ISSN 3028-1261
10.5281/zenodo.17308711/NIJSE.2025
Ex Pos Fac o Analysis o C ea i i y and C i ical Thinking in
Rela ion o En ep eneu ial Skill in Foods and Nu i ion as
Pe cei ed by Teache s among Junio High School Lea ne s
Eme son John C. Rose e
Abs ac . This s udy examined he e ec s o c ea i i y and engagemen on en ep eneu ial
skills among junio high school lea ne s in he con ex o Foods and Nu i ion. Using a quan i-
a i e app oach, a Two-Way ANOVA was conduc ed o de e mine whe he a ying le els o
c ea i i y and engagemen , indi idually and in combina ion, signi ican ly in luenced s uden s’
in e p e i e pe o mance. The s udy in ol ed 134 s uden pa icipan s, ca ego ized based on
hei le els o c ea i i y and engagemen . Resul s e ealed no s a is ically signi ican main
e ec s o c ea i i y o engagemen on in e p e a ion skills. Fu he mo e, he in e ac ion e ec
be ween he wo a iables was also non-signi ican . Le ene’s Tes indica ed a iola ion o he
assump ion o homogenei y o a iances wa an ing cau ious in e p e a ion o esul s. Despi e
he lack o signi ican indings, he s udy o e s implica ions o ins uc ional design and cu -
iculum de elopmen . I ecommends inco po a ing c i ical hinking and sca olded ins uc ion
o enhance in e p e a ion skills. Fu u e esea ch is encou aged o explo e addi ional a iables
such as eading p o iciency, mo i a ion, and ins uc ional con ex . The indings con ibu e o
he g owing discou se on cogni i e and beha io al p edic o s o s uden pe o mance in applied
academic subjec s.
KEY WORDS
1. C ea i i y 2. Engagemen 3. En ep eneu ial Skills 4. Two-Way
ANOVA 5. Foods and Nu i ion 6. Junio High School
Da e Recei ed: Augus 15, 2025 — Da e Re iewed: Sep embe 20, 2025 — Da e Published: Oc obe
10, 2025
1. In oduc ion
The ocus on en ep eneu ial skills in ed-
uca ion unde sco es he impo ance o p epa -
ing junio high s uden s wi h i al compe en-
cies o h i ing in he compe i i e job ma -
ke , pa icula ly in he Foods and Nu i ion sec-
o . None heless, challenges in cul i a ing hese
skills s em om he insu icien inco po a ion
o en ep eneu ial p inciples in o he cu icu-
lum, which ends o p io i ize heo e ical knowl-
edge o e hands-on p ac ice. This gap be ween
academic lea ning and applicable skills unde -
mines en ep eneu ial achie emen s. Limi ed e-
sou ces es ic expe ien ial lea ning, cu ailing
c ea i i y and na owing s uden s’ comp ehen-
sion o he complexi ies in ol ed in ood- ela ed
businesses. Socio-economic ac o s exace ba e
hese challenges, as unde p i ileged s uden s
equen ly lack access o en ep eneu ial ole
models and p ac ical expe iences, aising issues
ega ding educa ional ai ness. A majo in e na-
NIJSE (2025) -
ional issue is he gap in educa ional esou ces
be ween de eloped and de eloping na ions. In
nume ous de eloping coun ies, schools e-
quen ly lack he necessa y in as uc u e and
unding o es ablish e ec i e en ep eneu ship
p og ams. This sho all limi s s uden s’ ex-
posu e o p ac ical lea ning oppo uni ies ha
nu u e c ea i i y and c i ical hinking, hinde -
ing hei abili y o acqui e he en ep eneu ial
skills essen ial o success in a global econ-
omy (Slagel,e .al., 2022). A signi ican conce n
is he swi echnological p og ess in luencing
he ood indus y. S uden s ace a landscape
ma ked by inno a ions in ood p oduc ion, p o-
cessing, and dis ibu ion. Ye , many educa ion
sys ems ha e s uggled o adap , leading o a
cu iculum ha o e looks he c i ical oles o
digi al li e acy and ech-d i en en ep eneu ship
in Foods and Nu i ion. Consequen ly, g adu-
a es may lack essen ial skills o u ilize echnol-
ogy e ec i ely in hei en ep eneu ial e o s,
limi ing hei chances o success in a g owing
digi al ma ke (Chake and Dellagi, 2023). Fu -
he mo e, inc easing wo ies abou ood secu-
i y and sus ainabili y a e eme ging wo ldwide.
S uden s equen ly lack he necessa y p epa-
a ion o con on hese u gen issues h ough
en ep eneu ship in he ood indus y. Nume -
ous educa ional p og ams ail o emphasize he
impo ance o ins uc ing s uden s on sus ain-
able p ac ices and he e hical consequences o
ood p oduc ion and consump ion. This o e -
sigh could hinde s uden s om c ea ing inno-
a i e solu ions o essen ial global p oblems like
ood was e, access o nu i ious op ions, and en-
i onmen ally sus ainable p ac ices (En iquez,
e .al., 2024). A majo challenge in he Philip-
pines is he une en dis ibu ion o educa ional
esou ces among egions. Nume ous schools,
pa icula ly in u al a eas, do no ha e adequa e
acili ies, equipmen , and ma e ials o suppo
e ec i e en ep eneu ship p og ams. This lack
o esou ces limi s s uden s’ oppo uni ies o
hands-on lea ning expe iences ha encou age
c ea i i y and c i ical hinking, hinde ing hei
abili y o cul i a e he en ep eneu ial skills es-
sen ial o success in bo h local and global ma -
ke s (Almulla, 2023). A signi ican challenge
in he Philippines is he ou da ed cu iculum,
which equen ly ails o ma ch cu en indus-
y ends. While he Depa men o Educa-
ion’s K-12 p og am has made imp o emen s
by inco po a ing en ep eneu ship componen s,
many eache s migh no be su icien ly ained
o con ey hese lessons e ec i ely. As a esul ,
s uden s could g adua e lacking a ho ough un-
de s anding o mode n ood p oduc ion, ma ke -
ing, and business managemen p ac ices, which
es ic s hei abili y o na iga e he complexi-
ies o he ood indus y. This gap be ween wha
is augh and eal-wo ld applica ions can im-
pede s uden s’ eadiness o seize en ep eneu ial
oppo uni ies in Foods and Nu i ion (Rosales,
e .al., 2023). Mo eo e , he Philippines con-
on s conside able obs acles ega ding ood se-
cu i y and sus ainabili y, wo sened by ac o s
like po e y and clima e change. S uden s e-
quen ly lack he necessa y p epa a ion o ackle
hese u gen issues h ough en ep eneu ship in
he ood indus y. Nume ous educa ional p o-
g ams ail o emphasize he signi icance o edu-
ca ing s uden s on sus ainable ag icul u al p ac-
ices, nu i ion, and he e hical consequences o
ood p oduc ion and consump ion. This o e -
sigh may hinde s uden s om c ea ing inno-
a i e solu ions ha could help esol e i al na-
ional challenges, such as enhancing ood access
and os e ing en i onmen ally sus ainable p ac-
ices (La in, 2023). In he San Isid o No h Dis-
ic o Da ao O ien al, junio high school s u-
den s ace signi ican challenges in de eloping
en ep eneu ial skills in Foods and Nu i ion. A
majo p oblem is he limi ed a ailabili y o qual-
i y educa ional esou ces and acili ies. Many
local schools g apple wi h insu icien unding,
which es ic s hei capaci y o p o ide nec-
essa y ma e ials and equipmen o hands-on
lea ning expe iences. Consequen ly, s uden s
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equen ly miss ou on p ac ical oppo uni ies
o engage wi h ood p epa a ion, nu i ion, and
business managemen —essen ial a eas o nu -
u ing c ea i i y and c i ical hinking. Addi ion-
ally, he sho age o ained educa o s capable
o e ec i ely eaching en ep eneu ial concep s
u he complica es he si ua ion, lea ing s u-
den s unp epa ed o handle he in icacies o
he ood indus y. This s udy aims o explo e
how os e ing c ea i i y and c i ical hinking
can add ess hese challenges in he San Isid o
No h Dis ic and con ibu e o de eloping a
mo e en ep eneu ial mindse among s uden s,
be e equipping hem o u u e oppo uni ies
in he ood sec o .
2. Re iew o Rela ed Li e a u e
2.0.1. C ea i i y—C ea i i y is cen al o
en ep eneu ial compe ence in ood and nu i-
ion, enabling lea ne s o gene a e no el solu-
ions, inno a e in p oduc de elopmen , and
adap o ma ke demands (Lydon e al., 2023).
Teache s’ con idence and p o essional suppo
a e i al in deli e ing ood and nu i ion cu -
icula e ec i ely (Tam e al., 2023). C ea i e
s a egies, such as expe ien ial lea ning and
p ac ical wo kshops, enhance ood skills, con-
idence, and heal hie decision-making, hough
gende di e ences in ou comes exis (Lydon e
al., 2023). S udies u he s ess aligning in-
s uc ion wi h eal-wo ld needs h ough cu icu-
la e o ms, aining, and imp o ed labo a o y
access (Lano-Maduagu Ogbonna, 2023). Cul-
u al alues and cogni i e s yles may inhibi
c ea i i y, as seen in Hong Kong, while p og es-
si e sca olding in culina y educa ion os e s
c ea i i y ac oss s uden yea le els (Tam e al.,
2023; Thim hong e al., 2024).
2.0.2. O iginali y—O iginali y s eng h-
ens en ep eneu ial skills by os e ing unique
ecipes, p oduc s, and business ideas ha ad-
d ess ma ke gaps. I builds con idence and
inno a ion capaci y, allowing s uden s o h i e
in compe i i e en i onmen s (Tam e al., 2023).
S uc u al and cul u al ac o s, howe e , may e-
s ic o iginali y, equi ing ailo ed educa ional
e o ms.
2.0.3. P oblem-Sol ing—P oblem-
sol ing enables s uden s o add ess ood sa e y,
die a y needs, and consume ends h ough
c ea i e, esilien s a egies. Collabo a i e p o-
g ams like Le ’s Ea Heal hy link ood access
wi h nu i ion educa ion o build equi y and
skills (Rosales e al., 2023). C ea i i y and c i -
ical hinking join ly enhance p oblem-sol ing,
which posi i ely in luences academic success
(Almulla, 2023). Design hinking app oaches
also signi ican ly boos c ea i i y and p oblem-
sol ing capaci ies (Guaman-Quin anilla e al.,
2023).
2.0.4. Elabo a ion—Elabo a ion deepens
en ep eneu ial skills by encou aging s uden s
o expand basic ideas in o ma ke - eady p od-
uc s and s a egies. Nu i ion campaigns like
MyPla e highligh ba ie s such as a o dabil-
i y and cul u al ac o s in luencing ood access
(Loiacono e al., 2023). In eg a ing ag icul-
u al educa ion u he suppo s ood secu i y
and economic de elopmen (Nju a e al., 2021).
S udies also show ha college s uden s’ die a y
beha io s a e shaped by belie s, social dynam-
ics, and ins i u ional con ex s, s essing he need
o holis ic nu i ion educa ion (Bi machu Hei-
delbe ge , 2023).
2.0.5. C i ical Thinking—C i ical hinking
equips s uden s o analyze da a, assess ma ke
ends, and make sus ainable, e hical decisions.
Ac i e lea ning and p oblem-based app oaches
os e hese skills bu ace challenges in imple-
men a ion (Becke e al., 2024). Inclusi e nu i-
ion educa ion equi es cul u al esponsi eness,
beyond ansla ion, o engage di e se commu-
ni ies (F anck e al., 2024). School ini ia i es
like CHEFS imp o e nu i ion h ough collabo-
a i e, locally d i en in e en ions (Langne e
al., 2024).
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2.0.6. Analy ical Skills—Analy ical skills
suppo c i ical hinking by helping s uden s
e alua e nu i ional con en , ma ke gaps, and
consume needs. Resea ch shows s ong links
be ween analy ical skills, c i ical hinking, and
s uden pe o mance, wi h eal-wo ld p oblem-
based lea ning enhancing ou comes (Demi ,
2022; U ami, 2023).
2.0.7. E alua ion o E idence—The abil-
i y o assess e idence sha pens decision-making
in ood and nu i ion en ep eneu ship. Au-
hen ic lea ning app oaches encou age balanced
e alua ion o claims and build scien i ic li e -
acy (Jin e al., 2023). Cogni i e lexibili y and
c i ical hinking also mi iga e he e ec s o e al-
ua i e ea s on mo i a ion (Top ak e al., 2024).
2.0.8. Reasoned Decision-Making—
Sound decision-making allows en ep eneu s o
weigh op ions, manage isks, and plan s a e-
gically. S udies emphasize ha c i ical hink-
ing disposi ions and decision-making s yles
s ongly p edic p oblem-sol ing skills (O han,
2022). In e disciplina y eaching ini ia i es
also highligh how hands-on, na a i e-based
ins uc ion os e s s uden engagemen and
decision-making capaci y (Kamel-ElSayed Uh-
ley, 2024).
2.0.9. En ep eneu ial Skills in Foods and
Nu i ion—En ep eneu ial success in ood and
nu i ion equi es c ea i i y, inancial li e acy,
ma ke awa eness, and p oblem-sol ing. Food
li e acy—pa icula ly cooking skills—is posi-
i ely linked o heal hie ea ing beha io s in
adolescen s and young adul s (En iquez e al.,
2024). In e en ions such as ood li e acy p o-
g ams and cooking wo kshops imp o e nu i-
ion, heal h, and sel -e icacy (Lee e al., 2021).
2.0.10. Inno a ion and Ma ke Awa e-
ness—Inno a ion enables en ep eneu s o de-
sign unique p oduc s, adop sus ainable p ac-
ices, and emain compe i i e (Oli ei a Ca -
doso, 2021). P oblem-based lea ning os-
e s in e disciplina y collabo a ion, while en-
ep eneu ship p og ams show gende di e -
ences: gi ls o en excel in collabo a ion and
c ea i i y, bu boys epo highe sel -e icacy,
sugges ing he need o gende - esponsi e ap-
p oaches (Ro ni sky e al., 2024). Ma ke awa e-
ness equips s uden s o unde s and ends, con-
sume needs, and p icing s a egies, allowing
hem o adap o indus y changes and capi alize
on oppo uni ies (En iquez e al., 2024).
2.0.11. Financial Li e acy—Financial li -
e acy unde pins en ep eneu ship by guiding
budge ing, cos managemen , and p o i abili y
analysis. P og ams ha in eg a e nu i ion ed-
uca ion wi h p oduce p esc ip ions imp o e i-
nancial and ood esou ce managemen in low-
income communi ies (Slagel e al., 2022). S ud-
ies also highligh he combined ole o c ea i i y,
en ep eneu ial mindse , and inancial li e acy
in os e ing en ep eneu ial in en ion among s u-
den s (Chake Dellagi, 2023).
2.1. Syn hesis—The combina ion o c e-
a i i y, o iginali y, p oblem-sol ing skills, elab-
o a ion, c i ical hinking, analy ical abili ies, e -
idence e alua ion, logical decision-making, in-
no a ion, ma ke awa eness, and inancial li e -
acy c ea es a holis ic amewo k o de eloping
en ep eneu ial skills in ood and nu i ion. C e-
a i i y is he base o gene a ing dis inc ideas
and s a egies, while o iginali y helps di e en-
ia e hese concep s in a compe i i e landscape.
P oblem-sol ing skills and elabo a ion enhance
s uden s’ capaci ies, enabling hem o ackle
challenges and c ea e comp ehensi e, ac ion-
able plans. C i ical hinking, along wi h i s com-
ponen s analy ical abili ies, e idence e alua ion,
and logical decision-making, empowe s s u-
den s o make well-in o med choices g ounded
in ho ough analysis and easoning. Inno a-
ion acili a es he c ea ion o no el p oduc s
and p ac ices ha sa is y e ol ing consume
needs, whe eas ma ke awa eness allows en-
ep eneu s o g asp indus y ends and con-
sume desi es. Las ly, inancial li e acy gi es
s uden s he c ucial skills o manage esou ces
wisely, ensu ing hey make in o med decisions
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o p omo e business sus ainabili y and g ow h.
Collec i ely, hese in e ela ed concep s cul i-
a e a s ong en ep eneu ial mindse , p epa ing
s uden s o excel in he dynamic ood and nu i-
ion sec o and ul ima ely suppo ing hei suc-
cess as u u e en ep eneu s. In eg a ing hese
en ep eneu ial skills in o ood and nu i ion ed-
uca ion no only enhances academic lea ning
bu also equips s uden s wi h eal-wo ld com-
pe encies ha a e essen ial o u u e success.
By engaging in hands-on p ojec s, case s ud-
ies, and expe ien ial lea ning oppo uni ies, s u-
den s can apply hei knowledge in simula ed o
ac ual business en i onmen s, such as school-
based en e p ises o communi y ood ini ia i es.
These expe iences os e a deepe unde s and-
ing o how o launch and manage ood- ela ed
en u es, including p oduc de elopmen , ma -
ke ing, budge ing, and cus ome se ice. Addi-
ionally, hey p omo e collabo a ion and leade -
ship, encou aging s uden s o wo k e ec i ely
in eams, communica e ideas pe suasi ely, and
adap o eedback. As global ood sys ems con-
inue o e ol e in esponse o heal h, en i on-
men al, and economic challenges, he abili y o
inno a e and lead wi h a s ong e hical and en-
ep eneu ial ounda ion becomes inc easingly
i al. Educa o s, he e o e, play a key ole in
cul i a ing hese compe encies, ensu ing ha
he nex gene a ion o ood and nu i ion p o-
essionals a e no only knowledgeable bu also
p oac i e, adap i e, and socially esponsible en-
ep eneu s.
2.2. Theo e ical / Concep ual F amewo k
—This s udy is based on Cons uc i is Lea n-
ing Theo y, which asse s ha lea ne s ac i ely
build knowledge h ough hei expe iences and
in e ac ions wi h he en i onmen . I highligh s
he signi icance o expe ien ial lea ning and e-
lec ion. In ood and nu i ion educa ion, con-
s uc i ism sugges s ha s uden s cul i a e en-
ep eneu ial skills h ough hands-on ac i i ies
like de eloping ecipes, pe o ming ma ke e-
sea ch, and collabo a ing on p ojec s. By en-
gaging p oac i ely in he lea ning expe ience,
s uden s can connec heo e ical concep s o eal-
wo ld applica ions, enhancing hei unde s and-
ing and e en ion o knowledge (Tam, e .al.,
2023). The Social Cogni i e Theo y enhances
he cons uc i is amewo k by emphasizing
how obse a ional lea ning and social in e ac-
ions aid skill de elopmen . This heo y posi s
ha s uden s lea n no jus om di ec expe i-
ences bu also by wa ching pee s and men o s.
In he ealm o ood and nu i ion, his migh
mean s uden s obse e success ul en ep eneu s,
ake pa in g oup discussions, and engage in
collabo a i e p ojec s ha encou age inno a ion
and p oblem-sol ing. Fu he mo e, he ocus
on sel -e icacy in he Social Cogni i e The-
o y highligh s how c ucial s uden s’ belie s in
hei en ep eneu ial success a e, which can be
bols e ed h ough posi i e eedback and sup-
po om eache s and classma es (Thim hong,
e .al., 2024). The En ep eneu ial Educa ion
F amewo k aligns wi h his s udy’s goals by
ou lining key componen s necessa y o de-
eloping en ep eneu ial compe encies, includ-
ing c ea i i y, c i ical hinking, ma ke awa e-
ness, and inancial li e acy. This amewo k
p o ides a s uc u ed app oach o in eg a ing
hese skills in o he cu iculum, guiding edu-
ca o s in designing e ec i e lea ning expe i-
ences ha p omo e he en ep eneu ial mind-
se among s uden s (Guaman-Quin anilla, e .al.,
2023). In his s udy, he in e ac ion be ween he
independen a iables (IVs) c ea i i y, c i ical
hinking, and hei speci ic indica o s such as
o iginali y, p oblem-sol ing abili y, analy ical
skills, and elabo a ion and he dependen a i-
able (DV) o en ep eneu ial skills in ood and
nu i ion e eals a dynamic ela ionship ha is
c ucial o os e ing e ec i e en ep eneu ship
among junio high school s uden s. The heo ies
p esen ed, pa icula ly Cons uc i is Lea ning
Theo y and Social Cogni i e Theo y, p o ide a
obus amewo k o unde s anding his in e ac-
ion. Acco ding o Cons uc i is Lea ning The-
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Fig. 1. Theo e ical / Concep ual F amewo k o he S udy
o y, s uden s lea n bes when hey ac i ely en-
gage in p oblem-sol ing and c ea i e p ocesses,
allowing hem o cons uc knowledge h ough
expe ience. This engagemen enhances hei
abili y o inno a e and make easoned decisions
in eal-wo ld con ex s, di ec ly impac ing hei
en ep eneu ial skills.
Simul aneously, Social Cogni i e Theo y
emphasizes he impo ance o obse a ional
lea ning and sel -e icacy, sugges ing ha s u-
den s build con idence in hei c ea i e and c i i-
cal hinking abili ies as hey obse e and in e ac
wi h pee s and men o s. This con idence os e s
an en ep eneu ial mindse , enabling s uden s
o na iga e challenges in he ood indus y e -
ec i ely. The in e play be ween he IVs and
he DV highligh s how c ea i i y and c i ical
hinking de elop indi idual compe encies and
con ibu e o a comp ehensi e en ep eneu ial
skill se , aligning wi h he p inciples o hese
educa ional heo ies.
2.3. S a emen o he P oblem —This
s udy aims o examine he ex en o which c e-
a i i y and c i ical hinking in luence he de-
elopmen o en ep eneu ial skills among ju-
nio high school s uden s in he ield o Foods
and Nu i ion. Ancho ed in he p emise ha
bo h cogni i e and inno a i e compe encies con-
ibu e o os e ing an en ep eneu ial mind-
se , his esea ch p o ides empi ical insigh s
o suppo cu iculum enhancemen and policy
e o ms in he Technology and Li elihood Ed-
uca ion (TLE) domain. Speci ically, he s udy
in es iga es he pe cei ed impac o s uden s’
c ea i i y and c i ical hinking skills on hei
en ep eneu ial abili ies, as assessed by junio
high school eache s in San Isid o No h Dis ic ,
Da ao O ien al. The s udy seeks o add ess he
ollowing esea ch ques ions:
(1) Wha is he socio-demog aphic p o ile o he eache - esponden s in e ms o :
(1) Numbe o subjec s handled/being augh ;
(2) Numbe o yea s in eaching in he public school sys em;
(3) RPMS pe o mance a ing o School Yea 2024–2025;
(4) RPMS desc ip i e a ing o School Yea 2024–2025
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(2) W
ha is he e ec o pe cei ed c ea i i y le els on he en ep eneu ial skills o junio high
school s uden s in Foods and Nu i ion?
(3) W
ha is he e ec o pe cei ed c i ical hinking le els on he en ep eneu ial skills o
junio high school s uden s in Foods and Nu i ion?
(4) I
s he e a s a is ically signi ican in e ac ion e ec be ween c ea i i y and c i ical hinking
on he en ep eneu ial skills o junio high school s uden s in Foods and Nu i ion?
(5) D
o s uden s wi h a ying le els o c ea i i y and c i ical hinking exhibi signi ican
di e ences in hei en ep eneu ial skills in Foods and Nu i ion?
2.4. Hypo heses—To es he heo e ical
assump ions and alida e he concep ual model
p oposed in his s udy, he ollowing null hy-
po heses we e o mula ed and es ed a he 0.05
le el o signi icance: (H): The e is no signi -
ican in e ac ion e ec be ween c ea i i y and
c i ical hinking on he en ep eneu ial skills o
junio high school s uden s in Foods and Nu i-
ion. (H): The e is no signi ican di e ence in
he en ep eneu ial skills o junio high school
s uden s when g ouped acco ding o hei le els
o c ea i i y and c i ical hinking. Lea ne s –
The s udy would help lea ne s de elop essen-
ial skills in c ea i i y, c i ical hinking, and en-
ep eneu ship, which a e c ucial o hei pe -
sonal and p o essional g ow h. By ocusing on
Foods and Nu i ion, s uden s would be be e
equipped o pu sue ca ee s in he ood indus-
y, nu i ion, o ela ed ields, inc easing hei
employabili y and en ep eneu ial po en ial. En-
gaging in c ea i e and c i ical hinking ac i i ies
would make lea ning mo e in e ac i e and en-
joyable, os e ing a deepe unde s anding o he
subjec ma e .
Teache s – Teache s would gain insigh s
in o e ec i e s a egies o os e ing c ea i i y
and c i ical hinking in hei class ooms, en-
hancing hei pedagogical skills. The s udy’s
indings can guide eache s in designing mo e
e ec i e lesson plans and assessmen s ha in-
eg a e en ep eneu ial concep s in o Foods and
Nu i ion educa ion. Encou aging collabo a i e
p ojec s can s eng hen eache ne wo ks and
p omo e he sha ing o bes p ac ices among
educa o s.
C ea i i y – I is he in ellec ual skill o p o-
duce o iginal ideas, concep s, o solu ions ha
a e bo h new and use ul. I encompasses no jus
unique hinking bu also he abili y o adap and
me ge exis ing knowledge in inno a i e ways.
In he con ex o s udying how o enhance en-
ep eneu ial skills in Foods and Nu i ion, c e-
a i i y is c ucial as i allows s uden s o c ea e in-
en i e ecipes, de elop dis inc ood p oduc s,
and ackle nu i ional challenges wi h inno a i e
iewpoin s. This s udy seeks o in es iga e how
encou aging c ea i i y in he class oom can im-
p o e lea ne s’ en ep eneu ial skills, enabling
hem o hink c ea i ely, spo ma ke oppo uni-
ies, and add ess eal-wo ld issues in he ood
sec o . By inco po a ing c ea i e hinking in o
he educa ional amewo k, his esea ch os e s
a lea ning en i onmen ha encou ages inno a-
ion and p epa es s uden s o success ul ca ee s
in a compe i i e indus y.
C i ical Thinking – I is a s uc u ed p ocess
o analyzing, syn hesizing, and e alua ing in o -
ma ion o guide decision-making. I in ol es
ques ioning assump ions, assessing e idence,
and d awing logical conclusions. C i ical hink-
ing enables s uden s o assess nu i ional da a,
e alua e ood quali y, and de e mine business
easibili y in he con ex o en ep eneu ial skills
in Food and Nu i ion. This s udy explo es how
s eng hening c i ical hinking enhances s u-
den s’ abili y o make in o med choices, sol e
complex challenges, and espond e ec i ely o
consume demands, ul ima ely os e ing inno-
a ion and esponsible en ep eneu ship in he
ood indus y.
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En ep eneu ial Skills – I is in he ood and
nu i ion ocus on a speci ic se o compe encies
ha empowe indi iduals o ecognize oppo u-
ni ies, inno a e, and deli e alue in he ood
indus y. These skills include ma ke awa eness,
p oduc de elopmen c ea i i y, inancial unde -
s anding, and e ec i e communica ion. In his
s udy, en ep eneu ial skills a e examined as i-
al capabili ies o s uden s o manage he com-
plexi ies o he ood and nu i ion sec o . By
emphasizing he enhancemen o hese skills,
he esea ch aims o explo e how inco po a ing
c ea i i y and c i ical hinking in o he cu icu-
lum can imp o e s uden s’ capaci y o de elop
and launch ood- ela ed en u es. The s udy
in ends o o e insigh s in o how cul i a ing
en ep eneu ial skills can equip lea ne s o suc-
cess ul ca ee s in he ood indus y, allowing
hem o mee ma ke demands, c ea e inno a i e
p oduc s, and con ibu e o he sec o ’s o e all
g ow h.
3. Me hodology
This chap e con ains he p ocesses and s eps o conduc ing he s udy. These include selec ing he
s udy’s design, he esponden s and sampling me hod, he esea ch ins umen s o da a ga he ing,
he p ocedu e, he e hical conside a ions, and he da a analysis. These s eps a e essen ial o ensu e
app op ia eness and co ec ness and p oduce sound da a collec ion, analysis, and in e p e a ion.
3.1. Resea ch Design—The esea ch de-
sign app op ia e o his s udy is a quan i a-
i e, causal-compa a i e design u ilizing a Two-
Way Analysis o Va iance (ANOVA). Causal-
compa a i e esea ch, o ex pos ac o esea ch,
is a non-expe imen al design ha iden i ies
cause-and-e ec ela ionships by compa ing
g oups based on a p ede e mined a iable wi h-
ou manipula ing any a iables (C eswell, 2023).
In his design, he esea che examined exis ing
di e ences among g oups and a emp ed o es-
ablish a cause-e ec ela ionship by analyzing
he e ec s o one o mo e independen a iables
on a dependen a iable (Cohen and Mo ison,
2021). The Two-Way ANOVA is pa icula ly
use ul in his con ex as i allows o he simul a-
neous analysis o wo independen a iables and
hei in e ac ion e ec on a dependen a iable,
p o iding a mo e comp ehensi e unde s and-
ing o he ela ionships a play. This design is
widely used in educa ional esea ch o assess he
in luence o a ious ac o s on educa ional ou -
comes, making i a sui able choice o s udies
aiming o explo e complex, mul i ace ed ela-
ionships. Two-Way ANOVA’s applicabili y in
enhancing en ep eneu ial skills in Foods and
Nu i ion h ough c ea i i y and c i ical hinking
is signi ican o se e al easons. This s a is ical
me hod allows esea che s o examine he e -
ec s o wo independen a iables c ea i i y and
c i ical hinking on a dependen a iable, which
in his case is en ep eneu ial skills. Employing
Two-Way ANOVA, he s udy can analyze he
indi idual e ec s o c ea i i y and c i ical hink-
ing on s uden s’ en ep eneu ial skills and he
in e ac ion e ec s be ween hese wo a iables.
This is pa icula ly impo an in educa ional e-
sea ch, as i ecognizes ha he combined in lu-
ence o c ea i i y and c i ical hinking may yield
di e en ou comes han when conside ed sepa-
a ely. Mo eo e , Two-Way ANOVA acili a es
he explo a ion o how di e en g oups, such
as s uden s om a ious backg ounds o le els
o p io knowledge, espond o c ea i i y and
c i ical hinking in e en ions. This comp ehen-
si e analysis enables educa o s and policymak-
e s o d aw nuanced conclusions abou e ec i e
s a egies o os e ing en ep eneu ial skills, ul-
ima ely con ibu ing o he design o a ge ed
educa ional p og ams ha enhance s uden ou -
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comes in he ield o Foods and Nu i ion.
3.2. E hical Conside a ions —The e hical
conside a ion sec ion o his s udy will add ess
he key p inciples ha ensu e he p o ec ion and
well-being o he eache - esponden s in ol ed.
This includes adhe ing o con iden iali y, in-
o med consen , and he olun a y na u e o
pa icipa ion, ensu ing ha he esea ch is con-
duc ed wi h in eg i y and espec o he igh s
o all esponden s.
Social Value – The s udy on enhancing
en ep eneu ial skills in Foods and Nu i ion
h ough c ea i i y and c i ical hinking holds
signi ican social alue due o i s po en ial pos-
i i e e ec s on indi iduals and communi ies.
By de eloping hese essen ial skills among s u-
den s, we aim o empowe he nex gene a ion
o en ep eneu s who can con ibu e o local
economies and ad oca e o heal hy ea ing p ac-
ices. Fos e ing c ea i i y and c i ical hinking
in he ealm o ood and nu i ion no only p e-
pa es s uden s o success ul ca ee s bu also
inspi es hem o de ise inno a i e solu ions o
u gen socie al challenges, including ood secu-
i y and heal h issues ela ed o nu i ion. Ad-
di ionally, he indings om ou esea ch can
guide educa o s, policymake s, and communi y
leade s in c ea ing p og ams ha bols e sus ain-
able ood p ac ices and en ep eneu ial ini ia-
i es. Ul ima ely, I iew ou s udy as a b idge
be ween educa ion and eal-wo ld applica ion,
p omo ing social esponsibili y and he e hical
g ow h o u u e leade s eady o impac hei
communi ies meaning ully.
In o med Consen and Assen – I acknowl-
edge he necessi y o ob aining in o med con-
sen and assen om all pa icipan s. In o med
consen in ol es sha ing de ailed in o ma ion
abou he s udy’s aims, me hods, po en ial isks,
and ewa ds, making su e pa icipan s com-
ple ely g asp wha hei in ol emen en ails be-
o e hey ag ee o ake pa . I am dedica ed
o clea ly con eying his in o ma ion o bo h
s uden s and hei gua dians, p o iding oppo u-
ni ies o hem o ask ques ions and add ess any
conce ns. Fo younge pa icipan s, I will also
seek assen by explaining he s udy in a way
ha is easy o hem o unde s and, ensu ing
hey eel a ease and eage o pa icipa e. This
wo-p onged app oach hono s he au onomy o
bo h pa icipan s and hei amilies, cul i a ing
an e hical esea ch a mosphe e. By emphasiz-
ing in o med consen and assen , I s i e o up-
hold he alues o espec and in eg i y in my
esea ch, ensu ing pa icipan s eel app ecia ed
and hei igh s a e sa egua ded h oughou he
s udy.
Vulne abili y o Resea ch Responden s – In
my esea ch aimed a enhancing en ep eneu ial
skills in Foods and Nu i ion h ough c ea i i y
and c i ical hinking, I ecognize he ulne abil-
i y o my esponden s, especially since hey a e
mainly junio high school s uden s. This age
g oup is pa icula ly p one o ex e nal p essu es
and may no ully comp ehend he implica ions
o hei in ol emen in esea ch. Acknowledg-
ing his ulne abili y, I am dedica ed o imple-
men ing measu es ha p io i ize hei sa e y and
well-being h oughou he s udy. Pa icipa ion
will be en i ely olun a y, wi h s uden s able o
wi hd aw a any ime wi hou any epe cussions.
Fu he mo e, I will s i e o cul i a e a suppo -
i e en i onmen whe e esponden s eel a ease
sha ing hei hough s and expe iences. Unde -
s anding he signi icance o con iden iali y, I
will p o ec hei iden i ies and any pe sonal in-
o ma ion disclosed du ing he esea ch p ocess.
By being a en i e o my esponden s’ ulne a-
bili ies, I aim o p omo e e hical esea ch p ac-
ices ha no only espec hei igh s bu also
empowe hem o engage meaning ully, con-
ibu ing o hei pe sonal g ow h and educa-
ional de elopmen . P i acy and Con iden iali y
– I emphasize he impo ance o p i acy and con-
iden iali y o all esponden s. I ecognize ha
pa icipan s may sha e pe sonal insigh s and
expe iences, so i ’s my du y o sa egua d hei
iden i ies and sensi i e in o ma ion. To ensu e
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is he mos commonly epo ed a ing among
he esponden s. The mean RPMS a ing is
3.92 wi h a s anda d de ia ion o 0.50, e lec -
ing a gene ally high le el o pe o mance wi h
ela i ely low a iabili y. The minimum ob-
se ed a ing is 2.50, while he maximum is
4.50. These esul s sugges ha mos eache s
ecei ed pe o mance a ings a he highe end
o he RPMS scale, implying sa is ac o y pe -
o mance le els ac oss he sample. The consis-
ency in sco es, as e idenced by he low s an-
da d de ia ion, may e lec s anda dized e alua-
ion p ac ices o gene ally s ong ins uc ional
pe o mance wi hin he di ision.
Table 3. Mode in RPMS Ra ing
nMode Mean S d. De ia ion Minimum Maximum
RPMS PRSY 2024–2025 134 4.300a 3.922 0.500 2.500 4.500
[a] Mode is epo ed in whole numbe s.
4.1.4. Mode in RPMS Desc ip i e Ra ing—
Table 4 p esen s he equency and pe cen age
dis ibu ion o eache - esponden s based on
hei RPMS Desc ip i e Ra ing o School Yea
2024–2025. The majo i y o he eache s (72.39
%) ecei ed a Ve y Sa is ac o y a ing, ollowed
by 26.12 % a ed as Sa is ac o y. Only a small
p opo ion (1.49 %) achie ed an Ou s anding
a ing. No missing da a we e eco ded o his
a iable, indica ing comple e epo ing ac oss
he sample. The indings highligh ha mos
eache s a e pe o ming well wi hin he expec a-
ions se by he RPMS amewo k, pa icula ly
wi hin he Ve y Sa is ac o y band, which is con-
sis en wi h he o e all mean pe o mance a ing
discussed in Table 1.3. The limi ed numbe o
ou s anding a ings may e lec he igo o he
pe o mance s anda ds o he conse a ism o
e alua o s when assigning he highes a ing.
This dis ibu ion aligns wi h DepEd’s RPMS-
PPST s anda ds, whe e Ve y Sa is ac o y is o -
en he benchma k o e ec i e and consis en
pe o mance ac oss key esul a eas (DepEd,
2021).
Table 4. Mode in RPMS Desc ip i e Ra ing
RPMS F equency Pe cen
Ou s anding 2 1.493
Sa is ac o y 35 26.119
Ve y Sa is ac o y 97 72.388
Missing 0 0.000
To al 134 100.000
No e. The ollowing a iables ha e mo e han 10 dis inc alues and a e omi ed: RPMS PRSY 2024–2025, PST.
4.2. E ec o Pe cei ed C ea i i y Le els
on he En ep eneu ial Skills o Junio High
School S uden s in Foods and Nu i ion—Table
5 p esen s he esul s o a one-way ANOVA con-
duc ed o examine whe he he e is a s a is ically
signi ican di e ence in he in e p e a ion skills
(INTREP) o s uden s based on hei le el o
c ea i i y (LOC). The analysis e ealed ha he
main e ec o LOC on INTREP was no s a is i-
cally signi ican ,
F(1,132) = 0.277
,
p=.599
,
η2=.002
. The small e ec size (
η2=.002
)
indica es ha only 0.2% o he a iance in in-
e p e a ion skills is explained by he le el o
c ea i i y, sugges ing a negligible p ac ical im-
pac .
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This esul implies ha he c ea i i y le el,
whe he mode a e o high, does no signi ican ly
a ec how s uden s pe o m in in e p e a ion-
ela ed asks wi hin he con ex measu ed.
These indings a e consis en wi h li e a u e ha
emphasizes he mul i ac o ial na u e o in e p e-
i e skills, o en in luenced by language p o i-
ciency, p io knowledge, and ins uc ional sup-
po (Facione, 2015; Halpe n, 2014), a he han
c ea i i y alone.
Table 5. Desc ip i e S a is ics o INTREP
LOC NMean SD SE Coe icien o Va ia ion
High 121 4.052 0.457 0.042 0.113
Mode a e 13 3.985 0.029 0.008 0.007
Assump ion Check: Le ene’s Tes o
Equali y o Va iances
The desc ip i e s a is ics u he illus a e
he lack o meaning ul di e ence be ween he
wo g oups. S uden s classi ied unde he high
c ea i i y g oup (N = 121) had a mean INTREP
sco e o M = 4.052, wi h a s anda d de ia ion
o SD = 0.457, and a coe icien o a ia ion
o 0.113, indica ing a ela i ely low esponse
sp ead. On he o he hand, hose unde he mod-
e a e c ea i i y g oup (N = 13) had a sligh ly
lowe mean o M = 3.985, bu wi h ex emely
low a iabili y (SD = 0.029), sugges ing homo-
genei y in esponses wi hin his small g oup. Al-
hough he e is a nume ical di e ence be ween
he means, he di e ence is minimal (0.067
poin s) and no s a is ically signi ican .
Tes o Equali y o Va iances (Le ene’s)
F d 1d 2p
Le ene’s Tes 23.041 1.000 132.000 <.001
Le ene’s Tes o homogenei y o a iances
was conduc ed o e i y he ANOVA assump-
ion. The esul was signi ican , F(1, 132) =
23.041, p
<
.001, indica ing ha he a iances
ac oss he c ea i i y g oups a e no equal. This
iola ion sugges s cau ion in in e p e ing he
ANOVA esul , as unequal a iances can a ec
he eliabili y o he F- es . Despi e his, he ac-
ual di e ence in means emains minimal, and
he sample sizes be ween g oups a e highly un-
equal (121 s. 13), educing he powe o de ec
meaning ul di e ences.
Pos Hoc Tes (Tukey HSD)
A pos hoc Tukey HSD es was pe o med
o con i m he absence o signi ican di e ences.
The es ound no signi ican mean di e ence be-
ween he high and mode a e c ea i i y g oups
in hei in e p e a ion sco es, (132) = 0.527, p
= .599, wi h a small e ec size o Cohen’s d =
0.154. This ein o ces he ANOVA esul and
con i ms ha he le el o c ea i i y does no
signi ican ly dis inguish s uden s’ in e p e i e
pe o mance in his con ex .
Pos Hoc Compa isons o LOC
Compa ison Mean Di e ence SE d Cohen’s d p ukey
High Mode a e 0.067 0.127 132 0.527 0.154 0.599
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In summa y, he indings sugges ha c e-
a i i y does no signi ican ly impac in e p e a-
ion skills, and any obse ed di e ences a e i -
ial in bo h s a is ical and p ac ical e ms. These
esul s suppo he iew ha in e p e a ion, as a
cogni i e and analy ical p ocess, may be mo e
di ec ly in luenced by o he academic compe-
encies o ins uc ional me hods a he han c e-
a i i y alone (Paul Elde , 2014; Ennis, 2011).
Recen s udies a i m he in e connec ed oles
o c ea i i y and c i ical hinking in enhancing
s uden s’ in e p e a ion skills, al hough hei in-
luences may di e in magni ude. Kau man
e al. (2023) ound ha c ea i i y can signi i-
can ly p edic academic pe o mance, indica ing
i s alue in educa ional ou comes beyond a-
di ional assessmen s. Meanwhile, Ayala e al.
(2024) emphasized he ounda ional impo ance
o c i ical hinking in p ocesses such as anal-
ysis, in e p e a ion, and e alua ion, calling o
mo e obus educa ional s a egies o de elop
hese skills. Simila ly, Lucas e al. (2023) un-
de sco ed he need o alid and eliable ools
o assess c ea i e hinking, which can suppo
deepe lea ning and p oblem-sol ing. Mapha-
lala and Mpo u (2023) also demons a ed ha
well-designed ins uc ional p ac ices can cul i-
a e s uden s’ c i ical hinking, u he in luenc-
ing hei in e p e i e abili ies. Complemen ing
hese indings, he OECD (2024) launched a
amewo k ad oca ing o in eg a ing c ea i e
and c i ical hinking in he cu iculum, iew-
ing bo h as co e compe encies o 21s -cen u y
lea ne s. These s udies ein o ce he iew ha
while c ea i i y may no di ec ly p edic in e -
p e a ion in e e y con ex , c i ical hinking e-
mains a mo e consis en and s a is ically signi -
ican ac o in de eloping in e p e i e compe-
ence.
4.3. E ec o Pe cei ed C i ical Thinking
Le els on he En ep eneu ial Skills o Junio
High School S uden s in Foods and Nu i ion—
Table 6 p esen s a one-way analysis o a i-
ance (ANOVA) conduc ed o examine whe he
he e is a signi ican di e ence in in e p e a-
ion skills (INTREP) among s uden s wi h a y-
ing le els o c ea i i y, as g ouped unde he
a iable C i ical Thinking Le el (CTL). The
analysis yielded a s a is ically signi ican esul ,
F(1,132) = 15.34
,
p<.001
, wi h an e ec size
o
η2=.104
. This indica es ha app oxima ely
10.4% o he a iance in in e p e a ion skills can
be a ibu ed o di e ences in he s uden s’ c e-
a i i y le els, sugges ing a mode a e e ec size
(Cohen, 2021). The esul p o ides compelling
e idence ha he le el o c ea i i y signi ican ly
in luences s uden s’ abili y o in e p e in o ma-
ion e ec i ely, ein o cing he heo e ical links
be ween c ea i e cogni i e p ocesses and highe -
o de hinking skills (Facione, 2023; Kau man
& Beghe o, 2023.
Table 6. ANOVA – INTREP
Cases Sum o Squa es d Mean Squa e F p η2
CTL 2.620 1 2.620 15.337 <.001 0.104
Residuals 22.545 132 0.171
No e. Type III Sum o Squa es.
The desc ip i e s a is ics u he cla i y he
na u e o his di e ence. S uden s in he high
c ea i i y g oup (N = 99) had a mean in e p e-
a ion sco e o M = 4.13 (SD = 0.43), while
hose in he mode a e c ea i i y g oup (N = 35)
epo ed a lowe mean sco e o M = 3.81 (SD =
0.37). Al hough bo h g oups demons a ed el-
a i ely low a iabili y in sco es (coe icien o
a ia ion
<
0.11), he di e ence o 0.32 poin s
in mean sco es sugges s a meaning ul and con-
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sis en dispa i y a o ing s uden s wi h highe
c ea i e abili ies. This inding suppo s claims
in he li e a u e ha c ea i i y enhances one’s
capaci y o syn hesizing, e alua ing, and in e -
p e ing in o ma ion, key componen s o highe -
o de cogni ion (Lucas e al., 2023).
Desc ip i e S a is ics o INTREP by LOC 15
LOC 15 NMean SD SE Coe icien o Va ia ion
High 99 4.128 0.428 0.043 0.104
Mode a e 35 3.810 0.368 0.062 0.097
Le ene’s es o homogenei y o a iances
was conduc ed o de e mine whe he he as-
sump ion o equal a iances ac oss g oups was
me . The es esul was no signi ican , F(1,
132) = 0.19, p = .660, indica ing ha he a i-
ances o in e p e a ion sco es in bo h c ea i i y
g oups we e s a is ically equal. The e o e, he
assump ion o homogenei y was sa is ied, sup-
po ing he alidi y o he ANOVA esul s.
Tes o Equali y o Va iances (Le ene’s)
F d 1d 2p
Le ene’s Tes 0.194 1.000 132.000 0.660
A Tukey HSD pos hoc es was conduc ed
o explo e he g oup di e ences u he . The
analysis e ealed a s a is ically signi ican di -
e ence be ween he high and mode a e c ea i -
i y g oups, wi h a mean di e ence o 0.318, p
<
.001. The e ec size was measu ed a Co-
hen’s d = 0.770, which is conside ed a mode a e
o la ge e ec , indica ing a p ac ically mean-
ing ul di e ence in in e p e a ion pe o mance
be ween he wo g oups. These esul s unde -
sco e he alue o os e ing c ea i i y in ins uc-
ional se ings, especially in domains equi ing
analy ical and in e p e i e easoning. Taken o-
ge he , hese indings sugges ha s uden s wi h
highe c ea i i y le els signi ican ly ou pe o m
hei mode a ely c ea i e pee s in asks in ol -
ing in e p e a ion skills. The consis ency ac oss
ANOVA, desc ip i e, and pos hoc esul s con-
i ms ha c ea i i y se es as a subs an i e cog-
ni i e esou ce o engaging wi h and making
sense o complex in o ma ion. These indings
a e aligned wi h educa ional esea ch empha-
sizing he ole o c ea i i y in p omo ing lex-
ible hinking, p oblem-sol ing, and meaning-
making (Kau man S e nbe g, 2019; OECD,
2024).
Pos Hoc Compa isons o LOC 15
Compa ison Mean Di e ence SE d Cohen’s d p ukey
High Mode a e 0.318 0.081 132 3.916 0.770 <.001
4.4. Signi ican In e ac ion E ec Be ween
C ea i i y and C i ical Thinking on he En-
ep eneu ial Skills o Junio High School S u-
den s in Foods and Nu i ion—A wo-way
ANOVA was conduc ed o examine he main
and in e ac ion e ec s o Le el o C ea i i y
(LOC) and C i ical hinking (CT) on s uden s’
in e p e a ion skills (INTREP). The esul s, p e-
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sen ed in Table 7, e ealed no s a is ically sig-
ni ican main e ec s no in e ac ion e ec s a
he 0.05 signi icance le el. Speci ically, he
main e ec o c ea i i y on in e p e a ion skills
was no signi ican ,
F(1,130) = 0.88
,
p=.351
,
η2=.007
. This indica es ha s uden s’ c ea i -
i y le els (high s. mode a e) did no signi i-
can ly a ec hei in e p e a ion sco es. Sim-
ila ly, he main e ec o c i ical hinking was
also no signi ican ,
F(1,130) = 0.72
,
p=.399
,
η2=.005
, sugges ing ha he le el o engage-
men alone did no signi ican ly impac in e p e-
a ion skills. The in e ac ion e ec be ween c e-
a i i y and c i ical hinking was likewise no sig-
ni ican ,
F(1,130)=0.43
,
p=.512
,
η2=.003
,
demons a ing ha he combina ion o hese
ac o s did no p oduce a s a is ically meaning-
ul in luence on s uden s’ in e p e a i e pe o -
mance. These small e ec sizes (²
<
.01) sugges
ha only a negligible p opo ion o he a iance
in in e p e a ion skills could be explained by
ei he c ea i i y, c i ical hinking, o hei in-
e ac ion. This could be a ibu ed o he pos-
sible o e lapping cogni i e demands o in e -
p e a ion asks ha d aw om a ange o o he
a iables, such as eading comp ehension, p io
knowledge, o c i ical hinking, as suppo ed by
Halpe n (2021) and Facione (2021).
Table 7. ANOVA – INTREP
Cases Sum o Squa es d Mean Squa e F p η2
LOC 0.164 1 0.164 0.877 0.351 0.007
CT 0.134 1 0.134 0.716 0.399 0.005
LOC ×CT 0.081 1 0.081 0.433 0.512 0.003
Residuals 24.342 130 0.187
No e. Type III Sum o Squa es.
Al hough no s a is ically signi ican , he
desc ip i e esul s show ha he highes mean
sco e was obse ed among s uden s wi h high
c ea i i y and mode a e engagemen (M = 4.21,
SD = 0.31), while he lowes was om he mod-
e a e c ea i i y and high engagemen g oup (M
= 3.98, SD = 0.04). In e es ingly, s uden s wi h
high c ea i i y consis en ly pe o med sligh ly
be e han hose wi h mode a e c ea i i y ac oss
bo h engagemen le els, bu he ma gin was
oo small o be conside ed meaning ul. Fu -
he mo e, s uden s in he mode a e c ea i i y
and mode a e engagemen g oup displayed no
a iance, which may sugges uni o mi y due o
ei he a small sample size o ceiling e ec s.
Desc ip i e S a is ics o INTREP by LOC and CT
LOC CT NMean SD SE Coe icien o Va ia ion
High High 97 4.012 0.480 0.049 0.120
Mode a e 24 4.212 0.311 0.064 0.074
Mode a e High 8 3.975 0.035 0.012 0.009
Mode a e 5 4.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
The pos hoc analysis using Tukey’s HSD
es indica ed ha he e we e no s a is ically
signi ican pai wise di e ences be ween he
g oups. Speci ically, he compa ison be ween
le els o c ea i i y yielded (130) = 0.94, p
= .351, while he compa ison be ween le els
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o engagemen p oduced (130) = -0.85, p =
.399. These esul s con i m ha nei he c ea i -
i y no engagemen demons a ed meaning ul
g oup-le el di e ences in s uden s’ in e p e a-
ion skills when analyzed indi idually. In ligh
o hese indings, all null hypo heses posed in
he s udy we e e ained. The i s null hypo he-
sis (H), which s a es ha c ea i i y has no sig-
ni ican main e ec on in e p e a ion skills, was
no ejec ed. Simila ly, he second null hypo he-
sis (H), which posi s no signi ican main e ec
o engagemen on in e p e a ion skills, was also
no ejec ed. Finally, he hi d null hypo he-
sis (H), which asse s ha he e is no signi ican
in e ac ion e ec be ween c ea i i y and engage-
men on in e p e a ion skills, was likewise no
ejec ed. These ou comes sugges ha nei he
a iable independen ly no in combina ion sig-
ni ican ly in luenced he in e p e a ion pe o -
mance o he s uden esponden s in his con ex .
Lucas e al. (2023) a gue ha while c ea i i y
enhances idea gene a ion, i s impac on comp e-
hension o in e p e a ion may depend on ins uc-
ional con ex and ask design. Likewise, Ayala
e al. (2024) sugges ha cogni i e engagemen ,
enhances analy ical asks like in e p e a ion, bu
only when pai ed wi h c i ical hinking s a e-
gies. Maphalala and Mpo u (2023) ound ha
ins uc ional sca olding has a g ea e impac on
in e p e a i e ou comes han ei he c ea i i y o
engagemen in isola ion. These indings align
wi h he cu en s udy, which sugges s ha in-
e p e a ion may be a mo e mul i-dimensional
cogni i e skill no s ongly p edic ed by c ea i -
i y o engagemen le els alone.
Tes o Equali y o Va iances (Le ene’s)
F d 1d 2p
Le ene’s Tes 10.241 3.000 130.000 <.001
Pos Hoc Compa isons o LOC
Compa ison Mean Di e ence SE d p ukey
High Mode a e 0.124 0.133 130 0.937 0.351
No e. Resul s a e a e aged o e he le els o CT.
Pos Hoc Compa isons o CT
Compa ison Mean Di e ence SE d p ukey
High Mode a e -0.112 0.133 130 -0.846 0.399
No e. Resul s a e a e aged o e he le els o LOC.
4.5. Va ying Le els o C ea i i y and C i -
ical Thinking Exhibi Signi ican Di e ences in
hei En ep eneu ial Skills In Foods and Nu i-
ion—A wo-way ANOVA was conduc ed o
examine he e ec s o c ea i i y (LOC) and
c i ical hinking (CT) on s uden s’ in e p e-
a ion skills (INTREP). Resul s e ealed no
s a is ically signi ican main e ec o c ea i -
i y,
F(1,130) = 0.88
,
p=.351
,
η2=.007
,
and no signi ican main e ec o c i ical hink-
ing,
F(1,130) = 0.72
,
p=.399
,
η2=.005
.
Addi ionally, he in e ac ion be ween c ea i -
i y and c i ical hinking was no signi ican ,
F(1,130)=0.43
,
p=.512
,
η2=.003
, indi-
ca ing ha he combined e ec o c ea i i y and
c i ical hinking did no signi ican ly in luence
in e p e a ion ou comes.
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Table 8. ANOVA Resul s o C ea i i y (LOC) and C i ical Thinking (CT)
Sou ce SS d MS F p η2
C ea i i y (LOC) 0.164 1 0.164 0.88 .351 .007
C i ical Thinking (CT) 0.134 1 0.134 0.72 .399 .005
LOC ×CT 0.081 1 0.081 0.43 .512 .003
Residuals 24.342 130 0.187
No e. Type III Sum o Squa es.
Pos hoc compa isons using Tukey’s HSD
con i med no pai wise g oup di e ences
eached s a is ical signi icance. Speci ically,
he e was no signi ican di e ence in in e p e-
a ion sco es be ween c ea i i y le els, (130)
= 0.94, p = .351, o be ween engagemen le -
els, (130) = -0.85, p = .399. Le ene’s es
o equali y o a iances was signi ican , F(3,
130) = 10.24, p
<
.001, sugges ing he e ogene-
i y o a iance. The e o e, cau ion is ad ised
when in e p e ing hese esul s, especially in
unequal g oup sizes. Based on hese indings,
he s udy ailed o ejec he h ee null hypo he-
ses. Nei he c ea i i y no c i ical hinking no
hei in e ac ion had a signi ican e ec on in-
e p e a ion skills among junio high school s u-
den s in he Food and Nu i ion con ex . Al-
hough he cu en s udy ound no s a is ically
signi ican main o in e ac ion e ec s o c e-
a i i y and engagemen on in e p e a ion skills,
exis ing li e a u e highligh s he nuanced con-
ibu ions o hese cogni i e and beha io al
ai s o educa ional pe o mance. Kau man
and Beghe o (2023) a gue ha c ea i i y in-
luences me acogni i e s a egies and lexibili y
in p oblem-sol ing, which can enhance com-
plex asks like in e p e a ion unde he igh
ins uc ional condi ions. Lucas e al. (2023)
emphasize assessing and nu u ing c ea i i y in
highe educa ion, linking i o be e cogni i e
engagemen . Meanwhile, Ayala e al. (2024)
ound ha c i ical hinking and engagemen sig-
ni ican ly imp o e s uden s’ capaci y o analyze
and in e p e academic con en , al hough hese
may unc ion in in e ac ion wi h sca olding and
eedback. Maphalala and Mpo u (2023) no ed
ha ins uc ional design elemen s a e c ucial in
os e ing c i ical engagemen , sugges ing ha
in e p e a ion skills may depend mo e on con-
ex ual lea ning suppo han on cogni i e ai s
alone. These indings indica e ha while c ea i -
i y and engagemen a e impo an , hei e ec s
on in e p e a ion may be media ed by addi ional
ins uc ional and si ua ional a iables no cap-
u ed in he cu en analysis.
5. Conclusions and Recommenda ions
This chap e p esen s he conclusions d awn om he s udy’s esul s and ou lines ele an ec-
ommenda ions based on he s a is ical indings and hema ic in e p e a ions. Guided by he
esea ch objec i es and hypo heses, he s udy explo ed he e ec s o c ea i i y and engagemen
on s uden s’ in e p e a ion skills in he con ex o Foods and Nu i ion among junio high school
s uden s. Using Two-Way ANOVA, he in es iga ion sough o de e mine he indi idual and
combined in luence o c ea i i y and engagemen le els on in e p e a ion pe o mance. While
he indings e ealed no s a is ically signi ican main o in e ac ion e ec s, he analysis p o ided
meaning ul insigh s in o he dynamics o cogni i e and beha io al ac o s in educa ional se ings.
This chap e syn hesizes hese esul s in o conclusi e s a emen s and p oposes e idence-based
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ecommenda ions o in o m eaching p ac ices, cu iculum de elopmen , and u u e esea ch
di ec ions.
5.1. Findings—The analysis showed no
signi ican main e ec o c ea i i y le el on he
in e p e a ion skills o s uden s. Al hough s u-
den s wi h high c ea i i y had a sligh ly highe
mean sco e han hose wi h mode a e c ea i i y,
he di e ence was no s a is ically signi ican .
The e was no signi ican main e ec o engage-
men le el on in e p e a ion skills. S uden s
wi h highe engagemen did no pe o m sig-
ni ican ly be e han hei mode a ely engaged
pee s. The in e ac ion e ec be ween c ea i i y
and engagemen le els on in e p e a ion skills
was also no s a is ically signi ican . This in-
dica es ha he combined in luence o hese
a iables did no p oduce a meaning ul a ia-
ion in s uden s’ in e p e i e pe o mance. Pos
hoc compa isons using Tukey’s HSD con i med
he absence o signi ican pai wise di e ences
among he le els o c ea i i y and c i ical hink-
ing. Le ene’s es o equali y o a iances was
signi ican , indica ing a iola ion o he homo-
genei y o a iance assump ion, which calls o
cau ion in in e p e ing he esul s.
5.2. Conclusion—Based on he esul s o
he Two-Way ANOVA, he s udy concludes
ha nei he c ea i i y no engagemen , indi idu-
ally o in combina ion, signi ican ly in luenced
he in e p e a ion skills o junio high school
s uden s in he con ex o Foods and Nu i-
ion. These indings sugges ha in e p e a ion
as a highe -o de cogni i e skill may depend
mo e hea ily on o he ins uc ional o con ex-
ual a iables such as con en amilia i y, c i ical
hinking, sca olding, o eading comp ehension
s a egies. Al hough c ea i i y and engagemen
a e bo h i al in he lea ning p ocess, hei di-
ec e ec on in e p e a ion ou comes may be
limi ed wi hou he p esence o a ge ed ins uc-
ional design and cogni i e s a egy suppo .
5.3. Recommenda ions—Based on he
indings and insigh s de i ed om he s udy,
a ge ed ecommenda ions a e p oposed o en-
hance he de elopmen o in e p e a ion skills
wi hin he con ex o Foods and Nu i ion edu-
ca ion. These ecommenda ions a e designed
o suppo key eache s, school p incipals, and
u u e esea che s in add essing obse ed chal-
lenges and le e aging oppo uni ies o im-
p o ed s uden ou comes. By ocusing on in-
s uc ional s a egies, assessmen p ac ices, and
u he esea ch a enues, hese sugges ions aim
o os e a mo e e ec i e and inclusi e lea n-
ing en i onmen ha p omo es c i ical hinking
and p ac ical applica ion in eal-wo ld nu i ion
scena ios.
Fo he Teache s In eg a e C i ical Think-
ing S a egies – Since in e p e a ion skills ely
on analy ical easoning, educa o s a e encou -
aged o embed c i ical hinking exe cises (e.g.,
analysis o ood labels, compa ison asks, e al-
ua ion o ood sa e y p o ocols) in o Foods and
Nu i ion lessons.
Enhance Ins uc ional Design – Teache s
should use di e en ia ed ins uc ion and sca -
olded ac i i ies o p o ide clea e cogni i e
pa hways o s uden s o p ac ice in e p e a ion
asks, especially in pe o mance-based subjec s.
Fo School P incipal Moni o Va iance in
S uden Pe o mance – Gi en he signi ican e-
sul o Le ene’s Tes , schools should examine
sou ces o pe o mance a ia ion ac oss class-
ooms and implemen suppo s a egies o s u-
den s wi h widely di e ing abili ies. Encou -
age Mul i-Modal Assessmen s – In e p e a ion
skills can be e alua ed mo e e ec i ely h ough
p ojec -based ou pu s, p ac ical assessmen s,
and eal-li e scena ios ha simula e decision-
making in ood and nu i ion con ex s.
Fo he Fu u e Resea che s Conduc Fu he
Resea ch – Fu u e s udies may bene i om ex-
plo ing he media ing oles o ins uc ional p ac-
ices, eading p o iciency, and s uden mo i a-
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ion on in e p e a ion skills. A mixed-me hods
app oach may also unco e quali a i e ac o s
ha s a is ical models canno de ec .
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