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Wha is local esea ch? Towa ds a 1
mul idimensional amewo k linking 2
heo y and me hods 3
4
Vic o ia Di Césa e1* and Nicolas Robinson-Ga cia1 5
6
1Uni o Compu a ional Humani ies and Social Sciences (U-CHASS), 7
Depa men o In o ma ion and Communica ion, Uni e si y o G anada (Spain) 8
*Co esponding au ho . Email: [email p o ec ed] 9
10
Abs ac 11
In his esea ch a icle, we p opose a amewo k o local esea ch, a concep o g owing impo ance due 12
o i s a - eaching implica ions o public policy. Despi e being inc easingly men ioned in scien i ic 13
publica ions and policy documen s, he e seems o be li le ag eemen on wha he concep means and 14
on which phenomena i co e s. A clea unde s anding o i is c ucial o in o med decision-making 15
when se ing esea ch agendas, alloca ing unds, and e alua ing and ewa ding scien is s. Ou goal is o 16
de e mine how he concep o local esea ch ela es o i s measu emen , highligh ing he nuances 17
in ol ed in i s heo e ical depic ion and he isks o applying di e en empi ical me hods 18
indisc imina ely ac oss egional and disciplina y con ex s. We i s explo e a ious ideas and 19
app oaches o local esea ch ound in he li e a u e. Then, we syn hesize hem in o h ee dimensions – 20
locally si ua ed, in o med, and ele an esea ch – and es six app oaches – Toponyms, Languages, 21
Au ho s, Da abases, Re e ences, and Ci a ions – in 10 million publica ions om he Dimensions 22
da abase. Ou indings sugges di e gences ac oss egional and disciplina y se ings. The ope a ional 23
app oaches o iden i y local esea ch ope a e di e en ly ac oss bo h he disciplina y landscape and he 24
Global No h-Sou h di ide. In addi ion, we obse e no comple e alignmen be ween heo y and p ac ice. 25
This a icle highligh s he complex, mul i ace ed na u e o local esea ch. We p opose a amewo k o 26
acili a e he s udy o i s di e en dimensions and hei in e sec ions, o help mi iga e many o he 27
ba ie s cu en esea ch e alua ion sys ems ace when assessing and suppo ing local esea ch. 28
29
Keywo ds: local esea ch; scien i ic knowledge; scien i ic policy; esea ch e alua ion; scien ome ics. 30
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In oduc ion 31
Local knowledge is cen al o he de elopmen and implemen a ion o e icien policies, which 32
adap and conside he condi ions and needs o di e en social g oups (S igli z 1999). This is especially 33
ele an in pe iphe al communi ies, whe e mains eam knowledge, s uc u ed a ound Global No h 34
no ms and alues, may inadequa ely adap o local con ex s (Cancino e al. 2024; Ma ginson & Xu 35
2021). Hence, scien i ic policy awa eness is mos needed in o de o os e and p io i ize local esea ch, 36
ensu ing a be e dis ibu ion o esou ces (Miguel e al. 2015). Howe e , despi e he g ea in e es 37
su ounding i , he linkage be ween how local esea ch is de ined and measu ed ac oss ields o science 38
is unclea . I is he e o e essen ial o g asp he concep ho oughly in o de o make in o med decisions 39
when se ing esea ch agendas, alloca ing unds, e alua ing scien is s, and ewa ding hem o hei 40
wo k. Con e sely, a lack o sys ema iza ion in de ining local esea ch may lea e a acuum ha can lead 41
o he imposi ion o colonizing s anda ds, uni e salis ic c i e ia, and anking egimes (Ishikawa 2014; 42
López Piñei o & Hicks 2015). This can e ode he wo k o local esea che s, who p o ide “ he bes 43
p ospec s o de i ing policies which a e bo h e ec i e and engende b oad-based suppo ” (S igli z 44
1999 p. 3). 45
The impo ance o linking heo y and p ac ice when de ining local esea ch lies in i s a -46
eaching implica ions o public policy and esea ch e alua ion. Al hough ecu en ly used (e.g. 47
Cancino e al. 2024; Cha a o e al. 2014; Hicks e al. 2015), esea che s seem o disag ee bo h on wha 48
he e m means —i s de ining ea u es— and on he phenomena i co e s (Hamp on 2020). Conc e e, 49
uni ied de ini ions a e sca ce, and only ecen ly ha e pa ial me hods o i s measu ing been de eloped, 50
al hough he app oaches’ exempla s do no necessa ily e lec hose de ining ea u es. The mos ypical 51
me hod passed on o e ime uses oponyms o measu emen ( o ins ance, in Cha a o e al. 2014; 52
O dóñez-Ma amo os e al. 2010; Zhuang e al. 2020). O he app oaches use na ional languages, jou nal 53
loca ion, o absence om in e na ional da abases as p oxies o he local (e.g. Gup a & Dhawan 2009; 54
Kulczycki e al. 2020; Tijssen 2007). Besides scien is s, o he s akeholde s like go e nmen s and 55
unde s ha e also exp essed g owing in e es in local esea ch, bu hey a oid clea ly s a ing he 56
concep ’s scope (Cancino e al. 2024; Consejo La inoame icano de Ciencias Sociales 2020; Delgado-57
López-Cóza e al. 2021; Hicks e al. 2015; Uni ed Na ions Educa ional, Scien i ic and Cul u al 58
O ganiza ion 2021; Zhang & Si e sen 2020). 59
In his a icle, we explo e a ious de ini ions and app oaches o iden i y local esea ch ound in 60
he li e a u e. Ou aim is o elucida e how he concep o local esea ch ela es o i s measu emen , 61
highligh ing he nuances in ol ed in i s heo e ical depic ion and he isks o applying di e en 62
empi ical me hods indisc imina ely ac oss egional and disciplina y con ex s. To do so, we i s u n o 63
some pos -Wo ld Wa II discussions abou science’s social goals and uni e salis aming, which 64
eme ged in Global No h coun ies bu we e coun e ac ed by he Global Sou h’s conce n o hei own 65
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local challenges. We syn hesize hese di e se iews in o h ee ecu ing oci, whe e esea ch is ied o 66
place, knowledge p oduce s, and audiences. Then, we iden i y he mos used me hodological 67
app oaches o local esea ch, which we compu e o mo e han 10 million Dimensions publica ions a 68
he disciplina y, coun y, and wo ld egion le els. Conside ing all heo e ical and empi ical 69
con ibu ions o he ma e , as well as hei limi a ions, we p opose a amewo k o local esea ch ha 70
a icula es he dimensions we call locally si ua ed, in o med, and ele an esea ch. The measu emen 71
esul s sugges , on he one hand, ha he app oaches ope a e di e en ly ac oss he Global No h-Sou h 72
di ide and, on he o he , ha he e is no comple e alignmen be ween heo y and p ac ice when i comes 73
o local esea ch. 74
Li e a u e e iew 75
De ining local esea ch 76
Conce n o he local in ela ion o science and echnology can be aced back o he a e ma h 77
o Wo ld Wa II, when science policy was es ablished as a dis inc policy domain unde he so-called 78
‘social con ac ’ o science (Elzinga & Jamison 1995). In he Uni ed S a es, wa ime capaci ies we e 79
edi ec ed owa ds s a egic social goals (Bush 1945), while in Eu ope, econs uc ion and he eme ging 80
Cold Wa os e ed new o ms o scien i ic na ionalism (K ige 2006; K ige & Ba h 2006). Ye , science 81
p esen ed i sel as uni e sal and sel -go e ning (Me on 1968; Polanyi 1969), masking i s na ional 82
in e es s. This uni e salis aming was expo ed o he Global Sou h, whe e i shaped p io i ies, ailing 83
o add ess local challenges. I is in his con ex ha he no ion o local esea ch began o be a icula ed, 84
in explici opposi ion o he ‘global’ agendas p omo ed om he No h (Sába o & Bo ana 1968; Vessu i 85
1987). 86
The con as be ween Global No h and Sou h is pa icula ly isible in how e alua ion cul u es 87
ha e shaped legi imacy o local esea ch. In he No h, unde Me on’s ideal o uni e salism, esea ch 88
oo ed in speci ic con ex s was a ely iden i ied as local bu p esen ed as gene al knowledge (Sa ewi z 89
1996). Scien ome ic indica o s such as Impac Fac o s ha e ein o ced his by ea ing quali y as 90
uni e sally compa able, ende ing locali y in isible (López-Piñei o & Hicks 2015; Rà ols e al. 2016). 91
This has become an issue, bo h in he No h as well as he Sou h, calling o mo e socially obus and 92
pa icipa o y knowledge p oduc ion (Sa ewi z 2016; Gibbons e al. 1994) o by explici ly denouncing 93
he clash be ween impo ed e alua ion sys ems and de elopmen al needs (Singe e al. 1970; Su z 94
2000). 95
These con as ing ajec o ies e eal why he concep o local esea ch has emained elusi e. In 96
he No h, locali y was masked unde claims o uni e sali y; in he Sou h, i was explici ly o eg ounded 97
bu o en delegi imised h ough e alua ion p ac ices. As a esul , he e m has been used in mul iple, 98
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some imes inconsis en ways. Taken oge he , hese deba es poin o h ee ecu ing oci: whe e esea ch 99
is p oduced, by whom i is conduc ed, and o whom i is in ended. Each emphasises a di e en aspec 100
o how esea ch is ied o place, knowledge p oduce s, and audiences, and each has been suppo ed by 101
di e en s ands o li e a u e. 102
One o he ecu en ways in which local esea ch has been de ined is h ough i s geog aphical 103
boundedness. He e, he objec o s udy is ied o a speci ic place, popula ion, o ecosys em, and he 104
locali y o he esea ch de i es om his explici geog aphical ancho ing. Fo ins ance, Duncan (1989) 105
a gues ha empi ical esea ch should be sensi i e o spa ial di e ences. In he same sense, Somme 106
(1990 p. 205) desc ibes esea ch as local when i is “si e-speci ic, in ha he esea che seeks o 107
unde s and o change condi ions in a pa icula loca ion a a pa icula ime”. In sum, he e we see ha 108
local esea ch can e e o speci ic loca ions wi h hei e i o ial pa icula i ies a di e en geog aphical 109
le els. 110
Ano he end o li e a u e conside s i especially impo an o conduc esea ch ha 111
acknowledges he unique ea u es o he local, in o de o diagnose and de elop solu ions in line wi h 112
he expe ise o sys ema ically ma ginalized communi ies (Moo e e al. 2019; Somme 1990). He e, 113
local esea ch is concep ualised by e e ence o he indi iduals, communi ies, o sou ces upon which 114
esea ch is p oduced. Local con ex and knowledge a e seen as key cha ac e is ics o his ype o 115
esea ch because hey help design and di ec esea ch p io i ies in alignmen wi h socie al needs and 116
demands. This is e lec ed in policy ac ions di ec ed a p omo ing co-c ea ion and p oduc i e 117
in e ac ions, by s essing he need o alliances wi h local communi ies o gene a e knowledge ha is 118
bo h scien i ically obus and socially ele an (Spaapen & an D ooge 2011; T enche e al. 2014). 119
O he examples a e hose d awing on indigenous o adi ional knowledge sys ems as a ounda ion o 120
esea ch (Akena 2012; Beigel 2013; Da a 2018). 121
A he same ime, he e a e limi a ions o equa ing p o enance wi h locali y. The ac ha 122
esea ch is conduc ed by geog aphically concen a ed au ho s o e e ences does no gua an ee ha he 123
wo k add esses local issues. Con e sely, ex e nal esea che s can con ibu e o s udies ha a e highly 124
con ex ualised and esponsi e o local needs. As se e al schola s ha e a gued, he o ien a ion and use 125
o knowledge canno be assumed simply om he ins i u ional o geog aphic o igins o i s p oduce s 126
(Beigel 2013; Su z 2000). This is e lec ed in he hi d s eam o li e a u e, which ocuses on 127
communi ies, egions, o audiences o whom knowledge is mos ele an . F om such a iew, esea ch 128
can be labelled as local when o ien ed o add ess he speci ic needs o challenges o a bounded 129
communi y. The li e a u e on he socie al impac o esea ch ela es o his, as ele ance is conside ed 130
a key cha ac e is ic (Bo nmann 2013; Vanclay 2002). 131
The in e es in knowledge p oduc ion, scien i ic impac , and he localiza ion o esea ch 132
ac i i ies is p oblema ized as well by spa ial scien ome ics, in o de o d aw a en ion o he 133
geog aphically concen a ed a ibu es o esea ch ou pu s ha a e no mally ci cumsc ibed as global 134
(F enken e al. 2009). The scien ome ic communi y gene ally ag ees wi h a no ion o local esea ch 135
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ha implies “ esea ch ela ed o ei he local, egional o na ional con ex s, condi ions o opics, as 136
opposed o esea ch ha is uni e salis ic o decon ex ualized” (Cha a o e al. 2014 p. 2). As a esul 137
o his ype o in es iga ion, “ ele an knowledge is de i ed, con ibu ing he e o e o he local s ock o 138
in o ma ion necessa y o inc ease local unde s anding and o p oduce new knowledge aluable o sol e 139
local in ellec ual, echnical, o social issues” (O dóñez-Ma amo os e al. 2010 p. 421). As we will see 140
below, all he ideas abou local esea ch discussed so a pe mea e a emp s o measu e he phenomenon. 141
Iden i ying local esea ch 142
F om an empi ical pe spec i e, di e en bibliome ic app oaches ha e been sugges ed in he 143
li e a u e o explo e and analyse ‘unde ep esen ed’ o local esea ch in bibliog aphic da abases. Hence, 144
we ind s udies ocusing on isibili y (Tijssen e al. 2006), au ho ship and collabo a ion (O dóñez-145
Ma amo os e al. 2010; Tijssen 2007), in e disciplina i y (Cha a o e al. 2014), publishing dynamics 146
(Ishikawa & Sun 2016; Kulczycki e al. 2020; Mi onescu e al. 2023), and opics (Miguel e al. 2015; 147
Zhuang e al. 2020), among o he s. These s udies end o ocus on coun ies om he Global Sou h. 148
Howe e , he me hods used o iden i y local esea ch end o a y ac oss s udies, wi h only a ew 149
aming hei me hodological design om a heo e ically d i en pe spec i e. In mos cases, hese 150
de ini ions a e p agma ic and con ex -d i en, mo e he esul o echnical solu ions han o e lec ion on 151
he p oxy used and i s capaci y o iden i y esea ch inhe en ly local. Nex , we will e iew he mos 152
common ope a ional app oaches o iden i ying local esea ch in he scien i ic li e a u e, which can be 153
g ouped as ollows (see Table 1 o a summa y): 154
1) Toponym-based me hods, which ely on he p esence o place names o indica e a geog aphical ocus 155
in esea ch ou pu s. 156
2) Language-based me hods, whe e he use o non-English languages is aken as an indica o o a 157
domes ic o ien a ion in esea ch. 158
3) Jou nal-based me hods, which assume ha esea ch published in na ional jou nals by local au ho s 159
and/o indexed in non-mains eam da abases inhe en ly e lec s domes ic conce ns o opics. 160
Toponym-based me hods 161
The s a ing p emise o s udies cen ed on oponyms is ha esea ch is locally si ua ed in a 162
pa icula place o con ex (Cha a o e al. 2014; Miguel e al. 2015; O dóñez-Ma amo os e al. 2010; 163
Somme 1990). One o he mos commonly used me hods o his app oach is o iden i y oponyms and 164
demonyms in i les, abs ac s, keywo ds, and a ious o he sec ions o publica ions (O duña-Malea e 165
al. 2024). I has been used o analyse mul iple aspec s o local esea ch, like he sha e o con ibu ions 166
on local issues au ho ed by na ional and o eign esea che s, and he e ec s o in e na ional 167
collabo a ion on eam pe o mance and agenda se ing in Global Sou h coun ies (O dóñez-Ma amo os 168
e al. 2010). Addi ionally, his me hod was employed o in es iga e he ela ionship be ween he deg ee 169
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o in e disciplina i y and he local o ien a ion o publica ions in Colombia (Cha a o e al. 2014). O he 170
s udies ocused on he g ow h a e in di e en disciplines wi hin A gen ina’s hema ic domain (Miguel 171
e al. 2015) and he in e ac ions o global and local geog aphy opics in China and he Uni ed S a es, 172
especially ega ding local esponses o global issues and he global pe o mance o local ma e s 173
(Zhuang e al. 2020). 174
These s udies ha e con ibu ed o gaining insigh s in o he na u e and scope o esea ch 175
add essing local issues (Cha a o e al. 2014; O dóñez-Ma amo os e al. 2010). S ill, oponym-based 176
me hods pose a se ies o me hodological challenges ha can unde mine hei capaci y o iden i y local 177
esea ch. Fi s , he e is an unequal use o oponyms by egion in i les and abs ac s ha eme ges om 178
epis emological hegemony a he han nume ic dominance in scien i ic p oduc ion (Cas o To es & 179
Albu ez-Gu ie ez 2022; Cas o To es 2024). Au ho s om he Global No h a e less likely o include 180
conc e e geog aphical e e ences, pa icula ly coun y names, in hei a icles han au ho s om he 181
Global Sou h (Cas o To es 2024), who end up being mo e exposed o he e alua ion and ci a ion 182
disad an ages o ollowing naming con en ions (Kahalon e al. 2022; Miguel e al. 2023; Mongeon e 183
al. 2022). This leads o he ein o cemen o he belie ha “e idence p oduced in and abou he Global 184
No h is assumed o be mo e ‘uni e sal’, whe eas e idence om o p oduced in he Global Sou h is 185
conside ed alid only o speci ic con ex s (i.e. ‘localized’)” (Cas o To es & Albu ez-Gu ie ez 2022 186
p. 1). Second, ce ain disciplines and e en subdisciplines, such as demog aphy o in e na ional ela ions 187
wi hin he Social Sciences, a e mo e geog aphically bounded; hus con aining mo e explici geoloca ion 188
e e ences han o he s, like gene al o educa ional psychology (Cas o To es & Albu ez-Gu ie ez 189
2022). Beha iou al sciences p o ide an illus a i e case whe e indings a e equen ly gene alized om 190
p edominan ly Wes e n, Educa ed, Indus ialized, Rich, and Democ a ic (WEIRD) samples, 191
highligh ing he exis ence o local esea ch ha emains unlabelled as such (Hen ich e al. 2010; 192
Kahalon e al. 2022; Miguel e al. 2015). All hese di e ences in localiza ion habi s, disciplines, and 193
da a sou ces ansla e in o ewe oponyms’ men ions, ha is, alse nega i e esul s. 194
Fu he mo e, wo king wi h oponyms is complex on a echnical le el. While hei isola ion 195
om na u al language ex migh be s aigh o wa d when i comes o unique p ope nouns, i can 196
p oduce alse posi i e esul s when dealing wi h common place names, an h oponyms, and o dina y 197
nouns. A close example o us is G anada, which in Spanish e e s o se e al ci ies in Spain, Pe u, 198
Nica agua, and he Uni ed S a es, a p o ince in Spain, a depa men in Nica agua, a coun y in he 199
Ca ibbean, a ui (pomeg ana e), and a weapon (hand-g enade). Simila issues can be ound in he 200
coincidence be ween s ee s and people’s names (Je ônimo e al. 2018) o in he close linkages be ween 201
oponyms and de ma ological condi ions (Radhika e al. 2021), jus o men ion a ew examples. As he 202
le el o e i o ial agg ega ion dec eases, hese ypes o scena ios mul iply, which could explain he 203
s a egy o mos s udies wo king wi h oponyms a he coun y le el only, and hence looking mo e in o 204
na ional esea ch pe se. While no el me hodologies using Na u al Language P ocessing (NLP) 205
echniques ha e he po en ial o o e come hese limi a ions (Je ônimo e al. 2018; Mongeon e al. 2022), 206
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he e is space o imp o emen , especially due o he isk o alse posi i es and alse nega i es in he 207
ob ained esul s. 208
Language-based me hods 209
S udies using language o iden i y local esea ch usually ake English as a p oxy o global 210
esea ch. This is because English has, o many decades now, been b oadly conside ed he lingua anca 211
o science (Ga ield 1967), wi h mains eam da abases p ima ily co e ing publica ions in his language 212
( an Leeuwen e al. 2001). Added o his is he no ion ha publishing in he English language allows 213
esea ch o po en ially each b oade audiences, achie e g ea e impac and, he e o e, gain wide 214
ecogni ion and ewa d (Buela-Casal & Zych 2012; López-Na a o e al. 2015). This has led many non-215
Anglophone coun ies o implemen na ional policies ha p omo e publishing in English as a s a egy 216
o boos in e na ionaliza ion and enhance hei scien i ic impac (Robinson-Ga cia & Rà ols 2020). 217
Fields ha a e especially a ec ed by his linkage be ween language and in e na ionaliza ion a e 218
hose o he Social Sciences and he Humani ies. Resea che s will a emp o add ess di e en 219
audiences: global o na ional. Depending on hei goal, hey will publish in hei own language in o de 220
o each local communi ies (Nede ho 2006). This is e idenced by he esis ance esea che s in hese 221
a eas pose o policies pushing hem owa ds publishing in he English language (Ishikawa & Sun 2016), 222
highligh ing he impo ance o hei na ional language as a means o each local audiences (Kulczycki 223
e al. 2020; Mi onescu e al. 2023). 224
Ano he example o he use o language as a p oxy o iden i ying local o global esea ch is 225
ound in he CWTS Leiden Ranking (h ps://www.leiden anking.com/), which aims a analysing he 226
scien i ic pe o mance o o e 1,500 uni e si ies wo ldwide. This anking is based on bibliome ic da a 227
de i ed om Web o Science1. Howe e , hey exclude publica ions in non-English languages (CWTS 228
2024) and do no conside hem as co e publica ions sui able o analysis, hus ein o cing a double 229
bias: one ela ed o he p edominance o Global No h co e age wi hin WOS, and ano he o he 230
p e e ence o English language publica ions. Gi en ha languages o he han English also con ibu e 231
o knowledge ad ancemen , he main p oblem wi h language-based me hods is ha hey o e shadow 232
and unde a e non-English scien i ic ou pu s ( an Leeuwen e al. 2001). 233
F om a echnical pe spec i e, language can be a p oblema ic a iable o iden i y local esea ch 234
on a la ge scale. Many o hem, like English, A abic, o Spanish, a e o icial o co-o icial in se e al 235
coun ies, which means hey canno be indica i e o a single place. E en i his app oach is con olled 236
o geog aphical a ilia ion, wo king a lowe le els o e i o ial agg ega ion would gene ally no be 237
possible, since mos egions and ci ies sha e a na ional language. Especially di icul is o ex apola e 238
he me hod o Anglophone coun ies, as i would no be possible o dis inguish be ween local and global 239
scien i ic ou pu s based solely on hei language o publica ion. 240
1 Al hough since 2024 i also includes an open e sion based on OpenAlex da a.
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Jou nal-based me hods 241
S udies on he o igin o jou nals o en assume ha esea ch published in na ionally o ien ed 242
sou ces inhe en ly e lec s local conce ns (e.g. López Piñei o & Hicks 2015; Miguel e al. 2015; Na as-243
Fe nández e al. 2018; Tijssen 2007). In con as , in e na ional jou nals a e ypically de ined by c i e ia 244
such as being p oduced by la ge edi o ial conglome a es, a ilia ed wi h enowned ins i u ions, edi ed 245
by in e na ionally di e se commi ees, selec ed by au ho s wo ldwide, published in English, o indexed 246
in mains eam da abases (Buela-Casal e al. 2006). In his sense, one common app oach ocuses on he 247
geog aphical a ilia ions o key ac o s in ol ed in he jou nals’ p oduc ion, including publishe s, 248
edi o s, e iewe s, and au ho s. This me hod has been applied in s udies on A ican jou nals, whe e 249
hei ele ance and pe o mance a e in es iga ed wi hin he global esea ch landscape bu a e s ill 250
conside ed local (Tijssen 2007; Tijssen e al. 2006). Howe e , hese me hods ace challenges, as he 251
me e geog aphical loca ion o a jou nal o i s con ibu o s does no necessa ily indica e ha he 252
knowledge p oduced is ela ed o he con ex in which i is gene a ed. Mains eam jou nals, o en owned 253
by la ge academic publishing companies in he Uni ed Kingdom, he Ne he lands, o he Uni ed S a es, 254
publish esea ch in e na ionally. This unde s anding o locali y e lec s he assump ion ha Wes e n, 255
Anglophone jou nals a e la gely deemed global, while hose edi ed in pe iphe al coun ies mus mee 256
se e al ex a c i e ia o gain he same ecogni ion (Na as-Fe nández e al. 2018). 257
Al hough many di e en ci ing beha iou s ha e been iden i ied (Bo gman & Fu ne 2002), 258
se e al s udies also sugges looking in o he geog aphical loca ion o ci a ions o de ine in e na ional o 259
na ional jou nals, hus adding ano he pe spec i e in o locali y: ha which is used o consumed by 260
indi iduals geog aphically loca ed in a single place (G ančay e al. 2017; Hladchenko & Moed 2021; 261
Moed e al. 2021; Pajić 2015). This ci a ion app oach is u he de eloped in combina ion wi h jou nal 262
indexing in o de o in es iga e wo se s o highly ci ed pape s wi hin Spanish sociology acco ding o 263
wo da abases: an in e na ional one (Web o Science) and a na ional one (In-RECS). As a esul , ci a ion 264
di e ences by language a e e ealed, poin ing owa ds a ela ion be ween jou nal, ci a ion impac , 265
language, and opics (López Piñei o & Hicks 2015). 266
The use o da abase indexing as a c i e ion o iden i y local jou nals is based on he no ion ha 267
WOS (and Scopus by ex ension) index only hose jou nals ha cons i u e he co e o each special y. 268
This p emise da es back o B ad o d’s Law o Sca e ing and i s applica ion by Ga ield o abs ac ing 269
se ices (Bensman 2012). Ga ield based he inclusion o jou nals in WOS on uni e salis ic c i e ia, 270
such as edi o ial s anda ds and scien i ic impac . Bu o e ime, he selec ion p ocedu e2 has been 271
modi ied as o he p oduc s and ci a ion indexes ha e been added, e ealing a disciplina y and 272
geog aphical bias in i s co e age (Cha a o e al. 2018; an Leeuwen e al. 2001). Fu he mo e, an 273
addi ional sou ce o bias in wha is conside ed o be he mains eam lies in he e e encing p ac ices o 274
2 Mo e in o ma ion on he jou nal selec ion p ocess a ailable a h ps://cla i a e.com/p oduc s/scien i ic-and-
academic- esea ch/ esea ch-disco e y-and-wo k low-solu ions/webo science-pla o m/web-o -science-co e-
collec ion/edi o ial-selec ion-p ocess/edi o ial-selec ion-p ocess/.
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eli e jou nals which, by disp opo iona ely ci ing esea ch om a ew dominan coun ies, ep oduce 275
exis ing global hie a chies (Bo nmann e al. 2018). 276
Jou nal indexing is used in many coun ies as an e alua ion c i e ion, en o cing schola s o 277
publish in jou nals included in mains eam da abases as a s a egy o in e na ionalize hei esea ch. We 278
ind examples o such an app oach in coun ies such as Spain, Colombia, and B azil (Cha a o e al. 279
2018). In he case o he o me , we e en ind ca ego iza ions o jou nals based on a combina ion o 280
indexing and jou nal impac me ics (To es-Salinas e al. 2010). By p esen ing mains eam da abase 281
con en as uni e sally ep esen a i e, he p esence o local esea ch in he Global No h is obscu ed. 282
Mo e b oadly, he dange s o using hese biased and incomple e sou ces as p oxies o global science 283
a e signi ican . They p o ide a dis o ed iew o he olume and na u e o esea ch agendas wo ldwide, 284
ein o ce he no ion ha only science om he Global No h cons i u es in e na ional mains eam 285
esea ch, and isk in o ming policy decisions ha unde alue local con ibu ions. This is pa icula ly 286
p oblema ic when assessing esea che s’ pe o mance, as i can lead o he ma ginaliza ion o local 287
esea ch e o s (To es-Salinas e al. 2010). 288
Table 1. Summa y o ope a ional app oaches o iden i y local esea ch. 289
Ope a ional app oaches
P oxies o
local esea ch
Uni s o
analysis
Re e ences
Toponym-based
Toponyms
Toponyms and
demonyms
men ioned in
scien i ic
publica ions
A icles
E.g. Cas o To es &
Albu ez-Gu ie ez 2022;
Cha a o e al. 2014; Miguel
e al. 2015; Mongeon e al.
2022; O dóñez-Ma amo os
e al. 2010
Con e ence
pape s
E.g. Zhuang e al. 2020
Language-based
Languages
Non-English
languages o
scien i ic
publica ions
A icles
E.g. CWTS 2024; Ishikawa
& Sun 2016; Kulczycki e al.
2020; Miguel e al. 2023
Jou nals
E.g. Cha a o e al. 2018;
Mi onescu e al. 2023;
Na as-Fe nández e al. 2018
Jou nal-based
Au ho s
Geog aphical
a ilia ion o
publishing au ho s
A icles
E.g. López Piñei o & Hicks
2015; Miguel e al. 2015
Jou nals
E.g. Hladchenko & Moed
2021; Moed e al. 2021;
Na as-Fe nández e al.
2018; Pajić 2015; Tijssen
2007
Da abases
Non-mains eam
indexing o
scien i ic
publica ions
A icles
E.g. López Piñei o & Hicks
2015
Jou nals
E.g. Na as-Fe nández e al.
2018; Tijssen e al. 2006;
To es-Salinas e al. 2010
Re e ences
A icles
E.g. Bo nmann e al. 2018
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Figu e 2. In e sec ion o local jou nal se s ac oss ope a ional app oaches. 434
Figu e 3 del es in o ield and ca ego y di e ences wi hin he subse s o local jou nals acco ding 435
o each ope a ional app oach. The colou scale ep esen s he p opo ion o local jou nals ha belong o 436
each disciplina y ca ego y, g ouped by Dimensions ields. In gene al, mos sha es a e low, and any 437
p onounced di e ences a e ha d o obse e. The Social and Heal h Sciences a e he only ields wi h 438
ca ego ies ha exceed 10% o jou nals iden i ied as local by he a ious ope a ional app oaches. In he 439
i s case, a ew highligh s can be seen in he Toponyms and Re e ences app oaches o Human Socie y 440
(0.18 and 0.13, espec i ely), and in he Languages and Ci a ions app oaches o Educa ion (0.13 and 441
0.12). In he second case, Heal h Sciences in o ms some o he highes sha es, especially in Au ho s 442
and Da abases o he Biomedical and Clinical Sciences ca ego y (0.22 and 0.20). As o he 443
Humani ies, Li e and Physical Sciences, he p opo ions emain low ac oss all ca ego ies and 444
app oaches. This dis ibu ion becomes mo e in o ma i e when looking a he alues by coun y and 445
wo ld egion in he nex Figu es. 446
447
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Figu e 3. Sha e o local jou nals acco ding o each ope a ional app oach by ield and disciplina y 448
ca ego y. 449
Local esea ch a he coun y and wo ld egion le els 450
In Figu e 4, we show six di e en wo ld maps, each one o hem co esponding o an 451
ope a ional app oach. The colou scale ep esen s each coun y’s p opo ion o pape s published in local 452
jou nals wi h espec o hei o al numbe o publica ions du ing he pe iod o s udy. The da ke hues 453
indica e a low sha e o publica ions in local jou nals, whe eas he ligh e shades e eal highe 454
p opo ions. O e all, Toponyms s ands ou because i p esen s he highes p opo ions. App oxima ely 455
50% o 80% o he pape s p oduced in pa s o A ica, Sou heas Asia, and La in Ame ica and he 456
Ca ibbean a e published in local jou nals acco ding o his app oach. Da abases also p esen s medium 457
o high p opo ions, pa icula ly in Sou heas Asia, Eas e n Eu ope, and La in Ame ica and he 458
Ca ibbean. Indonesia s ands ou because 85% o i s pape s a e no indexed in mains eam da abases. 459
Mos pa s o he Ci a ions map show low sha es o local esea ch excep o coun ies like Indonesia 460
(0.52), Uk aine (0.50), Russia (0.40), and B azil (0.30). F om an audience poin o iew, hese coun ies 461
publish a ound 30% o 50% o hei pape s in local jou nals. These same coun ies s and ou in Au ho s, 462
wi h 30% o 45% o hei pape s being published in sou ces ha mos ly dissemina e a icles by 463
esea che s decla ing he same geog aphical a ilia ion. The Re e ences app oach, in con as , highligh s 464
cases like he Uni ed S a es (0.30) and Canada (0.18). F om an in o ma ion sou ce pe spec i e, a ound 465
20% o 30% o hei ou pu is published in jou nals e e encing pape s ha a e geog aphically 466
cons ained. Finally, Languages epo s ha almos all coun ies publish in jou nals ope a ing in 467
English, al hough mos o La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean exhibi sligh ly ligh e hues han he es o 468
he wo ld. 469
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470
Figu e 4. Coun ies’ publica ion sha e in local jou nals by ope a ional app oach. 471
Figu e 5 del es in o ca ego y di e ences pe ope a ional app oach a he egional le el. Again, 472
he colou scale ep esen s he p opo ion o pape s published in local jou nals wi h espec o each 473
wo ld egion’s o al numbe o publica ions du ing he pe iod o s udy. The ligh e he shade, he highe 474
he p opo ion, which allows us o obse e ha La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean ha e he mos locally 475
o ien ed scien i ic p oduc ion o all egions, ac oss all ields and app oaches. A ica and Oceania epo 476
hei highe p opo ional alues in Toponyms, whe eas he Uni ed S a es and Canada’s mos no iceable 477
column is Re e ences. Asia and Eu ope display qui e simila pa e ns o high o mode a e alues, 478
especially in Toponyms and Da abases. O e all, Figu e 5 in o ms ha he highes publica ion sha es in 479
local jou nals end o concen a e owa ds Global Sou h egions, and ha one o se e al combined 480
app oaches success ully de ec he local in hose mo e pe iphe al pa s o he wo ld. S ill, despi e hei 481
di e ences pe app oach, all egions sha e wo ligh e -colou ed sec ions ha sp ead ac oss he Social 482
Sciences and Humani ies, including a couple o disciplina y ca ego ies om he Li e Sciences. 483
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Focusing on he ope a ional app oaches, Toponyms shows medium o high p opo ions in mos 484
ca ego ies om he Humani ies, Social, and Li e Sciences. They a e pa icula ly e iden in A ica 485
(Human Socie y = 0.88) and Oceania (His o y, He i age and A chaeology = 0.84). On he con a y, 486
Languages is ba ely p esen in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean (Educa ion = 0.34) and Asia (C ea i e 487
A s and W i ing = 0.24). Au ho s appea s qui e mu ed in mos egions bu La in Ame ica and he 488
Ca ibbean (Language, Communica ion and Cul u e = 0.58) and Asia (Educa ion = 0.56). Nex o i , 489
Da abases has some o he b igh es a eas in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean a ound Social Sciences 490
(Educa ion = 0.85) and Humani ies (C ea i e A s and W i ing = 0.89), wi h se e al ca ego ies also 491
s anding ou o Asia (Philosophy and Religious S udies = 0.77). The Re e ences app oach in o ms 492
conside able sha es in he Uni ed S a es and Canada ac oss he Social Sciences (Educa ion = 0.79), 493
Humani ies (Philosophy and Religious S udies = 0.72), and e en pa o he Heal h Sciences. A ew 494
Humani ies ca ego ies a e also qui e no iceable om his app oach’s pe spec i e in Oceania, A ica, 495
and Eu ope. Las ly, Ci a ions is almos only highligh ed in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean’s Social 496
Sciences (Law and Legal S udies = 0.72) and Humani ies (Language, Communica ion and Cul u e = 497
0.73), along wi h a ew ligh -colo ed ca ego ies in Asia (Philosophy and Religious S udies = 0.71). 498
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499
Figu e 5. Wo ld egions’ publica ion sha e in local jou nals acco ding o each ope a ional app oach by 500
ield and disciplina y ca ego y. 501
Finally, Figu e 6 displays he esul s o a PCA conduc ed on he ope a ional app oaches a he 502
coun y and wo ld egion le els. The analysis includes coun ies wi h a leas 3,000 a icles published 503
wi hin he 3-yea pe iod o s udy. Each do ep esen s a coun y ma ked wi h i s co esponding wo-504
le e ISO code al hough, o eadabili y easons, he leas p oduc i e ones a e le unlabelled. The 505
colou s g oup coun ies by wo ld egion. The a ows show ha , on he one hand, he Toponyms and he 506
Re e ences app oaches a e in e sely ela ed. This means ha he coun ies whe e oponyms wo k bes 507
o signalling local esea ch end o exhibi less geog aphically concen a ed e e ences, and ice e sa. 508
On he o he hand, Da abases, Au ho s, Languages, and Ci a ions poin in simila di ec ions and a e 509
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mo e closely co ela ed, as suppo ed by Figu e A1 (Appendix). The coun ies loca ed on he igh -hand 510
side o he biplo a e he e o e posi i ely associa ed wi h highe co e age in non-mains eam da abases, 511
mo e di e se linguis ic p ac ices, and mo e geog aphically concen a ed au ho ship and eade ship. 512
The colou pa e n e eals ha he Uni ed S a es, Canada (in da k blue), and Oceania coun ies 513
(in pu ple) clus e o he bo om-le o Re e ences. Close o hem, and ex ending owa ds he cen e o 514
he biplo , appea s mos o Eu ope (da k magen a) oge he wi h se e al Asian coun ies (b igh o ange), 515
like Singapo e (SG), he Uni ed A ab Emi a es (AE), and Sou h Ko ea (KR). Asia also sp eads a ound 516
Toponyms, whe e a s onge p esence o A ica (ligh o ange) can be obse ed. La in Ame ica and he 517
Ca ibbean (yellow) lean owa ds he ou app oaches shaping PC1, especially Da abases. Fu he along 518
he x-axis, Russia (RU), B azil (BR), Uk aine (UA), and Indonesia (ID) seem o beha e like ou lie s 519
wi hin his main s uc u e o ope a ional app oaches. O e all, Global No h coun ies clus e mo e 520
densely owa ds he bo om-le quad an o Figu e 6, sugges ing ha almos all app oaches o 521
measu ing local esea ch ha e li le explana o y powe o e hem. In con as , Global Sou h coun ies 522
appea o be clea ly cha ac e ized by mos app oaches, al hough egional di e ences pe sis wi hin his 523
g oup. 524
525
Figu e 6. PCA o local esea ch ope a ional app oaches a he coun y and wo ld egion le els. 526
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Discussion 527
In his a icle, we p opose a amewo k o local esea ch. Al hough he e m is inc easingly 528
men ioned in he scien i ic li e a u e, i is o en used indis inc i ely o deno e di e en o ms o locali y: 529
he e i o ial scope o a s udy, he p oduc ion and use o local knowledge, o he a ge ing o speci ic 530
audiences. Ou goal is o de e mine how he concep o local esea ch ela es o i s measu emen , 531
highligh ing he nuances in ol ed in i s heo e ical depic ion and he isks o applying di e en 532
empi ical me hods indisc imina ely ac oss egional and disciplina y con ex s. To add ess his, we i s 533
e iew how he concep o local esea ch has been add essed, bo h heo e ically as well as empi ically. 534
Based on ou li e a u e e iew, we iden i y h ee dimensions – locally si ua ed, in o med, and ele an 535
esea ch – and six scien ome ic app oaches o analyse i – Toponyms, Languages, Au ho s, Da abases, 536
Re e ences, and Ci a ions. We hen compa e hese app oaches and examine how hey link o he h ee 537
heo e ical dimensions iden i ied. 538
Ou main indings sugges di e gences ac oss egional and disciplina y se ings by ope a ional 539
app oach. Excep Re e ences, whe e he Uni ed S a es and Canada s and ou , mos o he app oaches a e 540
mo e p e alen in Global Sou h egions alongside a ew Eas e n Eu opean coun ies. Toponyms and 541
Da abases s and ou , al hough hey a e based on p oblema ic assump ions ha gi e a heigh ened 542
imp ession o locali y in ce ain places while hiding his quali y in o he s. The Au ho s and Ci a ions 543
app oaches display simila wo ld pa e ns, while Languages yields almos no in o ma ion a he coun y 544
le el o he han emphasizing English as he lingua anca o science. 545
When combining his geog aphic da a wi h ields and disciplina y ca ego ies, we see ha he 546
Social Sciences and Humani ies om he Global Sou h ha e a s onge endency owa ds he local. 547
La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean a e mos success ully cap u ed by app oaches like Da abases, 548
Ci a ions, and Au ho s. Whe eas o A ican coun ies, he Toponyms app oach is mo e p e alen in 549
hose a eas, alongside he Heal h Sciences. These esul s align wi h hose o p e ious s udies (e.g. 550
Cas o-To es & Albu ez-Gu ié ez 2022; Hladchenko & Moed 2021; Na as-Fe nández e al. 2018; 551
Tijssen 2007; To es-Salinas e al. 2010). On he con a y, Li e Sciences emains cons an ac oss 552
app oaches and egions, and Physical Sciences a e ba ely cap u ed by any me hod. In sum, his ini ial 553
es ing o he ope a ional app oaches o iden i y local esea ch indica es ha hey ope a e qui e 554
di e en ly ac oss bo h he disciplina y landscape and he Global No h-Sou h di ide. 555
While he PCA suppo s ou indings on egional di e ences, i also sugges s ha he 556
app oaches’ beha iou does no ully ma ch he heo e ical iews on local esea ch. The app oaches ied 557
o e i o y, such as Toponyms and Languages, do no align wi h a uni ied locally si ua ed dimension, 558
al hough hey help cap u e he local o many A ican, Asian, and La in Ame ican coun ies. The same 559
happens wi h he app oaches linked o knowledge p oduce s, like Au ho s and Re e ences, which do 560
no con e ge in he locally ele an dimension. The mos p esen coun ies in he o me app oach a e 561
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La in Ame ican and Asian, whe eas he la e displays a close co espondence o he Global No h. 562
This las g oup is o med by many o he la ges scien i ic p oduce s wo ldwide, so i is di icul o 563
conclude whe he he me hod is cap u ing local esea ch om he Global No h o global esea ch led 564
by hese wo ld scien i ic powe s. On he con a y, he app oaches ied o knowledge ecipien s, such as 565
Da abases and Ci a ions, seem o be e explain he locally ele an dimension. This is especially isible 566
o mos o La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean, as well as o a ew Asian and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies. 567
On he whole, hese indings e eal ha he e is no comple e alignmen be ween heo y and p ac ice 568
when i comes o local esea ch. 569
We acknowledge ha ou s udy is no ee om limi a ions. One o hem is he sou ce used o 570
ou analyses, as obse ed when wo king wi h Languages (Figu e 4), whe e he co e age o Dimensions 571
beyond English seems o be ela i ely poo compa ed o mo e comp ehensi e da abases such as 572
OpenAlex (Céspedes e al., 2025). Fu he mo e, some me hodological decisions may be adop ed 573
di e en ly. Fo ins ance, local jou nals could be de ined based on inequali y indices such as Gini o 574
He indahl, ins ead o elying on he sha e o publica ions o he mos con ibu ing coun y. I would be 575
in e es ing o u he explo e how hese me hodological decisions may impac he indings. Finally, he 576
app oach based on Toponyms could be mo e exhaus i e by adding au ho keywo ds o sea ching in he 577
ull ex o publica ions, which was no easible in ou case due o he una ailabili y o such in o ma ion 578
in he chosen da abase. 579
Concluding ema ks 580
Ou indings sugges ha no indi idual app oach en i ely cap u es a dimension o local esea ch 581
in e e y con ex . No a e hese exis ing measu emen s ee om echnical limi a ions and geog aphical 582
biases, as we ha e poin ed ou . This means ha s udies assessing he impac o p oduc ion o local 583
esea ch need o adop nuanced me hodological designs ha adap o he geog aphic egion and 584
disciplines being analysed. S ill, knowing o wha ex en wha we cap u e wi h scien ome ic me hods 585
is he phenomenon we aim o analyse emains con es ed. The e o e, we see g ea po en ial in hei 586
combina ion o help seize such a complex, mul idimensional phenomenon. Complemen a i y be ween 587
app oaches and dimensions may be key o ha nessing all hei po en ial while minimizing hei 588
limi a ions when add essing he local. This amewo k could p o e use ul o s udy no only he di e en 589
dimensions ha comp ise local esea ch, bu also hei in e sec ions. Possible ins ances o analysis could 590
be, o ins ance, he ole o non-mains eam jou nals as communica ing essels be ween global and 591
local scien i ic ci cles (Cha a o e al. 2017; Di Césa e e al., 2025), o he e olu ion o esea ch on s 592
ha eme ge o espond o localized p oblems bu hen expand when he issue acqui es a global scale 593
(i.e. he sp ead o ec o -bo ne diseases, as in Simon e al. 2008). Despi e he challenges desc ibed a 594
leng h, we belie e his con ibu ion can se e as a s a ing poin o in eg a ing heo e ically in o med 595
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24
concep ions wi h empi ical app oaches o local esea ch, po en ially helping o mi iga e many o he 596
ba ie s cu en esea ch e alua ion sys ems ace when assessing and suppo ing his ype o scien i ic 597
esea ch. 598
Acknowledgmen s 599
We would like o since ely hank he anonymous e iewe s o hei ca e ul eading and 600
cons uc i e eedback, which helped us o signi ican ly imp o e his wo k. We a e also g a e ul o he 601
aluable commen s ecei ed om colleagues when p esen ing ea lie e sions o his esea ch a he 602
Con e ence on Scien i ic Mobili y and Talen A ac ion: Challenges and Oppo uni ies (Uni e si y o 603
G anada, 2023), he Semina on Di e si y and Recogni ion in Resea ch Teams (Uni e si y o B is ol, 604
2024), and he RESPECT Fellows Wo kshop (Geo gia Ins i u e o Technology, 2024). Ou special 605
hanks o D . Cassidy Sugimo o (School o Public Policy, Geo gia Ins i u e o Technology), D . Rod igo 606
Cos as (Cen e o Science and Technology S udies, Leiden Uni e si y), D . Thema Mon oe-Whi e 607
(School o Policy and Go e nmen , Geo ge Mason Uni e si y), and D . Diego Kozlowski (School o 608
Lib a y and In o ma ion Sciences, Uni e si y o Mon eal) o many insigh ul discussions. Also, many 609
hanks o PhD candida e Ca olina P adie (School o Lib a y and In o ma ion Sciences, Uni e si y o 610
Mon eal) o he commen s on he code o ou i s manusc ip . 611
Funding in o ma ion 612
This wo k is pa o he COMPARE p ojec (Re : PID2020-117007RA-I00) unded by he 613
Spanish Minis y o Science (Re : MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 FSE in ie e en u u u o). 614
Vic o ia Di Césa e is cu en ly suppo ed by a FPI g an om he Spanish Minis y o Science (Re : 615
PRE2021-097022). Nicolas Robinson-Ga cia is cu en ly suppo ed by a Ramón y Cajal g an om he 616
Spanish Minis y o Science (Re : RYC2019-027886-I). 617
Re e ences 618
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