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS GLAMPING TOURISM   293
he s a e, socie y, and he ou ism sec o will be c i ical in sus aining li e wi hou
comp omising na u al esou ces du ing pe iods o unce ain y.
4.1.Theo e icalimplica ions
This s udy o e s o iginal con ibu ions o he sus ainable ou ism li e a u e
by examining glamping ou ism wi hin a unique con ex ual amewo k. No ably,
i is among he i s o explo e local communi y a i udes owa d glamping
ou ism h ough he lens o sus ainable ou ism, pa icula ly in esponse o shi s
in ou is beha io b ough abou by he COVID-19 pandemic. The SUS-TAS
scale employed in he esea ch was adap ed speci ically o add ess COVID-
19 and glamping- ela ed dimensions, inco po a ing a ange o indica o s such
as sus ainabili y, pe cei ed social cos s, communi y pa icipa ion, long- e m
planning, and economic bene i s. This adap a ion p o ides a heo e ical example
o he con ex ual lexibili y and scalabili y o exis ing measu emen ools.
Fu he mo e, a ia ions in pa icipan s’ demog aphic cha ac e is ics
con ibu e o a nuanced heo e ical unde s anding o how sus ainable ou ism
is pe cei ed a he communi y le el. In his ega d, he s udy emphasizes he
impo ance o ein e p e ing sus ainabili y heo ies in localized con ex s and
econ igu ing hem in ligh o eme ging global isks, such as pandemics.
4.2.P ac icalimplica ions
The esea ch indings indica e ha al hough glamping ou ism has eme ged
as a p ominen and sa e al e na i e ou ism model in he pos -COVID-19 pe iod,
i emains insu icien ly ecognized by local communi ies, wi h awa eness le els
no ably low. This si ua ion holds impo an implica ions o local go e nmen s,
planne s, and ou ism ope a o s.
Fi s and o emos , in o de o glamping ou ism o be emb aced by local
esiden s, comp ehensi e in o ma ion dissemina ion, educa ion, and awa eness-
aising ini ia i es should be implemen ed. Enhancing local pa icipa ion in
sus ainable ou ism planning is essen ial, and such pa icipa ion should be
ins i u ionalized a bo h poli ical and adminis a i e le els.
Fu he mo e, he indings unde sco e he necessi y o p io i izing long-
e m en i onmen al planning in ou ism- ela ed in es men s and highligh he
impo ance o suppo ing hese in es men s h ough social cos -bene i analyses.
Planning glamping ini ia i es in alignmen wi h sus ainabili y p inciples and
ecological ha mony is conside ed a s a egic app oach o enhancing he ou ism
sec o ’s esilience in imes o c isis.

294   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
4.3.Limi a ionsand u u e esea chdi ec ions
The p ima y limi a ion o his s udy is i s geog aphically es ic ed sample,
which is con ined solely o he p o ince o T abzon. This limi a ion cons ains
he gene alizabili y o he indings o o he egions o Tu key o o popula ions
wi h di e en socio-cul u al backg ounds. Mo eo e , he s udy’s ela i ely
small sample size (N = 100) may ha e limi ed he abili y o de ec s a is ically
signi ican di e ences—pa icula ly in ela ion o demog aphic a iables.
Addi ionally, pa icipan s’ limi ed amilia i y wi h glamping ou ism likely
con ibu ed o indecisi e o low-awa eness esponses in ce ain sub-dimensions.
This ac o should be aken in o accoun when in e p e ing he s udy’s esul s.
Se e al ecommenda ions can be made o u u e esea ch. Fi s , quali a i e
s udies in ol ing indi iduals wi h di ec expe ience in glamping ou ism, as well
as ou ism p o essionals, could yield mo e in-dep h insigh s in o his ou ism
model. Compa a i e s udies ac oss di e se geog aphical egions, pa icula ly
hose di e en ia ing be ween u al and u ban con ex s, would help o b oaden
he unde s anding o glamping ou ism’s pe cep ual e ec s on local popula ions.
Fu he mo e, longi udinal esea ch designs a e ecommended o in es iga e he
long- e m impac s o a iables such as sus ainabili y, disas e p epa edness,
and communi y pa icipa ion on he de elopmen and accep ance o glamping
ou ism.
Acknowledgemen
*This s udy was p oduced om he mas e ’s hesis i led “COVID-19
Salgını Son ası Ye el Halk e Tu izm İşle mele inin Glamping Tu izmine
Yönelik Yaklaşımla ının Beli lenmesi: T abzon İli Ö neği”
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304   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
We conduc ed ou s udy in Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k, is i s decla ed
na u e pa k in A in. I is loca ed a he dis ic bo de o Bo çka in he no heas e n
Tu kish p o ince, A in. The dis ance o he na u e pa k o he dis ic cen e and
o he p o ince cen e is app oxima ely 25 and 58 kilome e s, espec i ely. The e
a e also illage se lemen s close o he na u e pa k (Figu e 1).
ϰ

Figu e 1: The Loca ion o he S udy A ea
Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k was decla ed a Na u e Pa k h ough he
MPG.MP.1.45.17/438 numbe ed Minis e ial App o al, da ed o Augus 14,
2002, due o i s esou ce- alued lake ecosys em, biological di e si y
equi ing p ese a ion, and i s unique landscape cha ac e . Bo çka Ka agöl
Na u e Pa k has an a ea o 368 hec a es. The lake wi hin he na u e pa k
co e s an app oxima e a ea o 9 hec a es. Bo çka Ka agöl is su ounded by
a ious old ees which could be conside ed o ha e monumen al alue. The
na u e pa k has ich ege a ion and animal di e si y, in addi ion, he ed-
scaled ou species peculia o he local a ea eside in he lake. Since he
egion is on he mig a ion ou e o p eda o y bi ds, i is possible o obse e
p eda o y bi ds in he a ea. Lynxes, g izzly bea s, hook-ho ned moun ain
goa s, hazel hens and p eda o y bi ds a e p esen in he lake su oundings
and in he o es s. The su oundings o he lake, which is in luenced by
hea y ain all and high le els o ela i e humidi y, p esen s he
cha ac e is ics o a ain o es ecosys em wi h i s i gin ege a ion (Gene al
Di ec o a e o Na u e Conse a ion and Na ional Pa ks, 2016).
Walking pa hs, scene y spo s, picnic a eas and a eas a ailable o en
camping we e p o ided a ound he lake (Figu e 2).
Figu e 1: The Loca ion o he S udy A ea
Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k was decla ed a Na u e Pa k h ough he MPG.
MP.1.45.17/438 numbe ed Minis e ial App o al, da ed o Augus 14, 2002, due
o i s esou ce- alued lake ecosys em, biological di e si y equi ing p ese a ion,
and i s unique landscape cha ac e . Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k has an a ea o
368 hec a es. The lake wi hin he na u e pa k co e s an app oxima e a ea o 9
hec a es. Bo çka Ka agöl is su ounded by a ious old ees which could be
conside ed o ha e monumen al alue. The na u e pa k has ich ege a ion and
animal di e si y, in addi ion, he ed-scaled ou species peculia o he local
a ea eside in he lake. Since he egion is on he mig a ion ou e o p eda o y
bi ds, i is possible o obse e p eda o y bi ds in he a ea. Lynxes, g izzly bea s,
hook-ho ned moun ain goa s, hazel hens and p eda o y bi ds a e p esen in he
lake su oundings and in he o es s. The su oundings o he lake, which is
in luenced by hea y ain all and high le els o ela i e humidi y, p esen s he
cha ac e is ics o a ain o es ecosys em wi h i s i gin ege a ion (Gene al
Di ec o a e o Na u e Conse a ion and Na ional Pa ks, 2016).
Walking pa hs, scene y spo s, picnic a eas and a eas a ailable o en
camping we e p o ided a ound he lake (Figu e 2).

A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . .   305
Figu e 2: Map o he Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k
In he na u e pa k, i is possible o wa ch uniquely beau i ul scenes due o
he mi o e ec o he lake. Especially du ing he au umn, many isi o s isi
he pa k o obse e he colo ha mony (Figu e 3). The na u e pa k has isi o
po en ial h oughou ou seasons. I is a li ing s udio o di e en pho o shoo s.
Figu e 3. Au umn Colo s in The Na u e Pa k
Bo çka Ka agol Na u e Pa k has he cha ac e is ic o a ec ea ional a ea
wi h an annually inc easing isi o po en ial. The numbe o isi o s in he a ea
was 38606 in 2015, 64418 in 2016 and 89100 in 2017, 99265 in 2018, 121977
in 2019, 120300 in 2020 and 108628 in 2021 acco ding o he da a ob ained
om A in B anch o he 12 h Regional Di ec o a e o Na u e Conse a ion and
Na ional Pa ks. Al hough he numbe o isi o s has dec eased a li le due o he
Co id-19 pandemic, he numbe o isi o s has inc eased e e y yea .
306   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
2.2.Me hod
Consis en wi h he objec i e o he p esen s udy, an a emp was made
o de e mine he esou ce alue o he Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k case in
e ms o na u e-based ou ism. The me hod o he s udy was s uc u ed a ound
a ques ionnai e o m, cons uc ed o classi y and e alua e he esou ces unde
wo ca ego ies. These wo ca ego ies include a ac ions and accessibili y.
The a ac ions ca ego y is classi ied unde 5 sub-ca ego ies, namely, he
esou ce alue, in as uc u e suppo , na u e-based ac i i ies suppo , le el o
en i onmen al deg ada ion and clima e. The accessibili y ca ego y is classi ied
unde 3 sub-ca ego ies, namely, he oad ype, ehicle ype and es ima ed
dis ance o he illage (Table 1). These sub-ca ego ies we e o med by combining
he pa ame e s used in p e ious s udies (P iskin, 2001; He nández-Mo cillo e
al., 2013; Rahayuningsih e al, 2016; Fossga d and F edman, 2019; Hong and
Saizen, 2019; Fa ías-To bidoni and Ba ić, 2020; Syamsudin e al., 2020; Yuxi
and Linsheng, 2020).
The ques ionnai e was applied o a pa icipan g oup o 23 expe s
om di e en p o essional disciplines. 5 pa icipan s o he g oup we e
landscape a chi ec s, 8 we e o es enginee s (ecologis s, eco ou ism expe s,
en omologis s, sil icul u e depa men membe s), 3 we e geog aphe s, 4 we e
ou ism p o essionals and 3 we e adminis a o s. All pa icipan s know he a ea
e y well and isi he a ea a leas wice a yea . Pa icipan s we e asked o gi e
sco es o each pa ame e be ween 1 and 7 acco ding o he scale below, wi h
espec o hei a ailabili y in he a ea.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
low mode a e high
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . .   307
Table 1: Ca ego ies and Sub-Ca ego ies Used in Ques ionnai e
Ca ego ies Sub-ca ego ies Value
ATTRACTIONS
Resou ce alue
Posi i e (+)
lo al di e si y,
a ia ion o al i ude (low land-high moun ain),
a ia ion o slope ( la - e y s ep),
cul u al a ac ion,
wa e body,
geological ea u es,
cul u al-his o ical he i age,
ag icul u al ac i i ies,
ocky coas line-cli s,
scenic di e si y ( is as)
In as uc u e
oile acili ies,
Posi i e (+)
picnic ables
oun ain
sea s-benches
se ice building
secu i y
access o disabled
ba becue
ubbish bins
shades (pe gola, gazebo e c.)
ligh ing uni s
Na u e-based ac i i ies suppo
hiking/ ekking,
Posi i e (+)
bi dwa ching,
pho og aphing,
camping,
moun ain climbing
wildli e wa ching,
esea ch/educa ion,
ca ing
hack
skiing
picnic,
ex eme spo s (moun ain biking, pa agliding e c.)
aqua ics ( a ing, boa ing, di ing, kayaking,
windsu ing e c.)
308   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Le el o en i onmen al deg ada ion
was es
Nega i e (-)
disease (insec s e c.)
impac o i e
buil s uc u es ( unnels, b idges e c.)
ampling o ege a ion
exo ic o in asi e species
e osion/ landslides
Clima e alue
empe a u e
ela i e humidi y
wind speed Posi i e (+)
ACCESSIBILITY
Road ype (no oad, acks/pa hway, pa emen ,
asphal )
Posi i e (+)
Vehicle ype (no ca access, mo o less ehicle
(bicycle e c.), ou -wheel d i e, wo-wheel d i e,
minibus, all)
Es ima ed dis ance o illage (0-5 km, 6-10 km,
11-15 km, 16-20 km, >20 km)
The ques ionnai e du a ion was app oxima ely 7 minu es o one
pa icipan . In he p esen s udy, he esea che s sco ed only he pa ame e s
unde he clima e alue. The clima e alue ca ego y was sco ed wi h espec o
he bioclima ic com o c i e ia o indi iduals, including empe a u e: 17-24.9
°C, ela i e humidi y: 30-65 and wind speed: 0-5 m/sn (Olgyay, 1973). Clima e
da a was ob ained om he Gene al Di ec o a e o Me eo ology. Sco e 1 was
gi en o he alues below and abo e hese le els and sco e 7 was gi en o each
pa ame e when he alue was wi hin he abo emen ioned anges.
2.2.1.Da aanalysis
NBT a ac ions and ac i i ies ha e been indica ed as sa is ying wellness-
seeking mo i es o ou is s, highligh ing he ole na u e plays in enhancing
subjec i e wellbeing (Pyo e al., 1989; Kim e al., 2015; Lück and Aquino,
2021). A ac ion is conside ed as he majo capi al in ou ism ac i i y
ope a ion (Rahayuningsih e al., 2016). People will choose space wi h speci ic
cha ac e is ics o na u e ou ism ac i i ies. (Yuxi and Linshen, 2020). In na u e-
based ou ism, he aes he ic expe ience is he co e elemen , and con ibu es o
ou is loyal y (Zhang and Xua, 2020). The e o e, he weigh o a ac ion was
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . .   309
de e mined as 60%. Accessibili y is a signi ican ac o o suppo in he ou ism
indus y (Rahayuningsih e al., 2016), he e o e he weigh ed alue o his
ca ego y was conside ed as 40%. The alue o sui abili y was calcula ed wi h
he o mula below.
VSNBT= VA (VR+VIS+VNBAS+ VC-VLED).0,6+VAc.0,4
VSNBT= Sui abili y o na u e-based ou ism alue; VA= A ac ion alue;
VR= Resou ce alue; VIS= In as uc u e suppo alue; VNBAS= Na u e-based
ac i i y suppo ; VC= Clima e alue; VLED= Value o le el o en i onmen al
deg ada ion; VAC= Value o accessibili y.
In he ca ego izing he da a ob ained om he ques ionnai e, he lowes
alue (-4.2) was sub ac ed om he highes alue (163.8) achie ed ia he
pa ame e e alua ion and he emaining alue was di ided o 5 o conduc he
e alua ion unde i e ca ego ies, hence he ollowing scale was ob ained:
The deg ees o sui abili y we e e alua ed unde i e-poin Like ype
scale.
1 2 3 4 5
No sui able a all No e y sui able Neu al Somewha sui able Highly sui able
3. Resul s and Discussion
P ese ed landscapes and a eas a e po en ial zones o he de elopmen
o eco ou ism due o hei biodi e si y, ex ao dina y landscape cha ac e is ics,
na u al esou ces and cul u al he i age o local communi ies. Such landscapes
include in e es ing geog aphical o ma ions, landscapes, cool mic oclima ic
condi ions, wa e esou ces, plan di e si y, animals and hei na u al habi a s,
na u al beau y, local oods, es i als, pagean s, adi ional ag icul u al s uc u e,
local handc a s, egional clo hing cul u e, adi ional music, olk dances, a
ac i i ies, a chaeological and/o his o ical monumen s, e c. (Lane, 1993; Ge y,
2001; D zewiecki, 2001; B iassoulis, 2002; Mlyna czyk, 2002; Ca ibog-Sinha
and Wen, 2008; Kipe , 2013; Acıksoz e al., 2016). Chen e al. (2017) s a ed
ha he ou is p e e ences e ol ed in o a desi e o es ablish a mo e di ec
communica ion wi h na u e and en i onmen in he de eloped ou is egions
such as Eu ope and he new aca ion models p esen ed a g ow h due o an
inc easing in e es in local adi ions, olklo e and esou ces.
Con a y o he mass ou ism, which acili a es sun, sand and sea as he
sole sou ce o ou ism, eco ou ism o na u e-based ou ism ac i i ies espond
o he desi es o indi iduals o pa icipa e in ou s o di e en pu poses such as
elaxa ion, explo a ion, and lea ning, escaping o na u e and dis ancing onesel

310   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
om he ou ine o e e yday li e. These ac i i ies also cons i u e he majo axis
o sus ainable ou ism (Alaeddinoglu and Can, 2011). Hanna e al., (2019) and
Buckley, (2020) indica ed ha communing wi h he na u al en i onmen induces
indi iduals o e hink hei ela ionship wi h na u e, achie e cla i y o ou look in
li e, and change hei wo ld iews (Lück and Aquino, 2021).
De e mina ion o he sui abili y o he esou ce alues and a eas o he
di e si ica ion o na u e-based ou ism becomes a signi ican issue o ensu e he
sus ainabili y o na u e-based ou ism a eas wi hin he balance o p ese a ion-
u iliza ion. The e o e, wi hin he p esen s udy, a checklis was de eloped o
de e mine he sui able a eas o na u e-based ou ism. P eceden s udies we e
e iewed p io o he de elopmen o his checklis . Fo ins ance, P iskin
(2001) conduc ed an e alua ion unde pa ame e s such as a ac ions, access,
in as uc u e suppo and le el o en i onmen al deg ada ion. F edman and
Ty äinen (2010) s a ed ha he exis ence o se ices and in as uc u e (eg,
shops, supplies, pa king, local public anspo ) desc ibed he ou ism demand.
Jozi e al. (2010) used he slope, dis ance om he habi a s, dis ance om he
main oads, geology and land capaci y pa ame e s o e alua e ec ea ional
sui abili y o hei esea ch a ea. Bun uamkaew and Mu ayam (2011) desc ibed
he isibili y, land use/co e , p ese a ion, di e si y o species, heigh , slope,
p oximi y o cul u al a eas, dis ance o oads and se lemen size as he c i e ia
se , wi h espec o he opinions o he p o essional expe s, o assess he
sui abili y o he a ea o eco ou ism. In addi ion, Rahayuningsih e al. (2016)
e alua ed he a ac ion (landscape a ia ion wi h espec o land co e , objec
a ia ion wi h espec o ou ism objec dis ibu ion, esou ce uniqueness wi h
espec o land co e and objec dis ibu ion, esou ce sensi i i y wi h espec
o alue, scene y wi h espec o land co e and objec s dis ibu ion, ou ism
ac i i y al e na i es wi h espec o land co e and objec s dis ibu ion, changes
in al i ude and changes in slope) and accessibili y (p edic ion o he dis ance
be ween he illage and he cen e o sub-dis ic ) pa ame e s. Fossga d and
F edman (2019) iden i ied a comp ehensi e amewo k o equi emen s,
ca ego ized along six dimensions (adap ing o gues s’ needs, access o
esou ces, expe ience acili a ion, isk managemen , c owding managemen
and connec ion o place) which desc ibes he ela ions be ween na u e-based
ou ism expe iences and associa ed esou ces in na u e. Hong and Saizen
(2019) p oposed h ee c i e ia (a ac ion, accessibili y, and adap a ion) o he
assessmen o he sui abili y o ou ism de elopmen . Syamsudin e al. (2020)
pe o med da a analysis in hei s udy by sco ing he esul o c i e ia assessmen
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . .   311
in he o m o ou is a ac ion, accessibili y and socio-economic communi y
a ound he ou is a ac ion. Yuxi and Linsheng (2020) used eigh indica o s
(na u alness, wa e p oximi y, p o ec ed a ea p oximi y, landscape di e si y,
ege a ion co e age, al i ude sui abili y, elie sui abili y and clima e com o )
o calcula e he Landscape A ac i eness Index and ound ha mo e han 50%
o he s udy a eas ha e a alue o landscape a ac i eness, indica ing a high
na u e-based ou ism de elopmen po en ial.
A ac i e landscape is he mos signi ican pa ame e ha in luences
he a el des ina ion choice and ou doo ec ea ion (Ty äinen e al., 2017).
Obse a ions o he ou is s on hei su oundings a e o en associa ed wi h he
aes he ic ac o s and na u al beau y (Sch oede , 2002; Ty äinen e al., 2008;
Ba oso e al., 2012). The e o e, in a ious s udies (Ty äinen e al., 2001;
Ty äinen e al., 2008, B own and Raymond, 2007) i was emphasized ha
landscape was he key a ac ion ac o o na u e-based ou ism (Ty äinen e
al., 2017).
As p e iously men ioned in he me hodology sec ion o he p esen s udy,
a ques ionnai e was ca ied ou including he main opics de e mined based on
he li e a u e e iew, namely, esou ce alue, in as uc u e p o ision, na u e-
based ac i i ies/ acili ies, en i onmen al deg ada ion, clima e and accessibili y.
Hu and Ri chie (1993) indica ed ha clima e and na u al beau y we e
“uni e sally impo an ” in desc ibing he a ac i eness o a des ina ion (de
U ios e-S one e al., 2016). Gössling e al. (2012) s a ed ha clima e condi ions
can a ec he ou is ’s enjoymen o a des ina ion. Dube and Nhamo (2020) ha e
been ound ha ex eme empe a u es, especially du ing ce ain mon hs cause
challenges o a ia ion in he a ea, h ea ening o dis up ou is mo emen s
bo h in o and ou o he a ea. Rez ani e al. (2022) indica ed ha clima e has an
indispensable ole due o i s con ibu ion in shaping na u al en i onmen .
Once he clima e da a ob ained om he Gene al Di ec o a e o Me eo ology
was examined, i was de e mined ha he a e age ela i e humidi y alue o
he a ea was 73.6%, a e age empe a u e was 13.68°C and he a e age wind
speed was 2.44 m/sn acco ding o he long- e m a e ages. In his espec , he
empe a u e and humidi y we e sco ed wi h 1 poin , and he wind speed was
sco ed as 7 poin s.
The sui abili y o he s udy a ea o na u e-based ou ism was es ed
consis en ly wi h he ob ained classi ica ion. Bo çka Ka agöl Na u e Pa k was
de e mined o ha e a somewha sui abili y (VSNBT= 90.02) o na u e-based
ou ism wi h espec o he o mula de ined in he me hodology sec ion.
312   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Fo each pa ame e alue, he maximum alue ha he a ea could hold
was ound o be 70 o esou ce alue, 77 o in as uc u e p o ision, 91 o
na u e-based ac i i ies/ acili ies, 49(-) o en i onmen al deg ada ion, and 21 o
accessibili y. Once all pa icipan esponses we e e alua ed, i was possible o
asse ha Ka agöl Na u e Pa k was ound o be ich in e ms o esou ce alues
(46.86), in e media e in e ms o in as uc u e (41.3), ich in e ms o na u e-
based ac i i ies and had low le els o en i onmen al deg ada ion (-19.17). In
addi ion, he a ea was e alua ed as highly sui able wi h espec o accessibili y
(18.65) (Figu e 4).
ϭϭ

Figu e 4: Mean Values o he Pa ame e s o The E alua ion o All
Pa icipan Responses
Wi hin he scope o he s udy a ea, he mos e ec i e pa ame e s in
e ms o esou ce alues we e de e mined o be he p esence o wa e (151),
landscape di e si y (149) and ege a i e di e si y (146), wi h a maximum
alue o 161, espec i ely.In e ms o he in as uc u e, i was de e mined
ha he lack o disabled access (62), ligh ing uni s (72) and secu i y (77)
pa ame e s a ec ed he po en ial o he a ea.In e ms o na u e-based
ac i i ies, i has been obse ed ha he a ea allows pho og aphy (150),
picnics (145) and hiking/ ekking (137) has an impac on ou ism po en ial.
Al hough he e is no much en i onmen al deg ada ion in he a ea, i has
been de e mined ha he pa ame e s ha inc ease his nega i e impac in he
a ea a e ga bage / was e (83), e osion / landslide a eas (77) and s uc u al
elemen s (74).The si e has high accessibili y in e ms o accessibili y. The
accessibili y o he si e by all ypes o ehicles (149), i s app op ia e pa ing
(130) and he ac ha i is no a om he nea es esiden ial a ea (140)
ha e inc eased i s accessibili y alue.
P iskin (2001) de e mined 65 po en ial esou ce a eas o na u e-based
ou ism in his s udy ocusing on he Cen al Coas Region o Wes e n
Aus alia. I was de e mined ha a ac ion di e si y in he egion was high,
howe e he sou ces we e ound o be associa ed wi h poo accessibili y, low
le els o ou ism in as uc u e, and mode a e le els o en i onmen al
deg ada ion. Alaeddinoglu and Can (2011) ound ha he a ac ion po en ial
o hei s udy a ea was a a sa is ac o y le el o he ips o he egion and
ha he a ea had a low le el o en i onmen al deg ada ion, which was
conside ed signi ican by na u e-based ou is s. As a esul o spa ial analysis
and e alua ion o ou ism esou ces, Rahayuningsih e al. (2016) s a ed ha
he a eas ecommended o na u e-based ou ism we e he uni s o he Bogo
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Resou ce alue In as uc u e Na u e-based
ac i i ies/ acili ies
En i onmen al
deg eda ion
Accessibili y
Sui abili y Values
E alua ion Ca ego ies
Figu e 4: Mean Values o he Pa ame e s o The E alua ion o
All Pa icipan Responses
Wi hin he scope o he s udy a ea, he mos e ec i e pa ame e s in e ms
o esou ce alues we e de e mined o be he p esence o wa e (151), landscape
di e si y (149) and ege a i e di e si y (146), wi h a maximum alue o 161,
espec i ely. In e ms o he in as uc u e, i was de e mined ha he lack o
disabled access (62), ligh ing uni s (72) and secu i y (77) pa ame e s a ec ed
he po en ial o he a ea. In e ms o na u e-based ac i i ies, i has been obse ed
ha he a ea allows pho og aphy (150), picnics (145) and hiking/ ekking (137)
has an impac on ou ism po en ial. Al hough he e is no much en i onmen al
deg ada ion in he a ea, i has been de e mined ha he pa ame e s ha inc ease
his nega i e impac in he a ea a e ga bage / was e (83), e osion / landslide
a eas (77) and s uc u al elemen s (74). The si e has high accessibili y in e ms
o accessibili y. The accessibili y o he si e by all ypes o ehicles (149), i s
app op ia e pa ing (130) and he ac ha i is no a om he nea es esiden ial
a ea (140) ha e inc eased i s accessibili y alue.
A METHOD TO DETERMINE THE NATURE-BASED TOURISM AREAS WITHIN THE . . .   313
P iskin (2001) de e mined 65 po en ial esou ce a eas o na u e-based
ou ism in his s udy ocusing on he Cen al Coas Region o Wes e n Aus alia.
I was de e mined ha a ac ion di e si y in he egion was high, howe e
he sou ces we e ound o be associa ed wi h poo accessibili y, low le els
o ou ism in as uc u e, and mode a e le els o en i onmen al deg ada ion.
Alaeddinoglu and Can (2011) ound ha he a ac ion po en ial o hei s udy
a ea was a a sa is ac o y le el o he ips o he egion and ha he a ea had
a low le el o en i onmen al deg ada ion, which was conside ed signi ican by
na u e-based ou is s. As a esul o spa ial analysis and e alua ion o ou ism
esou ces, Rahayuningsih e al. (2016) s a ed ha he a eas ecommended o
na u e-based ou ism we e he uni s o he Bogo Dis ic and Municipali y,
which had high esou ces and high accessibili y. In he p esen s udy, i
was de e mined ha he esou ce alue o he na u e pa k was high, he
en i onmen al deg ada ion was low, and he accessibili y pa ame e o he
a ea was high. Howe e , he p esen s udy was s uc u ed a ound he concep
ha he pa ame e s, which we e u ilized in de e mining he sui abili y o he
a ea o na u e-based ou ism, we e he pa s ha cons i u ed he whole, and
sui abili y was es ed acco dingly.
I is possible o asse ha he esponses ha he pa icipan g oups
p o ided o he ques ionnai e we e commonly pa allel o each o he . Fo
ins ance, he esponse sco es ega ding he esou ce alues we e dis ibu ed
be ween 41.33 and 50.33, o he adminis a o s and geog aphe s, espec i ely.
Howe e , ega ding he esponses ega ding in as uc u e, i is possible o
asse ha he adminis a o s e alua ed he p esence o he ela ed pa ame e s
mo e posi i ely. I was de e mined ha he sco es o in as uc u e p o ision
we e dis ibu ed be ween 31 and 64, o landscape a chi ec s and adminis a o s,
espec i ely (Figu e 5).
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325
CHAPTER XIII
SHINRIN YOKU PHILOSOPHY AND THE
HEALING ROLE OF NATURE IN URBAN
LANDSCAPE DESIGN
Bilgenu AK1
1 (Assis an P o esso ), Kı ıkkale Uni e si y,
Facul y o Fine A s, Depa men o Landscape A chi ec u e,
Kı ıkkale, Tü kiye. e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
O chid: 0000-0002-3060-4361
1. In oduc ion
In he ace o apid u baniza ion and he inc easing psychological and
physiological p essu es o ci y li e, he es o a i e po en ial o na u e has
become a cen al conce n o esea che s, planne s, designe s and public
heal h p o essionals alike. Among he mos compelling na u e-based app oaches,
Shin in-yoku—a Japanese e m meaning “ o es ba hing” —has eme ged as a
holis ic and e idence-based p ac ice ha p omo es men al and physical well-
being h ough imme si e and mind ul engagemen wi h na u al en i onmen s.
Coined in 1982 by Tomohide Akiyama, hen Di ec o -Gene al o Japan’s
Minis y o Ag icul u e, Fo es y and Fishe ies, Shin in-yoku was de eloped
as pa o a na ional ini ia i e o econnec people wi h na u e and p omo e
p e en i e heal hca e in he ace o inc easing u ban s esso s (Li, 2018).
Roo ed in bo h adi ional Japanese philosophies and mode n ecological
science, Shin in-yoku encou ages indi iduals o in e ac consciously wi h o es
se ings h ough hei senses, he eby educing s ess, enhancing mood, lowe ing
blood p essu e, and s eng hening immune unc ions (Mo i a e al., 2007; Pa k e
al., 2010; Song e al., 2017). Physiological s udies ha e demons a ed ha such
expe iences ac i a e he pa asympa he ic ne ous sys em, suppo ing emo ional
egula ion and psychological esilience (Ochiai e al., 2015). These indings
align wi h b oade public heal h s a egies seeking sus ainable and non-in asi e
means o enhancing u ban well-being (Hansen e al., 2017; Nilsson e al., 2011).

326   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Shin in-yoku, howe e , is no limi ed o o es con ex s alone. I s
unde lying philosophy—cen ed on he healing powe o na u e and human-
na u e econnec ion—has signi ican implica ions o u ban landscape design.
Especially in apidly g owing and inc easingly conc e e-domina ed ci ies,
oppo uni ies o meaning ul na u e con ac a e diminished, leading o aliena ion
om he na u al wo ld and associa ed men al heal h issues. The in eg a ion o
Shin in-yoku p inciples in o u ban spaces o e s a way o es o e his bond,
c ea ing g een in as uc u e ha suppo s biodi e si y while in i ing slow,
imme si e, and senso ial expe iences o na u e.
U ban applica ion o Shin in-yoku sugges s a e hinking o public space
design— ans o ming pa ks, g eenways, and s ee scapes in o he apeu ic
landscapes. Key s a egies include he inco po a ion o biophilic design
p inciples, such as na i e plan ing schemes, o ganic o ms, mul isenso y
expe iences, wa e ea u es, and ma e ials ha e oke na u al ex u es. Such
en i onmen s can os e emo ional calm, educe u ban s ess, and enhance he
o e all quali y o li e o ci y esiden s.
This esea ch explo es how he philosophy o Shin in-yoku can in o m he
design o heal hie and mo e sus ainable u ban en i onmen s. I aims o examine
he me hods by which u ban esiden s can e-es ablish hei connec ion wi h
na u e, and how landscape a chi ec u e can be ins umen al in acili a ing his
healing p ocess. Th ough design s a egies and in e disciplina y insigh s, he
chap e seeks o con ibu e o he discou se on na u e-in eg a ed u ban heal h,
o e ing p ac ical and heo e ical amewo ks o implemen ing Shin in-yoku
p inciples in he con empo a y ci y.
2. The Philosophy o Shin in-yoku and Landscape A chi ec u e
Shin in-yoku is a li e philosophy and heal h p ac ice ha seeks o
e-es ablish he connec ion be ween indi iduals and na u e h ough senso y
awa eness. O igina ing in Japan, his app oach suppo s indi idual well-being
while p omo ing a sus ainable and espec ul ela ionship wi h he na u al
en i onmen (Kaba -Zinn, 2005; Tsune sugu e al., 2010). Inc easing scien i ic
e idence ega ding he psychological and physiological bene i s o na u al
elemen s has ans o med Shin in-yoku in o a signi ican design pa adigm
wi hin he discipline o landscape a chi ec u e, pa icula ly a he u ban scale.
Con empo a y landscape a chi ec u e is shaped by conce ns o aes he ics
and unc ionali y, alongside goals ela ed o human heal h, social well-being,
and ecological in eg i y. Shin in-yoku p inciples o e p ac ical s a egies o
SHINRIN YOKU PHILOSOPHY AND THE HEALING ROLE OF NATURE IN URBAN . . .   327
wea ing na u e back in o u ban en i onmen s. Resea ch has shown ha g een
a eas can lowe s ess, ease a en ion a igue, and enhance cogni i e pe o mance
(Be man e al., 2008). The emphasis in Shin in-yoku on “slowness” and “senso y
pe cep ion” places on landscape a chi ec s he esponsibili y o c ea ing spaces
ha p o ide physical access as well as expe ien ial dep h.
F om a design pe spec i e, his app oach can be ma e ialized h ough
elemen s such as mul i-laye ed ege a ion, he use o na u al ma e ials, and
senso y-s imula ing componen s along walking pa hs—including sound, scen ,
and ac ile ex u es. Soo hing ea u es inspi ed by Japanese ga den adi ions,
such as shaded s uc u es, s one ga dens, and wa e elemen s, may be adap ed
o he mode n u ban ab ic o c ea e en i onmen s aligned wi h Shin in-yoku
p inciples (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989).
Biophilic design s a egies in u ban con ex s also es ablish a s ong
connec ion wi h he Shin in-yoku philosophy. Kelle and Calab ese (2015)
emphasize ha biophilic design is no limi ed o isual ep esen a ions o na u e
bu aims o c ea e expe iences ha in eg a e na u al sys ems beha io ally and
pe cep ually. In his ega d, Shin in-yoku is no only a heal h p ac ice bu also
an e hical amewo k ha con ibu es o a human-cen e ed and na u e-sensi i e
ans o ma ion o landscape a chi ec u e.
U ban designs inspi ed by Shin in-yoku demons a e ha g een
in as uc u e can deli e mo e han en i onmen al se ices; i can also p o ide
emo ional es o a ion, men al cla i y, and s onge social bonds (Ty äinen e al.,
2014). Fo his eason, landscape a chi ec s mus conside no jus he physical
o m o space bu he quali y o he human–na u e ela ionships i suppo s.
As emphasized by F ancesc Mi alles and Héc o Ga cía in hei book
Shin in Yoku: The Japanese A o Fo es Ba hing, i is no necessa y o physically
isi a o es o p ac ice o es ba hing. U ban open g een spaces wi h dense
ee co e —such as pa ks—o e en he in oduc ion o indoo plan s in o li ing
spaces can se e as meaning ul s a ing poin s o Shin in-yoku. The au ho s
ad oca e ha , o he p o ec ion o bo h men al and physical heal h, indi iduals
should engage in o es ba hing a leas once a week. Howe e , in oday’s ci ies,
he pace and cons ain s o me opoli an li e o en make weekly isi s o o es ed
a eas imp ac ical o many u ban dwelle s.
This eali y unde sco es he impo ance o landscape a chi ec u e. U ban
g een spaces inspi ed by Shin in-yoku should be concei ed no me ely as
ec ea ional ameni ies, bu as he apeu ic landscapes designed o acili a e
es o a i e na u e expe iences. T ee-lined pa hs, sea ing a eas wi h balanced
328   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
ligh and shade, a oma ic plan ing in mic o-landscapes, and he use o na u al
ma e ials in spa ial layou s can b ing elemen s o o es ba hing in o he hea
o he ci y.
Ul ima ely, landscape a chi ec s s and as pi o al agen s in shaping heal h-
o ien ed, sus ainable u ban li ing— ansla ing he p inciples o Shin in-yoku
in o angible spa ial expe iences ha s eng hen he human–na u e connec ion.
3. Ba ie s and Oppo uni ies o Implemen ing Shin in-yoku in
U ban En i onmen s
The implemen a ion o Shin in-yoku in u ban con ex s p esen s a ange o
spa ial and en i onmen al limi a ions, while also o e ing signi ican oppo uni ies
o heal h-o ien ed and sus ainable u ban planning. One o he mos c i ical
s uc u al limi a ions lies in he insu icien alloca ion o g een space wi hin
municipal zoning and land-use plans. In many ci y cen es, whe e land alues
a e high and u ban densi y is ex eme, mas e plans end o p io i ise esiden ial,
comme cial, and in as uc u al de elopmen o e ecological ne wo ks o
es o a i e public spaces (Jim, 2004). As a esul , he c ea ion o p ese a ion
o biodi e se landscapes—essen ial o he senso y imme sion cha ac e is ic
o o es ba hing—is o en o e looked. Mo eo e , he low a io o g een
space s ipula ed in zoning egula ions u he exace ba es he spa ial sca ci y,
pa icula ly in a eas ha a guably need es o a i e en i onmen s he mos .
This p oblem is compounded by socio-en i onmen al inequi ies, whe e
disad an aged neighbou hoods o en su e om a lack o walkable g een a eas
and une en ee canopy co e age, e lec ing a b oade phenomenon o u ban
o es inequi y. Addi ionally, he s uc u al compac ness o ci ies limi s he space
a ailable o ma u e ege a ion, wa e ea u es, and o he landscape elemen s
i al o an au hen ic Shin in-yoku expe ience (Picke e al., 2011). Complica ing
ma e s u he , u ban en i onmen s a e equen ly pollu ed by a ic noise and
ai bo ne con aminan s, bo h o which can diminish he psychological bene i s
ypically associa ed wi h na u e exposu e. Las ly, he e emains a esea ch gap in
in e disciplina y s udies ha add ess how Shin in-yoku can be e ec i ely adap ed
o u ban con ex s; mos empi ical wo k s ill ocuses on u al o pe i-u ban o es
se ings, limi ing i s applicabili y in dense ci yscapes (Hansen e al., 2017).
In esponse o hese cons ain s, con empo a y u ban design p ac ices
inc easingly emphasise e ical and oo op g een in as uc u e as a p ac ical
and scalable solu ion. G een oo s and ele a ed ga dens o e iable al e na i es
o in eg a ing o es -like mic o-landscapes in o highly buil -up u ban co es
SHINRIN YOKU PHILOSOPHY AND THE HEALING ROLE OF NATURE IN URBAN . . .   329
whe e g ound-le el g een spaces a e ei he absen o inaccessible (Obe ndo e
e al., 2007). When designed wi h mul i-laye ed ege a ion, na u al ex u es,
wa e elemen s, and a oma ic plan s, hese spaces can emula e he mul isenso y
and he apeu ic quali ies o Shin in-yoku. Mo eo e , by inco po a ing such
s a egies in o u ban design guidelines, zoning codes, and building egula ions,
ci ies can ins i u ionalise he de elopmen o es o a i e g een in as uc u e.
Roo ops, balconies, cou ya ds, and o he unde u ilised u ban su aces can be
epu posed as he apeu ic mic o-en i onmen s, enhancing ecological esilience
while simul aneously imp o ing public heal h and emo ional wellbeing
(T igue oMas e al., 2020)
Despi e he ba ie s, he inc easing global ocus on na u e-based heal h
in e en ions p esen s p omising oppo uni ies. G owing awa eness o he
ole o g een in as uc u e in p e en ing non-communicable diseases has led
o he posi ioning o u ban na u e as c i ical heal h in as uc u e. Agains his
backd op, Shin in-yoku is gaining ecogni ion as a low-cos , non-pha maceu ical
in e en ion o s ess educ ion and immune sys em enhancemen —e en
wi hin cons ained u ban pa ks (Gius i e al., 2025). Recen empi ical e idence
demons a es ha e en b ie , o es inspi ed expe iences in u ban g een spaces can
yield measu able bene i s. Fo example, Hun e e al. (2019) showed signi ican
educ ions in sali a y co isol ollowing sho ou doo na u e expe iences.
Me edi h e al. (2020) u he es ablished a minimum “na u e dose” wi h men al
heal h bene i s. Hedblom e al. (2019) ound ha mul isenso y exposu e o
i ual g een en i onmen s educes physiological s ess. Meanwhile, A ajo
e al. (2024) p o ide obus epidemiological e idence linking highe ee co e
o imp o ed men al heal h ou comes a he neighbou hood scale. Technological
inno a ions such as i ual eali y-based o es en i onmen s and mul isenso y
ins alla ions also expand he po en ial each o Shin in-yoku, o e ing es o a i e
expe iences o indi iduals wi h limi ed mobili y o access o physical g een
spaces (Takayama e al., 2022). Addi ionally, global policy amewo ks—such
as he WHO’s u ban heal h a ge s o 2030—a e now p io i ising equi able
access o g een spaces, empowe ing planne s and designe s o embed Shin in-
yoku p inciples in u u e-p oo , inclusi e u ban en i onmen s (WHO, 2016).
The applicabili y o he Shin in-yoku philosophy in u ban en i onmen s
equi es a mul ilaye ed ans o ma ion ha goes beyond he me e c ea ion
o g een spaces. Exis ing physical and s uc u al limi a ions—such as spa ial
cons ain s, en i onmen al inequali ies, and inadequa e planning policies—pose
signi ican challenges. Howe e , he g owing ecogni ion o na u e-based heal h
336   LANDSCAPE RESEARCH V
Kyo o, Japonya – A ashiyama Bamboo G o e
The A ashiyama Bamboo G o e in Kyo o, Japan, is one o he mos iconic
examples o a Shin in-yoku-compa ible landscape, blending cul u al symbolism
wi h senso y imme sion (Figu e 4). Though no o icially designa ed as a
“ he apeu ic o es ,” he si e o e s a na u ally s uc u ed expe ience ha embodies
he co e p inciples o o es ba hing: slowness, s illness, and heigh ened senso y
awa eness. Visi o s walking h ough he na ow pa hs lanked by owe ing
Phyllos achys edulis (moso bamboo) expe ience an in e play o il e ed ligh ,
so mo emen , and he dis inc soundscape o us ling bamboo lea es—an
e ec o mally ecognised as psychologically calming (Song e al., 2017).
The Japanese Minis y o En i onmen has iden i ied bamboo o es s
such as A ashiyama as possessing Shin in-yoku quali ies, pa icula ly in hei
abili y o educe blood p essu e and co isol le els h ough isual and audi o y
s imula ion (Pa k e al., 2010). Addi ionally, he A ashiyama g o e bene i s om
minimal isual pollu ion and a consis en walking hy hm c ea ed by na ow,
winding ails—a spa ial ypology conduci e o medi a i e walking and mind ul
b ea hing. Cul u al in e p e a ion boa ds along he ou e enhance cogni i e
engagemen wi hou in e up ing he embodied expe ience o na u e.
This si e ep esen s an exempla y blend o ecological design, he i age
landscape conse a ion, and he apeu ic unc ionali y. Al hough isi ed by la ge
numbe s o ou is s, A ashiyama emains a model o how cul u ally embedded
g een spaces can unc ion as accessible o es ba hing en i onmen s, se ing
dense u ban– u al in e aces as exempla y es o a i e landscapes.
These in e na ional examples demons a e ha e en in dense ci y
cen es, he p inciples o Shin in-yoku can be applied h ough lush plan ing,
he in eg a ion o wa e ea u es, he use o na u al ma e ials, he c ea ion o
o ganic pa hways, and he p o ision o uni e sally accessible g een spaces—
deli e ing bo h ecological and he apeu ic unc ions ha signi ican ly enhance
u ban quali y o li e.

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