Co esponding au ho : Ke em Kemal Soylemez.
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
A quali a i e explo a ion o men’s pe cep ions owa ds male ic ims o emale-
pe pe a ed in ima e pa ne iolence
Anjana Pa el 1, Ke em Kemal Soylemez 2, *, Ma ina Rachi skiy 1 and Joanne Lushe 2
1 Uni e si y o Roehamp on London, Roehamp on Ln, London SW15 5PH Uni ed Kingdom.
2 Regen ’s Uni e si y London, Inne Ci cle, Regen ’s Pa k, London NW2 4NS Uni ed Kingdom.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 1467-1477
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 30 Ma ch 2025; e ised on 05 May 2025; accep ed on 08 May 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.26.2.1764
Abs ac
The e is g owing ecogni ion o male ic imiza ion o emale-pe pe a ed In ima e Pa ne Violence and he unique
challenges men ace. Howe e , esea ch su ounding socie al a i udes and pe cep ions o IPV and i s impac on bo h
ic ims and socie y emains unde - esea ched. The pu pose o his esea ch was o explo e he iews o men ega ding
male ic ims o IPV pe pe a ed by emales. The s udy speci ically examined h ee key a eas, namely, he iden i ica ion
o IPV, seeking assis ance, and epo ing beha iou . Thema ic analysis was employed o ga he insigh s om i e
pa icipan s and gain a deepe unde s anding o hei pe spec i es on IPV. Key indings include he inabili y o ecognise
IPV, ba ie s which occu on an indi idual and socie al le el which p e en help-seeking and a lack o suppo ne wo ks,
wi h gende expec a ions being one o he mo e p ominen causes. This s udy highligh s he need o comp ehensi e
educa ion, awa eness, and obus suppo se ices ha speci ically a ge he dis inc challenges male ic ims o IPV
expe ience.
Keywo ds: In ima e Pa ne Violence; Help-Seeking; Female-Pe pe a ed; Thema ic Analysis
1. In oduc ion
In ima e Pa ne Violence (IPV) e e s o ac ual o h ea ened physical, sexual, inancial, o psychological ha m wi hin
a ela ionship, in lic ed by a cu en o o me pa ne o spouse [1]. Al hough s a is ics sugges women a e o en he
ic ims o IPV and men a e o en he pe pe a o s, i is essen ial o acknowledge ha men can also be ic ims o his
ype o abuse [2].
Da a collec ed om he C ime Su ey o England and Wales (CSEW) epo ed ha 699,000 men aged 16 yea s and o e
expe ienced domes ic abuse in he yea ending Ma ch 2022. This accoun s o app oxima ely 29% o domes ic abuse
cases and 3% o he adul popula ion [3]. Fu he , in he 12 mon hs leading up o Ma ch 2018, CSEW also ound ha
49% o men (compa ed wi h 19% o women) who expe ienced domes ic abuse, did no epo i o anyone. Despi e he
g owing ecogni ion o male ic imisa ion and change in socie al a i udes and pe cep ions su ounding IPV, he issue
emains la gely unexplo ed and sh ouded in misconcep ions [4].
1.1. Gende S e eo ypes and In ima e Pa ne Violence
Gende s e eo ypes a e widely held belie s abou he cha ac e is ics and beha iou s ypically associa ed wi h men and
women [5]. Despi e esea ch indica ing ha men and women expe ience simila a es o pa ne iolence, IPV has
adi ionally been iewed as one-sided, wi h men iewed as dominan agg esso s and women as ulne able ic ims [6,
7]. Resea ch has shown ha gende s e eo ypes and con en ional gende oles a ibu ed o men, such as masculini y,
agg ession and he ole o a p o ide , a e isk ac o s o highe a es o IPV commi ed by men agains women [8].
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Howe e , wi h ega ds o male ic ims o emale-pe pe a ed IPV, hese gende s e eo ypes no only impac bo h how
men pe cei e IPV and epo hei expe iences, bu also ein o ce inequali y when seeking help [9].
S udies sugges ha when epo ing inciden s, bo h men and women a e mo e likely o epo cases o male
pe pe a ion a he han emale pe pe a ion [10]. Acco ding o Robe son and Mu ach e [11], adi ional belie s abou
chi al y and socie al expec a ions o male beha iou in he e osexual ela ionships can lead male ic ims o minimise
inciden s o emale iolence. Men a e also less likely o seek help o emale-pe pe a ed IPV as i de ia es om socie al
no ms o goes agains masculine ideals ha emphasize sel - eliance, s eng h, and emo ional con ol [12]. In same-sex
ela ionships, male ic ims ace unique challenges in seeking help due o addi ional ba ie s such as s igma, in e nalized
homonega i i y, and disc imina ion ela ed o bo h hei sexual o ien a ion and he aboo su ounding male ic ims o
domes ic iolence [13].
S e eo ypical ai s o masculini y, such as physical s eng h and emo ional es ain , con ibu e o he misconcep ion
ha emale-pe pe a ed iolence agains men is less se e e o p e alen han male-pe pe a ed iolence agains
women. This mis ep esen a ion alsely po ays men as agg esso s [14, 15]. Poon e al. [16] ound ha as women a e
less likely o ha e a c iminal his o y when hey do display agg essi e beha iou , i con adic s common s e eo ypes. As
a esul , socie y o en iews hei iolen ac ions as unusual and may dismiss hem, hus c ea ing a alse na a i e ha
emale-pe pe a ed IPV is non-exis en and can lea e male ic ims eeling os acised.
Fu he , he gende bias posi ions IPV p ima ily as a women's issue, leading o male ic ims acing accusa ions, and
being blamed as ins iga o s wi h he women ac ing in de ence, dismissal, and e en a ibu ing he emale iolence o
men's in ideli y [17, 18, 19]. While he challenges aced by emale ic ims a e widely acknowledged, he s uggles o
male ic ims o en go unno iced, as socie y ends o show mo e empa hy and conce n owa ds women's well-being in
IPV cases [4, 20]. This dispa i y pe sis s e en when he pe pe a o 's gende is unknown, u he unde sco ing he
con as ing socie al pe cep ions o male and emale IPV ic ims.
To unde s and he impac o gende s e eo ypes on pe cep ions and esponses o IPV, Ba es and colleagues [21]
conduc ed a s udy ha examined how hese s e eo ypes mani es in scena ios o bidi ec ional iolence, in ol ing bo h
pa ies as " ic im" and "pe pe a o ". One hund ed se en y-eigh unde g adua e s uden s we e asked o ca ego ise and
assess se e i y, esolu ion, and jus ice ou comes in hypo he ical scena ios o opposi e-sex IPV. The indings e ealed
ha pa icipan s a ely iden i ied men as " ic ims" and women as "pe pe a o s", indica ing ha gende -based biases
we e likely o be a play in he s udy. Findings also sugges ha gende s e eo ypes can hinde one’s abili y o ecognise
men as ic ims o IPV.
Hine and colleagues [7] eplica ed ea lie indings by examining di e en ypes o iolence and he p opo ions o abuse
pe pe a ed by each pa y. Thei s udy e ealed ha while pa icipan s acknowledged ha abuse can be bidi ec ional,
hey we e s ill in luenced by gende s e eo ypes, which led o he pe cep ion ha abuse p ima ily occu s in one
di ec ion. This eluc ance o iew men as ic ims was pa icula ly e iden in cases o appa en bidi ec ional iolence,
whe e men o en endu ed mo e abuse. Consis en wi h Ba es' [21] indings, Hine e al. [7] obse ed ha pa icipan s
we e less likely o sugges ha male ic ims con ac he police. This sugges s ha gende s e eo ypes c ea e ba ie s o
help-seeking, d i en by ea s o disbelie o s igma. Such s e eo ypes o en obscu e male ic imiza ion, po aying men
as agg esso s and he eby ques ioning hei c edibili y as ic ims. This dynamic may con ibu e o a "hidden" popula ion
o ic ims, as gende no ms compounded wi h ea s o judgmen can dissuade indi iduals om epo ing abuse o
seeking help [19].
1.2. Minimisa ion o In ima e Pa ne Violence by men
How men pe cei e IPV is hea ily in luenced by hei unde s anding o abuse [22]. Resea ch sugges s ha ce ain non-
physical beha iou s, such as emo ional, inancial, o psychological con ol, may no be ecognised as abusi e by men
[23]. This lack o ecogni ion can s em om emo ional con usion, socie al dismissal o such expe iences, and
misconcep ions abou abuse, o en leading male ic ims o in e nalize hese belie s. As a esul , hey may downplay hei
ic imiza ion, p olonging hei exposu e o abusi e si ua ions [18,21]
Resea ch has s udied cases o men subjec ed o IPV by women o unco e he a ious o ms o abuse hey expe ience.
A che [25] ound ha , unlike male pe pe a o s who we e mo e likely o cause ha m h ough bea ings o s angula ion,
emale pe pe a o s a e mo e inclined o use objec s as weapons. I is no ewo hy ha emo ional abuse, psychological
abuse, and coe ci e con ol we e no c iminalised in he Uni ed Kingdom un il 2015, when a new law was in oduced
o add ess hese issues, e en in he absence o physical iolence [20]. Howe e , due o hei pe cep ion ha IPV only
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1469
e e s o se e e physical iolence, male ic ims o emale-pe pe a ed iolence a e o en eluc an o label hei
expe iences as abuse, leading hem o minimise o o e look hei expe iences o con o m o socie al expec a ions [26].
Te ms like ic im and abuse , commonly used in discussions abou emale ic imiza ion, elici di e en esponses om
men and women [27]. Due o he gende ed conno a ions associa ed wi h IPV, men may be eluc an o iden i y as ic ims
[4]. Resea ch, policies, and suppo sys ems o en ocus on women as ic ims, neglec ing o acknowledge ha women
can also be pe pe a o s. This na ow ocus can pe pe ua e eelings o shame and isola ion in men, making i ha de o
hem o ecognize abuse and seek help, he eby widening he gap in suppo access [28]. To add ess hese issues, Walke
e al. [4], s udied men's expe iences o IPV pe pe a ed by women in Aus alia and in oduced "bounda y c ossings" o
desc ibe beha iou s ha in inge upon a pe son's igh s. Thei indings e ealed ha men o en ace shock and
minimiza ion om amily and iends when disclosing hei expe iences, as well as seconda y ic imiza ion om police
and suppo se ices, including idicule and indi e ence. By using "bounda y c ossings" ins ead o IPV in hei esea ch,
he s udy no only cap u ed mo e de ailed accoun s o abuse bu also emphasized he impo ance o using e minology
ha does no ha e a gende implica ion associa ed wi h i .
1.3. S igma and ba ie s o help-seeking
S udies sugges ha male ic ims o IPV o en end o expe ience a unique se o s igmas which hinde hei abili y o
seek suppo and in e en ion [29, 30]. Men who expe ience IPV may s uggle wi h hei sense o masculini y as
adi ional masculini y is o en associa ed wi h powe , con ol, and dominance [4, 31]. Socie y iews men who a e
abusi e owa ds women as going agains he adi ional s anda ds o masculini y. Howe e , his same iew is also held
when men expe ience agg ession om women [32]. The adi ional no ms o masculini y also discou age men om
exp essing hei emo ions and being ulne able, which can be seen as a h ea o hei masculine iden i y. In esponse
o expe iencing IPV, some men may ely on unheal hy coping mechanisms like subs ance abuse o an isocial beha iou
o manage eelings o inadequacy, numb complex emo ions, o a oid seeking help o suppo [33]. Howe e , he s ong
associa ion be ween subs ance misuse and IPV pe pe a ion in men complica es he na a i e, as hese coping s a egies
a e o en miscons ued as causes o IPV a he han co ela ed ac o s [34]. Consequen ly, his misunde s anding may
de e male ic ims om seeking help and pe pe ua e ha m ul pe cep ions, u he ma ginalising hei expe iences and
ein o cing he s igma su ounding male ic imiza ion.
O e s ee and Quinn's [35] IPV s igma iza ion model examines how s igma a ec s help-seeking beha iou s o hose
expe iencing IPV on indi idual, in e pe sonal, and socie al le els. Thei model ou lined h ee co e ypes o s igma:
cul u al s igma, which unde mines he legi imacy o abusi e expe iences; s igma in e naliza ion, whe e indi iduals
adop nega i e s e eo ypes abou IPV ic ims; and an icipa ed s igma which ocuses on he conce ns ic ims ha e abou
he po en ial eac ions o o he s once hey lea n abou he abuse, i.e he ea o ejec ion and judgmen om o he s.
Taylo and colleagues [36] applied his model o de e mine he ba ie s male ic ims ace and why hey a e less likely
o seek help o hei ic imisa ion han emales. Thei indings sugges male ic ims o IPV ace signi ican ba ie s o
seeking help, p ima ily due o socie al s igma a ound masculini y. Key challenges include conce ns o e c edibili y,
pe cep ions ha suppo se ices a e p edominan ly ailo ed o women, and nega i e esponses when men do seek
help, os e ing a cycle o isola ion and ic imiza ion. Howe e , hese we e p ima ily a ibu ed o hei gende ,
sugges ing socie y's pe cep ion o male ic ims o emale-pe pe a ed IPV is s ill closely ied o ou da ed gende no ms
and s igma. The applica ion o his model o male ic ims highligh s ha , like emale ic ims, men also expe ience s igma
as a ba ie con ibu ing o gende dispa i ies in epo ing. The s udy also highligh ed a lack o educa ion and aining
among p o essionals, which can limi e ec i e suppo o male ic ims, which is pe inen in changing socie al a i udes
and inc easing access o suppo sys ems.
1.4. P o essional a i udes and access o suppo
Resea ch sugges s he key di e ence be ween male and emale ic imisa ion lies no in he men al o physical
expe iences o he abuse bu in he speci ic challenges men ace when seeking help. S udies indica e ha men a e
signi ican ly less likely o con ac IPV se ices compa ed o women, e en when expe iencing simila le els o abuse [30].
This eluc ance o epo IPV, esul s in a lack o isibili y and ecogni ion o male ic ims’ needs wi hin public policy,
which in u n leads o insu icien unding and ewe se ices and esou ces dedica ed o suppo ing hem [37]. E o s
o d i e social and policy changes in esponse o iolence agains women in in ima e ela ionships ha e inad e en ly
ein o ced he pe cep ion ha IPV expe ienced by men is less common o se e e [38, 39] This alse pe cep ion
signi ican ly impac s male ic ims' unde s anding o hei access o suppo , as socie al no ms o en sugges ha men
do no equi e IPV se ices [40]. As a esul , ollowing ic imisa ion, help-seeking can be hinde ed by gende -speci ic
ba ie s such as s igma, pe cep ion issues, ailu e o ecognise hemsel es as ic ims and he misconcep ion ha
a ailable se ices a e gea ed o women only [2, 37]. Mo eo e , while emale ic ims bene i om a ange o se ices
such as eme gency shel e s, sa e y planning, and he apeu ic in e en ions, simila p o isions o male ic ims a e o en
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lacking [41]. This unde epo ing pe pe ua es a cycle whe e male ic ims' needs emain unme , and suppo se ices
emain unde unded o e en nonexis en , u he aliena ing po en ial help-seeke s. The gap in se ices no only
highligh s he signi ican dispa i y in a ailable suppo o men bu also unde sco es he p ac ical limi a ions hey ace
in accessing app op ia e help, alongside he psychological and emo ional challenges.
Rigid amewo ks su ounding male ic imisa ion pe pe ua e s e eo ypes and misconcep ions ha shape p o essional
a i udes and educe he quali y o suppo a ailable o male IPV ic ims. Male ic ims o en p e e seeking help om
iends and amily, and hei eac ions play a c ucial ole in whe he ic ims pu sue o mal suppo , as posi i e
esponses can help mi iga e eelings o shame and s igma (39, 42). Howe e , when ic ims do seek help om a o mal
ne wo k such as heal h p o essionals, police and domes ic iolence agencies, hey o en encoun e blame, dismissal,
inabili y o unde s and male ic imisa ion, idicule, which compounds hei auma [20, 30]. A s udy by Hines e al. [38]
e ealed ha male ic ims who con ac ed domes ic iolence helplines we e equen ly u ned away, laughed a , o
accused o being pe pe a o s, u he e ic imizing hem. This may be a ibu ed o many p o essionals— including
heal hca e p o ide s, law en o cemen , and social wo ke s—no being adequa ely ained o ecognize o espond o
male ic imiza ion. This lack o awa eness by se ice p o ide s can lead o poo ea men o misunde s anding o he
unique dynamics o male ic imiza ion and e en unconsciously ein o ce ha m ul gende no ms. Men equen ly
epo ed ha men al heal h p o essionals a e among he mos help ul sou ces o suppo when seeking help [29].
Howe e , socie al expec a ions o masculini y o en de e men om accessing psychological suppo , d i en by ea s o
appea ing weak o ulne able which complica es he help-seeking p ocess and p e en s many male ic ims om
engaging wi h men al heal h se ices [43]. This dual ba ie —s igma ela ed o bo h male ic imiza ion and men al
heal h—deepens eelings o isola ion and shame which poses a signi ican challenge in p o iding adequa e suppo o
male IPV su i o s.
Law en o cemen , o en in luenced by gende ed assump ions abou physical size, s eng h, and ic imiza ion in he
domes ic iolence deba e, may belie e ha men a e less likely o be ic ims. S udies indica e police esponses
disp opo iona ely blame male ic ims, showing skep icism, neglec , e usal o a es emale pe pe a o s, o claims o
inac ion [29, 44]. Whils some s udies epo mixed esponses om law en o cemen , e lec ing bo h p oblema ic and
p og essi e a i udes [20, 45] hese inconsis encies may con ibu e o wha Tsui [39] desc ibes as a "bidi ec ional"
mis us be ween male ic ims and police. This e e s o a mu ual lack o us , whe e biases lead o dismissi e police
esponses, and ic ims, de e ed by s igma o nega i e expe iences, a oid seeking help, pe pe ua ing a cycle ha
obs uc s e ec i e suppo u he compounding hei auma [39]. Fu he mo e, s udies sugges ha when male
ic ims o IPV epo hei emale pa ne s, emale pe pe a o s may coun e wi h alse allega ions, po en ially leading
o he man's a es [29]. This c ea es a heigh ened ea o legal consequences among male ic ims, making hem e en
less inclined o epo hei expe iences o seek help, as hey ea being ea ed as he pe pe a o s a he han he
ic ims [18, 46]. This sys emic bias e lec s how deeply ing ained gende oles in socie y in luence p o essional a i udes
lea ing male ic ims eeling isola ed and unsuppo ed by he e y ins i u ions ha a e mean o p o ec hem.
1.5. Cu en S udy
The exis ing li e a u e ocuses on he pe cep ions and expe iences o male ic ims o IPV. Va ious domains, such as
gende s e eo ypes, how men iden i y and a ionalise abuse, he s igmas and ba ie s ic ims ace, and p o essional
a i udes o IPV, ha e been widely explo ed [4, 6, 10, 18, 19, 26, 32, 40]. Despi e hese insigh s, a limi ed unde s anding
o how he gene al male popula ion pe cei es IPV emains. Fu he esea ch in his a ea is essen ial o be e p e en
ic imiza ion, enhance access o suppo , and assis p o essionals in iden i ying ic ims, hus os e ing imp o ed
suppo , awa eness, and in e en ion o male IPV expe iences. The cu en s udy aimed o p o ide an answe o he
ollowing esea ch ques ions: Wha cons i u es IPV o men? Wha ba ie s do men ace when epo ing emale
pe pe a ed IPV? How do men pe cei e he se ices a ailable o male ic ims o epo hei expe ience o IPV?
2. Ma e ial and me hods
Quali a i e me hods allow pa icipan s o exp ess hemsel es in hei own wo ds, which helps o cap u e di e se
pe spec i es [47]. This ype o esea ch also p o ides insigh in o how an indi idual's expe iences shape hei
unde s anding o he wo ld [48]. To mee he s udy’s objec i es, a semi-s uc u ed in e iew app oach was used,
allowing o lexibili y in explo ing nuanced and unde - esea ched opics while ensu ing he cap u e o indi idual
in e p e a ions and expe iences [49].
A quali a i e esea ch design was employed, u ilizing Thema ic Analysis (TA) o align wi h he esea ch ques ions. TA
emphasizes he impo ance o pe sonal expe iences and hei connec ion o b oade socie al con ex s [50]. This me hod
combines social and psychological in e p e a ions o he da a [51] and is widely used in quali a i e esea ch o iden i y,
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analyze, and epo ecu ing pa e ns o hemes. By sea ching o signi ican hemes ela ed o he phenomenon unde
in es iga ion, TA acili a es he collec ion o ich, de ailed da a. Fu he mo e, TA is a c ucial echnique o quali a i e
analysis, gi ing esea che s skills ha can be applied o o he o ms o analysis [51].
2.1. Pa icipan s
Consis en wi h B aun and Cla ke's [51] ecommenda ions, i e pa icipan s we e ec ui ed o his s udy. Pa icipan s
p o ided demog aphic in o ma ion, including age, e hnici y, educa ion le el, and ela ionship du a ion.
Inclusion c i e ia equi ed pa icipan s o be male, aged 18 o olde , cu en ly li ing in he UK, and a he e osexual,
monogamous ela ionship las ing a leas wo yea s. The age c i e ion ensu es pa icipan s can legally consen o he
s udy, hei pe spec i es on IPV a e in o med and hei esponses a e alid. Resea ch indica es ha he leng h o a
ela ionship can bo h inc ease he isk o IPV and in luence i s dynamics. In longe ela ionships, g ea e in imacy and
commi men may change he way IPV is expe ienced o pe cei ed [52]. The e o e, equi ing pa icipan s o ha e been
in a ela ionship o a leas wo yea s helps iden i y es ablished pa e ns o IPV, p o iding deepe insigh s in o he
dynamics o long- e m ela ionships and he na u e o abuse. Fu he mo e, ocusing on he e osexual, monogamous
ela ionships ensu es a clea e unde s anding o IPV in his speci ic con ex , accoun ing o gende ed socie al
expec a ions ha may in luence he epo ing and ecogni ion o abuse [4].
The exclusion c i e ia we e indi iduals who ha e expe ienced IPV. This decision was made o p o ec hei physical and
men al heal h, and o educe he isk o unin en ionally in oducing bias due o hei heigh ened awa eness and
sensi i i y o he issue. The s udy ocused only on indi iduals li ing in he UK, as i was belie ed ha social alues and
belie s ega ding male ic ims o IPV we e gene ally simila ac oss he coun y, minimizing he isk o cul u al a ia ions
a ec ing he s udy ou come. Recen changes in legal amewo ks, such as he Domes ic Abuse Ac 2021, ha e shi ed
he UK owa ds mo e inclusi e esponses o male ic ims o IPV. This ac b oadened he de ini ion o domes ic abuse o
include emo ional, sexual, and inancial abuse, alongside physical iolence and manda ed public se ices o adop mo e
gende -neu al app oaches [53]. Fu he mo e, na ional s a egies like he Tackling Domes ic Abuse Plan ha e s a ed o
explici ly add ess he needs o male ic ims, e lec ing an e ol ing unde s anding o IPV and making he UK a ele an
con ex o his esea ch [54].
2.2. P ocedu e
The six-s ep analy ic p ocess sugges ed by B aun and Cla ke [51] was ollowed when analysing he in-dep h da a om
he in e iews. The ansc ip s we e ead and e- ead o become mo e amilia wi h he da a. Du ing his s age,
p elimina y no es we e aken, which con ibu ed o he p oduc ion o he ini ial codes. Codes a e undamen al
componen s ha a e ex ac ed om aw da a and can be meaning ully assessed in ela ion o a pa icula phenomenon.
O ganizing da a in o meaning ul g oups is a c ucial aspec o analysis, and coding is an in eg al pa o his p ocess [55].
Fo he hi d phase, he codes we e o ganised in o po en ial hemes and e alua ed on how he a ious codes could
me ge o c ea e main hemes. A e o ming a se o main hemes, he ou h phase in ol ed ine- uning he hemes
along wi h hei sub hemes. This equi ed e isi ing he hema ic map o ensu e i accu a ely e lec ed he da a se . To
e iew coded ex ac s, B aun and Cla ke sugges a wo-le el p ocess. The i s le el in ol ed e- eading he ex ac s and
checking o cohe ence. The second le el in ol ed e alua ing he alidi y o he hemes wi h he da a se . This helped o
gain a clea unde s anding o he hemes and hei ela ionships. The hemes we e hen named and de ined, wi h speci ic
aspec s o he da a ha hey cap u ed. Each heme was analysed in de ail, bo h indi idually and in ela ion o he la ge
na a i e o he da a o he esea ch ques ion. The da a analysis in ol ed an i e a i e p ocess, wi h con inuous back-
and- o h mo emen h oughou all six phases [51].
Upon analyzing he collec ed da a, i was concluded ha da a sa u a ion had been achie ed. This ma ks he s age in he
esea ch p ocess whe e no new in o ma ion is disco e ed, and he pa icipan s did no gene a e any addi ional codes
o hemes.
3. Resul s and discussion
The TA p ocess led o he eme gence o h ee main hemes: 1. Sociocul u al Fallacies and Pa adigms, 2. Psycho-
emo ional Enigma and 3. Legal Impedimen s and Suppo Sys ems. Each heme consis ed o wo sub hemes. Table 1
p o ides an o e iew o all he hemes and each one is discussed in u he dep h below.
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Table 1 Themes and Sub hemes
Themes
Sub hemes
Sociocul u al allacies and pa adigms
Hidden wounds Gende lens
Psycho-emo ional enigma
Emo ional complexi ies social aboo
Legal impedimen s and suppo sys ems
Legal laby in h Suppo spec um
3.1. Theme 1: Sociocul u al Fallacies and Pa adigms
3.1.1. Sub- heme 1.1: Hidden Wounds
The sub heme "Hidden Wounds" ep esen s he emo ional and psychological auma ha is o en supp essed o
dis ega ded in cases o IPV. While physical inju ies om IPV a e mo e isible and conside ed mo e se e e, he
emo ional and psychological sca s a e no always so appa en o o he s. This can esul in he ic ims and socie y
o e looking o misin e p e ing signs o abuse, leading o a downplaying o he se e i y o he si ua ion [23].
Fu he mo e, he na ow ocus on he iolen aspec o IPV can esul in o e looking he equally ha m ul bu less isible
o ms o abuse wi hin ela ionships.
Pa icipan s linked he sensa ion o unhappiness and discom o o physical iolence, sugges ing ha hey unde s and
iolence mos ly in e ms o i s physical ou comes. Thei ague unde s anding o wha cons i u es IPV sugges s ha
emo ional and e bal abuse may no consis en ly be ecognised as IPV because hey a e no iewed as se e e as physical
iolence.
Addi ionally, some pa icipan s di e en ia ed " iolence" om "in ima e pa ne abuse," associa ing iolence wi h
physical ha m and he la e wi h con olling beha iou s. They highligh ed he impac o e minology on hei
pe cep ion o abuse, sugges ing ha "In ima e Pa ne Abuse" could p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e amewo k
encompassing physical, emo ional, and psychological aspec s o abuse.
3.1.2. Sub- heme 1.2: Gende Lens
This sub heme explo es how deeply ing ained gende -based s e eo ypes and biases shape pe cep ions o IPV. Some iews
commonly exp essed by pa icipan s we e associa ed wi h gende s e eo ypes such as he belie ha men a e inhe en ly
physically s onge and he e o e canno be ic ims o abuse, o ha men a e usually he pe pe a o s o IPV, no ic ims
[37]. Thei na a i es sugges ha embedded gende s e eo ypes can dis o he pe cep ions o wha IPV is and he suppo
se ices a ailable.
A s e eo ype is deeply oo ed in his o ical and socie al pe spec i es. Pa icipan s assumed ha IPV a ec s mo e women
han men. This common assump ion may o igina e om adi ional gende oles ha ha e long po ayed women as
mo e ulne able in ela ionships, leading o he belie ha hey a e mo e likely o expe ience abuse.
Pa icipan s also s ongly associa ed gende s igma as a hind ance when seeking help and wi h hei pe cep ions o
a ailable se ices o men. Fo example, some exp essed how despi e being male ic ims, women we e mo e likely o
be abused han men, and as a esul , mo e suppo se ices we e a ailable o women. The mispe cep ion su ounding
male ic ims o IPV can make i di icul o ic ims o seek help, as hey may see i as a sign o weakness o ailu e.
Ul ima ely, his can lead o ic ims a oiding pu suing suppo al oge he .
3.2. Theme 2: Psycho-emo ional Enigma
3.2.1. Sub- heme 2.1: Emo ional Complexi ies
Recognising and seeking help o IPV can be a daun ing ask due o emo ional ba ie s such as shame, con usion, ea ,
and guil he ic ims may expe ience. The in e iews wi h pa icipan s unco e ed a common h ead ha hese emo ions
equen ly c ea e con lic ing eelings, making i challenging o g asp he complexi ies o IPV ully [4]. This sub heme
sheds ligh on he emo ional u bulence men o en g apples wi h, making i di icul o ecognise, cope, and seek
assis ance o IPV. Pa icipan s na a i es indica ed h ee emo ional complexi ies: emo ional exp ession, com o abili y,
and social isola ion.
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Da a suppo ed ha IPV can mani es as an emo ional ou le , whe e pe pe a o s eso o iolence o abuse as a means
o coping wi h hei own emo ions. The unp edic abili y and inconsis en beha iou s can o en lea e ic ims eeling
con used and ea ul.
A pa icipan ’s pe spec i e shed ligh on he in ica e emo ions ha angle ic ims in o abusi e ela ionships. They
emphasised he coexis ence o ea , ye a peculia sense o com o o amilia i y, can esul in an emo ional pa adox
ha o en p e en s ic ims om b eaking ee.
3.2.2. Sub- heme 2.2: Social Taboo
Social Taboo del es in o he socie al no ms ha impede open discussions abou he emo ional and psychological e ec s
o male ic ims o IPV pe pe a ed by women. Pa icipan s discussed how socie al p essu es and s e eo ypes
su ounding masculini y can discou age male ic ims om exp essing hei ulne abili y and emo ional dis ess,
u he in ensi ying hei emo ional s uggles [40]. This sub heme unde sco es he socie al ba ie s male ic ims ace
in acknowledging and add essing IPV ic imisa ion's psychological and emo ional aspec s. Pa icipan s’ oices
demons a e he impac o socie al aboos su ounding masculini y on he disclosu e o IPV.
A pa icipan sha ed ha p ide and sel - eliance uel his pe cep ion o sha ing pe sonal s uggles. Thei hesi a ion
o sha e own expe iences wi h o he s may s em om socie al expec a ions ha sugges indi iduals should be
sel - elian and capable o handling hei p oblems independen ly. This a i ude can c ea e a ba ie o open
discussions abou emo ional issues, including expe iences o IPV, as indi iduals may ea judgmen o pe cei e
disclosing such ulne abili ies as a sign o weakness.
Pa icipan s’ na a i es demons a e how socie al no ms ac as ba ie s o open discussions abou IPV, pa icula ly
o men who ace he ea o appea ing ulne able o emascula ed when seeking help.
3.3. Theme 3: Legal Impedimen s and Suppo Sys ems
3.3.1. Sub- heme 3.1: Legal Laby in h
Va ious conce ns by pa icipan s we e highligh ed, including he agueness su ounding legal p o ocols and
p oceedings, and he endency no o ake psychological abuse as se iously as physical iolence. Responses also sugges
conce n su ounding psychological abuse no lea ing isible ma ks, leading legal p o essionals such as police o ice s
o doub ic ims, dismiss hei claims, o e ain om in es iga ing wi hou adequa e p oo [7]. Pa icipan s’ na a i es
shed ligh on a ious ac o s ha may p e en ic ims o IPV om seeking jus ice.
A pa icipan highligh ed a speci ic legal issue in he UK, whe e he legal de ini ion o ape only in ol es pene a ion by
a penis. This can c ea e con usion o male ic ims o sexual abuse and may exclude hem om being classi ied as ape
ic ims in pa icula si ua ions. Ano he pa icipan del ed in o he p ac icali ies o he legal sys em's esponse o
IPV, sugges ing ha , om hei pe spec i e, only cases o immedia e physical endange men wa an police
in e en ion. Fu he , hey highligh ed he impac o socie al pe cep ions o masculini y wi hin he legal sys em,
whe e bo h he ic im and au ho i ies may doub o ques ion cases in ol ing male ic ims o IPV due o he
s e eo ype ha men a e expec ed o embody physical s eng h and oughness.
3.3.2. Sub- heme 3.2: Suppo Spec um
The sub heme "Suppo Spec um" explo es he pa icipan s' pe cep ions o he a ailable se ices and esou ces
o hose a ec ed by IPV. The e m "spec um" implies ha suppo se ices a e pe cei ed di e en ly ega ding
accessibili y, a ailabili y, and inclusi i y. Answe s e eal se e al limi a ions and ba ie s ha pa icipan s desc ibed,
including eeling like IPV is a ‘woman’s p oblem’, a lack o awa eness su ounding suppo a ailable o men and a lack
o us in se ices [41]. Du ing he s udy, he pa icipan s also exp essed a need o inc eased awa eness and di e si y
o suppo se ices.
I was no ed ha he dispa i y in online esou ces and socie al a i udes based on he gende o he ic im, sugges ing
he e a e mo e a ailable helplines o women compa ed o men who ace dismissi e a i udes. This e lec s unequal
esou ces and socie al biases p e en ing men om seeking suppo . The lack o di e si y in he police o ce also
unde lines he need o mo e inclusi e suppo sys ems, especially o indi iduals om e hnic mino i ies who may eel
uncom o able disclosing hei expe iences o Whi e B i ish o ice s.
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Fu he mo e, pa icipan s s essed he impo ance o choosing app op ia e suppo se ices when seeking help o IPV.
This highligh s a po en ial hesi ancy among indi iduals o each ou o con en ional heal hca e p o ide s like GPs,
indica ing he need o clea guidance on how and whe e o access app op ia e suppo . This unde sco es he
impo ance o p o iding indi iduals wi h clea in o ma ion on whe e o epo IPV and wha esou ces a e a ailable, as
he lack o such guidance can lea e hem unce ain abou whe e o seek help, po en ially esul ing in delayed o
inadequa e suppo .
4. Conclusion
This quali a i e s udy explo ed male pe spec i es on emale-pe pe a ed IPV, adding o he exis ing body o IPV
esea ch. The esea ch d ew a en ion o he o e looked issues and unique challenges men encoun e when ecognising
and seeking assis ance o emale-pe pe a ed IPV. These challenges include emascula ion, going agains socie al
expec a ions, ic im-blaming, and a lack o suppo se ices. The indings emphasise he impo ance o challenging
socie al s e eo ypes and gende no ms ha may p e en male ic ims om coming o wa d and seeking aid. By aising
awa eness o he p e alence o emale-pe pe a ed IPV and de eloping comp ehensi e suppo ne wo ks which ca e
o he unique needs o male ic ims, socie y can b eak down he obs acles which p e en male IPV su i o s om
seeking help whils acili a ing hei pa h o healing and eco e y.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Acknowledgmen s
Au ho s would like o hank hose who ook pa in his s udy.
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
S a emen o e hical app o al
E hical app o al was ob ained om he Resea ch E hics Commi ee a Uni e si y o Roehamp on London.
S a emen o in o med consen
In o med consen was ob ained om all indi idual pa icipan s included in he s udy.
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