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S udy o 3D p in ing p ocess: Op imiza ion, quali y analysis, and compa ison
o 3D p in ed and cas ce amic p ope ies
Adam Bolesla skýa,∗, Hana O čačíko á b, Milan Mihola a, Aki Mikkola c, Michaela Topinko á b,
Zdenko Bobo skýa
aVSB – Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Mechanical, Enginee ing, Depa men o Robo ics, 17. lis opadu 2172/15, 708 00 Os a a - Po uba, Czech
Republic
bTechnical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology, Depa men o The mal Enginee ing, 17. lis opadu 2172/15, 708 00 Os a a
- Po uba, Czech Republic
cMechanical Enginee ing, LUT School o Ene gy Sys ems, Yliopis onka u 34, Lappeen an a, Finland
A R T I C L E I N F O
Da ase link:zenodo.o g/ eco ds/14161699
Keywo ds:
Addi i e manu ac u ing(AM)
Di ec ink w i ing (DIW)
Ce amic
3D p in ing me hodology
Clay
A B S T R A C T
The goal o his s udy was o op imize and alida e he p ocedu es and me hods used o o m ce amic objec s
using 3D-p in molding ins ead o cas molding. Chamo e e ac o y clay was shaped in o 5 x 5 x 5 cm
cubes using bo h he 3D-p in -molding and cas -molding me hods. These cubes we e hen e alua ed, i ed,
and e alua ed again. The 3D-p in molding me hod used was an adap a ion o ’di ec ink w i ing’. Since
e ac o y clay d ies du ing manu ac u ing, a Pho oneo 3D scanne was used o moni o cube sh inkage
be o e i ing. O he basic p ope ies such as mine alogical composi ion, e alua ed ia X- ay di ac ion, we e
also measu ed. X- ay luo escence spec oscopy de e mined chemical composi ion. A e i ing, comp essi e
s eng h, bulk densi y, po osi y, and wa e abso p ion we e measu ed and s uc u al aspec s such as c acking
and po osi y we e e alua ed. The 3D-p in molding o he chamo e clay was la gely success ul. The measu ed
comp essi e s eng h o he i ed 3D-p in -molded and cas -molded ce amic cubes was 31.4 MPa and 30.4 MPa,
espec i ely. The 3D-p in -molded ce amic pa s we e sligh ly mo e po ous (14.5%) and abso p i e (7.1%).
To al olume ic sh inkage was 36 %. De ailed c oss-sec ional analysis o he samples iden i ied de ec s ela ed
o speci ic sho comings o bo h molding me hods. This in o ma ion sugges s a eas ha could be a ge ed o
e inemen . Add essing hem could lead o signi ican ad ancemen s, allowing 3D-p in -molded ce amics and
simila ma e ials o achie e supe io p ope ies compa ed o con en ional manu ac u ing me hods.
1. In oduc ion
Th ee-Dimensional (3D) p in ing, also e e ed o as addi i e man-
u ac u ing, has b ough abou a small e olu ion in echnology while
signi ican ly impac ing ma e ials science. The main ad an ages i b ings
include apid p o o yping, design lexibili y, high p ecision, ime sa -
ings, cos -e ec i eness, and a iabili y o he p in ing ma e ials [1]. Fo
example in hese s udies [1,2], he au ho s epo ed hei expec a ion
ha he wo ld’s addi i e manu ac u ing ma ke would each app ox-
ima ely $8.6 billion by 2020. In ac , e enues in 2018 we e $14.5
billion, almos double hei expec a ion.
3D p in ing has been unde de elopmen since 1981, when Hideo
Kodama pionee ed a solu ion o apid p o o yping [3]. Kodama’s
inno a ion laid he ounda ion o mode n 3D p in ing by enabling he
manu ac u e o physical objec s di ec ly om digi al designs. F om a
echnological pe spec i e, he p ocess o cons uc ing a 3D model o
∗Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. Bolesla ský).
3D hap ic physical model [4] is consis en wi h cu en ly a ailable
echnologies [5]. The p ocess can be di ided in o he ollowing h ee
pa s. (1) A i ual 3D model is buil using CAD so wa e. (2) A
specialized p og am called a slice con e s he 3D model in o code
ha con ols a 3D p in e . The slice op imizes pa ame e s such as
heigh and wid h o he line, p in speed, e c. (3) Finally, code da a
a e uploaded o he p in e o p in ing.
The 3D-p in ing me hod no only e icien ly p oduces plas ic and
me al objec s. I can also be used wi h o he ma e ials ha can be
s o ed, ex uded wi h p ecision, and used wi h p e ious laye s be-
o e solidi ying unde no mal oom condi ions [6]. Example ma e ials
include ood and o he bioma e ials [7–9]. Pho opolyme ma e ials
can be 3D p in ed based on he p inciple o UV ligh ha dening. This
me hod is called s e eoli hog aphy [10].
Conc e e s uc u es [11–13] a e ano he example o ecen ad ance-
men s in 3D p in ing. Ce amic aw ma e ials such as silica es, cemen s,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.oce am.2025.100797
Recei ed 31 Janua y 2025; Recei ed in e ised o m 27 Ap il 2025; Accep ed 12 May 2025
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
A ailable online 27 May 2025
2666-5395/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d on behal o Eu opean Ce amic Socie y. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license
( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
A. Bolesla ský e al.
o e ac o ies can also be 3D p in ed [14]. Di ec Ink W i ing (DIW),
a echnology o p in ing pas es ha ha den o e ime, is commonly
used o 3D p in hese ma e ials [15]. DIW is also e e ed o as used
deposi ion modeling [16] o used ilamen ab ica ion [17].
The manu ac u e o ce amics is undoub edly challenging, bo h in
e ms o ene gy and aw ma e ial handling [18]. 3D-p in ing echnol-
ogy can help o mi iga e some o his challenge. Gene ally, ce amic
aw ma e ials can be classi ied acco ding o chemical composi ion in o
oxide ce amics such as Al2O3, Z O2, TiO2, ZnO, and SiO2 and non-
oxide ce amics such as ca bides (SiC, B4C, TiC, Z C), ni ides (Si3N4,
AlN), i ana es, phospha es, alumina es, and mix u es o ce amic ma-
e ials (Al2O3-Z O2, Al2O3-GdAlO3, Al2O3-GdAlO3-Z O2, Al2O3-YAG,
Al2O3-SiO2, Si3N4-SiO2) [18].
T adi ional manu ac u ing echnologies o ce amic pa s include
p essing, cas ing, ex usion, injec ion molding, gel cas ing, and ape
cas ings. The aw ma e ials may come wi h o wi hou addi i es and
binde s [19]. Many o hese echnologies a e limi ed by mold design
pa ame e s. The con en ional molding p ocesses ha a e cu en ly
a ailable canno be used o o m shapes wi h complex geome ies o
in e connec ed holes [19].
Rela i ely new o he scene, ce amic addi i e manu ac u ing ia 3D
p in ing has de eloped o include a wide ange o ce amic ma e ials
using di e en molding o o ming echnologies. Compa ed o s anda d
manu ac u ing me hods, ce amic addi i e manu ac u ing p esen s new
ce amic ma e ial possibili ies. 3D p in ing can shape mo e complex
geome ies. Mo eo e , 3D p in ing can also p in powde s and slu ies.
Bo h compac and po ous pa s and mac opo ous la ice s uc u es can
be p epa ed [20–22]. 3D p in e s can also be used o ex ude di e en
ce amic and was e ma e ials mix u es. Aluminosilica e and zi conium
dioxide clays [23–25], bioce amics [26,27], composi e o nanocompos-
i e ma e ials [28,29], unc ion ce amics [30], geopolyme s [31], and
conc e e [32,33] can all be 3D p in ed as a gene al ule.
Thanks o mode n echnologies in ma e ials science and compu e
con ol a ela i ely la ge numbe o new echnologies ha e been de-
eloped o 3D p in aw ce amic ma e ials whe he in suspension,
as a powde , o as a bulk ma e ial. 3D p in ing om suspensions
in ol es liquid o semi-liquid ma e ials in which ine ce amic pa icles
a e dispe sed. Fo his ype o addi i e echnology, me hods such as
pho opolyme iza ion, inkje p in ing, and ex usion a e used. A good
o e iew o he dis ibu ion o hese echnologies is also p esen ed in
hese s udies [21,34].
Cu en ly, ce amic componen s a e p in ed using many mode n
echnologies such as selec i e lase sin e ing [35–37], s e eoli hog a-
phy [38,39], binde je ing [40], ma e ial ex usion [41], and ma e ial
je ing [42,43]. Pa icle size plays an impo an ole. Fo binde je ing,
pa icles should be smalle han 10 μm o limi su ace oughness, high
po osi y, and poo densi ica ion du ing sin e ing [19]. Size pa icles
<20 μm a e p e e able o he obocas ing echnique o achie e be e
low du ing he ex usion and sin e ing p ocesses.
Di ec ink w i ing was de eloped by Cesa ani e al. a Sandia
Na ional Labo a o ies in 1997 o p in ce amic pas es. This echnique is
easy, adap able, and inexpensi e and app op ia e o a a ie y o aw
ma e ials such as monoli hic o composi e ce amic ma e ials, polyme s,
and alloys [19,44,45]. As s a ed by he au ho s o [37], mos scien i ic
publica ions ha e ocused on he DIW o ad anced ce amic ma e ials
based on Z O2 and Al2O3 as well as on non-oxides. Few au ho s ha e
esea ched he p in ing o adi ional clays.
The p inciple o he DIW me hod is ex usion. The aw ma e ial, a
non-New onian iscous suspension wi h heological p ope ies con ain-
ing bo h a liquid and a solid phase, is p in ed a oom empe a u e. The
ad an age o ce amic ma e ials wi h iscoelas ic beha io is ha hey
e ain hei o iginal shape e en as addi ional laye s a e applied [46,47].
The inal p ope ies o he i ed ce amic componen a e de e mined
by iscosi y, densi y, g anulome y, shape and diame e o he noz-
zle, d ying, and sin e ing. Compa ed o o he ele an manu ac u ing
Table 1
Chemical composi ion o ce amic ma e ials es ed by XRF analysis.
Oxides (w . %)
Na2O MgO Al2O3SiO2P2O5Fe2O3K2O CaO
0,37 0,4 28,9 54,3 0,09 2,6 3,4 0,4
SO3TiO2V2O5MnO S O Z O2Cl LOI
0,27 1,4 0,05 0,01 0,01 0,05 <0,001 1,47
me hods, DIW is economical and imesa ing, and i esul s in minimum
de ec s [48].
In s udy [49], he au ho s lis ed se e al companies ac i e in he ield
o ce amic 3D p in ing. This shows he connec ion be ween academic
esea ch and indus ial inno a ion. In addi ion, he 3D p in ed ce amics
ma ke shows an annual g ow h a e o mo e han 4%. The ma ke is
expec ed o each $3.6 billion by 2030 [50].
In his wo k, ce amic clay was 3D-p in molded using he DIW
me hod. Compa ison samples we e also p epa ed using cas molding.
As pa o he expe imen , a de ailed p in op imiza ion s udy was
pe o med, including a desc ip ion o he en i e p in ing sys em, cal-
ib a ion, and op imiza ion o p in ing pa ame e s. The pa ame e s o
in e es we e comp essi e s eng h, bulk densi y, po osi y, and he
s uc u e o he es ed samples. Compa ed o o he li e a u e, his
expe imen desc ibes se e al p oblems and e eals he de iciencies in
3D p in ing o he ce amic aw ma e ials ia esul s analysis. Obse ed
de iciencies a e desc ibed, and he pape o e s solu ion ideas and
sugges s ways o imp o e he 3D-p in molding p ocess and he inal
3D p in ed pa .
2. Expe imen al pa
The ollowing pa ag aphs desc ibe he ma e ials es ed and he
equipmen used o ca y ou his esea ch wo k. The 3D-p in ing
me hodology is also desc ibed. Calib a ions needed o achie e he
esul s a e also ou lined. This sec ion concludes by desc ibing he
ab ica ion o he es samples.
2.1. Desc ip ion o he ma e ial
This aw ce amic ma e ial used o mold he es samples is a
comme cial p oduc called chamo e clay. I is p oduced by Pa ek
s. .o. (Czech Republic). F om he manu ac u e , he wa e con en o
he ma e ial may be di e en o each ba ch. Fo his ma e ial, he
mos common alue is 22% wa e con en . This should be inc eased by
adding and mixing wa e up o 31%. This mix mee s he equi emen s
o p in ing on he equipmen used. Speci ically, he equi emen s o
smoo h mo emen o he ma e ial h ough he p in ing sys em, p in ing
o he desi ed heigh s and consis ency o he p in line shape. The
ecommended i ing empe a u e is be ween 980 and 1250 ◦C. Fi ing
empe a u e in luences he colo o he ce amic, which becomes a ligh
c eam. X- ay luo escence was used o de e mine he chemical compo-
si ion o he molded clay. See Table 1. The i on oxide (5.44-9.89 w %)
esul s in da k ed colo a ion a e i ing a high empe a u e [51]. The
signi ican amoun o Na2O and K2O con en in he sample e lec s he
p esence o eldspa s. These a e esponsible o he o ma ion o he
amo phous phase, which imp o es he sin e ing p ocess and lowe s
he equi ed i ing empe a u e. The high measu ed pe cen age o K2O
(3.37 w %) comes om he mine al illi e p esen in he clay [52]. The
powde ed clay had a ela i ely low Loss On Igni ion (LOI) o 1.47 w %.
The LOI calcula ion e eals he amoun o o ganic ma e ha was in
he sample.
Figs. 1and 2 show he mine alogical composi ion o ce amic clay
de ec ed by X- ay Di ac ion (XRD) phase analysis using he powde
me hod (XRPD). Qua z is shown as he main c ys alline phase (SiO2),
and mulli e (3Al2O3⋅2SiO2) as he second phase. The main qua z peak
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
2
A. Bolesla ský e al.
Fig. 1. XRPD di ac og am o ce amic ma e ial be o e i ing.
Fig. 2. XRPD di ac og ams o ce amic ma e ial a e i ing up 1060 ◦C.
is in he ange o 30–32 ◦ 2𝜃. The mulli e phase equen ly appea s in
he eco d. C ys alline mulli e is he mos common phase in silica e
ma e ials. I is a high- empe a u e ce amic phase ha o ms in he
Al2O3-SiO2 sys em.
C ys alline mulli e is he mos common phase in ce amic ma e ials.
I o ms when kaolin is hea ed o a high empe a u e. Addi ionally,
silica oxide and a silicon- ich liquid phase a e also o med. Mulli e
has low he mal expansion, chemical esis ance, and good esis ance o
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
3
A. Bolesla ský e al.
Table 2
Rheological pa ame e s o he mix u e (MA).
Mix u e CP o G’ = G’’ (kPa) CP o 𝜏 (Pa) LVR an (𝛿) LVR 𝜏 (Pa)
MA 42.62 2581 0.37 489.7
he mal shock [53,54]. Po assium mica as dehyd oxyla ed musco i e is
he nex mos p ominen phase. Wa e is eleased a empe a u es abo e
850 ◦C and he eldspa s phase as albi e (NaAlSi3O8). The p esence o
qua z and musco i e p o es ha he mix u e will ha e good plas ic
p ope ies and good binding capaci y o hyd oxyl o wa e molecules.
The mix u e is also sui able o 3D p in ing [55–57].
Shea - hinning beha io is c ucial o e icien Di ec Ink W i ing
(DIW) 3D p in ing o ce amics, which allows easy ex usion by educing
iscosi y as shea s ess inc eases [58]. The G’ (s o age modulus) and
G’’ (loss modulus) play an impo an ole — hei equali y indica es he
ini ia ion o low. Inapp op ia e low s ess can lead o ei he di icul
ex usion (high) o spon aneous low (low) [59].
Rheological measu emen s we e pe o med using a o a ional
heome e The mo Haake MARS iQ Ai a a empe a u e o 23 ◦C wi h
pa allel pla es (Ø 25 mm, gap = 2 mm). Shea - hinning beha io was
in es iga ed using he Ro a ion Ramp es in Con ol Ra e mode wi h a
shea a e ange om 0.0026 o 120 s−1. The oscilla o y Ampli ude
Sweep es ( = 1 Hz, 𝜏 = 1–5000 Pa) was used o de e mine he
elas ic modulus 𝐺′ and he loss modulus 𝐺′′, enabling he obse a ion
o changes in he iscoelas ic p ope ies o he ma e ial. This es
also allowed he iden i ica ion o he linea iscoelas ic egion (LVR)
bounda y and he c i ical poin 𝐺′=𝐺′′, which ma ks he ansi ion
om elas ic o iscous beha io . Fu he mo e, he alue o he loss
angen an 𝛿 (𝐺′′∕𝐺′) was de e mined, which de ines he a io o he
iscous and elas ic componen s. This a io, 𝐺′′∕𝐺′, allows compa ison
o whe he he ma e ial beha es mo e iscously o elas ically. I an 𝛿 <
1, elas ic beha io domina es; i an 𝛿 > 1, iscous beha io domina es;
and i an 𝛿= 1, i ep esen s he ansi ion be ween elas ic and iscous
beha io .
The co ec a io o hese componen s is key o con olling low
du ing 3D p in ing — i he ma e ial is oo luid, laye s a e p one o
lowing, while i he ma e ial is oo solid, i egula ex usion may occu .
The esul s o hese alues allow p in pa ame e s o be op imized,
including ex usion speed and laye se ing ime.
The esul s om he Ro a ion Ramp and Ampli ude Sweep measu e-
men s a e p esen ed in Fig. 3. The speci ic alues o C osso e Poin s
(CP) o 𝐺′=𝐺′′, exp essed in kPa and 𝜏, Pa, a e lis ed in Table 2.
Addi ionally, he alues o he End o LVR o 𝜏, Pa, and he Damping
Fac o an(𝛿) a e also included. Rheological measu emen s om he
Ro a ion Ramp es in Con ol Ra e mode con i med he shea - hinning
beha io o he ce amic pas e used o 3D p in ing. The esul s om
he Ampli ude Sweep es alida e he signi icance o he gel poin
(𝐺′=𝐺′′ ≥103 Pa) o achie ing p in abili y o 3D ce amic s uc u es,
as s a ed in he s udy [60]. The a ainmen o his c osso e poin is
c ucial o op imizing he composi ion o ce amic pas es, aligning wi h
p e iously published c i e ia.
The measu emen s con i m ha he pas e exhibi s heo luidi y, as
shea - hinning beha io is obse ed — when highe shea s ess is
applied, he pas e s uc u e b eaks down and begins o low. This
p ope y is desi able o DIW 3D p in ing, as he pas e mus emain
su icien ly solid a es (𝐺′> 𝐺′′) while lowing easily when o ce is
applied du ing ex usion.
Fo he es ima ion o he shea a e ange a he nozzle, Eq. (1) [61]
was used:
𝛾 =𝑄
𝜋𝑟3
⋅3𝑛+ 1
𝑛(s−1)(1)
whe e 𝛾 is he shea a e (s-1); 𝑄 is he olume ic low a e (m3s-1); 𝑟
is he nozzle adius (m); and 𝑛 is he low beha io index (–).
Applying he Powe -Law model o he measu ed iscosi y da a Fig.
3a, he low beha io index was de e mined o be 𝑛= 0.2483. The
olume ic low a e 𝑄 was calcula ed as he p oduc o he c oss-
sec ional a ea o a single p in ed laye and he mo emen speed o
he p in head. The nozzle adius was 𝑟= 2 mm. Fo a laye wid h o
4.5 mm, he shea a e was calcula ed as 75.5 s−1, and o a laye wid h
o 5.5 mm, as 92.5 s−1.
2.2. 3D p in ing
A Make-R ype p in e modi ica ion o used deposi ion modeling
was adap ed by he au ho s o [62] o p in clay using he DIW me hod.
Repe ie Hos so wa e was used o con igu e he p in ing p ocess. The
ollowing p in e s we e used:
(a) a 3D-Bioplo e by En isionTEC wi h a 0.26 o 1.27 mm nozzle
diame e , pneuma ic p essu e o 0.01–0.5 MPa, and speeds om
6 o 25 mm/s;.
(b) a Techcon (Cyp ess CA, USA) adhesi e dispensing sys em e-
pu posed o clay ex usion ea u ing a 6-axis obo ic a m (IRB
120, ABB, Swi ze land), Ø0.51–3 mm nozzles wi h pneuma ic
p essu es anging om 0.14– 0.69 MPa, and speeds om 1 o
80 mm/s [37]; and
(c) a Del a Wasp 2040 3D wi h liquid deposi ion modeling, h ee
nozzle sizes (1, 2, and 3 mm), and an ai comp ession pump
(0.4 and 0.6 MPa op imum p essu e) and ank wi h a mechanical
sc ew ex ude [57].
Clay samples we e also p in ed using a 3D Po e 7 po e y p in e
wi h a ci cula nozzle o Ø5mm [63]. The men ioned p in e s a e
examples o p in e s wi h se ings and equipmen o DIW p in ing.
Fig. 4 illus a es he in-house-de eloped p in e sys em used o DIW
p in he chamo e clay. The p in e shown in Fig. 4(a) is based on he
T onxy X5SA model, which was o iginally designed o p in ing a ious
plas ic ma e ials. A Co eXY p in e was modi ied o p in ce amic ma-
e ials, u ilizing equipmen al eady a ailable in exis ing in en o y. The
modi ica ion was designed o wi hs and he subs an ial loads gene a ed
du ing ce amic p in ing. Addi ionally, sa egua ds we e implemen ed o
p e en con amina ion om di and wa e . The decision o modi y
exis ing equipmen o he pu pose o p in ing ce amic ma e ials p o ed
o be mo e cos -e ec i e. The esul s demons a e ha his choice was
also success ul om a echnological s andpoin . The p in ing p ocess
begins by illing he almos 4 l s eel cylinde ca idge. I is necessa y
o ensu e he elimina ion o ai in he sys em. Fo his eason, a sc ew
eede is used o loading he ca idge. In his p ocess, he ma e ial is
manually loaded o he eede and i mixes, comp esses, and mo es ma-
e ial in o he cylind ical ca idge. This me hod is signi ican ly mo e
e ec i e han manual illing, which can ap ai wi hin he ma e ial. To
emo e any esidual ai om he sys em, he ex ude is equipped wi h
en ing holes in he sec ion abo e he sc ew. This is a s anda d ea u e
in comme cial ex ude s. Once illed he ends o he ca idge a e sealed
by a pis on and h eaded lids. The comp esso p essu izes he pis on,
which hen pushes he aw ma e ial h ough a hole on he opposi e
end and h ough a ube connec ed o he ex ude . The ca idge is
suspended abo e he p in e on a pulley sys em, wi h he comp esso
posi ioned nea by. The new ex ude designed o his expe imen (Fig.
4(b)) was made speci ically o he ce amic aw ma e ial.
De elopmen o he ex ude was inspi ed by se e al s udies on
p in ing ce amic aw ma e ials [64–66]. I accep s easily changeable
plas ic nozzles o 2, 4, 5, 8 and 10 mm diame e . Ce amic ma e ial is
ed in o he ex ude om he side, and he ex usion i sel is ca ied
ou u ilizing a sc ew.
The desc ibed p ocedu es and guides o 3D p in ing ha e been
based on exis ing me hodologies de eloped by o he au ho s, pa ic-
ula ly hose p esen ed by Jona han Keep, who has been in ol ed in 3D
p in ing o ce amic ma e ials o a long ime [67]. O he au ho s and
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
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A. Bolesla ský e al.
Fig. 3. (a) Shea - hinning beha io , (b) S o age and Loss modulus measu emen .
Fig. 4. (a) cu en s a e o he p in ing equipmen , (b) design o new ex ude .
manu ac u e s also ha e hei own p ocedu es, which di e sligh ly.
The p ocedu e desc ibed he e is sui able o he equipmen and ma e ial
used.
The i s s ep, a e p epa a ion o he ma e ial, is o calib a e he
p in e acco ding o he ecommended p ocedu es and guides ha deal
wi h he co ec adjus men and calib a ion o a Co eXY p in e . In his
expe imen , he p in bed is he ile on which he sample is p in ed.
Since he ile is eplaceable, i can be mo ed wi h he p in ed p oduc
ha can be le o d y ou side o he p in e . A new ile is hen p o ided
o he nex p in . The co ec Z-axis o se mus be se o each new
ile. Dimensional e o can be on he o de o millime e s in he case
o inco ec calib a ion, which is no iceable when p in ing wi h smalle
nozzle diame e s. A simple es is pe o med o check ha he p in e
is se up co ec ly and ha he ile used is la enough o p in ing.
Fig. 5 shows a bed-le eling p in , a se o nes ed squa es cen e ed on
a ile bed. The wid hs o he ex uded lines co espond o he p ecise
dis ance o he nozzle om he su ace o he bed. I hey a e equal,
hen he p in e gan y is le el and he ile i la . I , howe e , he
p in happens o be wide somewhe e, his indica es ha he p in e
gan y mus be le eled o he ile bed is no su icien ly la . Fo his
expe imen , he subs a e was i s se up using a la ge s aigh ile bed.
The p in s hemsel es we e hen p in ed on he smalle ile pads. The
bed was le eled o each new ile.
The nex s ep is o se he ma e ial low o he desi ed p in line
p o ile. This is done by p in ing ou a squa e shape and adjus ing he
low. Th ee di e en esul s can occu when measu ing dimensions, as
shown in Fig. 6. In case (a),insu icien ma e ial was ex uded. Ma e ial
low mus be inc eased. Flow a e mus be moni o ed and adjus ed un il
he esul looks like (b). I ma e ial low exceeds he co ec alue, i
accumula es be ween he lines and packs on o he nozzle as shown in
(c).
I he low a e is e en highe , a si ua ion can occu a low speeds
whe e he laye s a e pushed sideways by he ma e ial, and he ma e ial
is smoo hed om abo e by he nozzle. See (Fig. 7). Al hough he e is
accumula ion on he nozzle, i is no as bad as he case in Fig. 6 (c).
Fig. 8 demons a es he o e all wo k low o he expe imen al p in
p ocess. I begins by p epa ing he 3D CAD model, which mus be de-
signed o adjus ed o be p in able. O e laps, de ails, and manu ac u ing
me hods in espec o he ma e ial mus be conside ed [68–70]. The
model is hen uploaded o a slice whe e p in se up akes place and
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
5
A. Bolesla ský e al.
Fig. 5. Image o calib a ion pad p in .
G-code is gene a ed. Be o e p in ing, he p in e is calib a ed o ensu e
accu acy. The ma e ial is p epa ed and loaded. Then, he p in ing
line is calib a ed. A e wa ds, p in ing can begin. P in ing mus be
moni o ed and low adjus ed as needed o compensa e o a ia ions
in aw ma e ial consis ency. This issue can be mi iga ed by ca e ul
ma e ial mixing and handling.
P in ing mul iple copies o he same i em e eals de ec s, limi a-
ions, and ela ionships speci ic o he a iabili y o he ce amic clay.
P in se ings a ec appea ance. P in e size de e mines he maximum
size ha can be p in ed. And small sys em changes lead o di e en
p in esul s. A ela ionship map was p epa ed o de e mine how a
gi en sys em change would a ec o he a eas wi hin he 3D p in ing
p ocess. Fig. 9 illus a es hese ela ionships.
P in e choice a ec s he accu acy o he p in , he size o he laye s,
and he e o e he quali y o he p in . P in e calib a ion imp o es p in
accu acy. Poo calib a ion will a ec he p in om he beginning, and
o his eason, ca e ul calib a ion is c i ical o he p in ing p ocess.
The equipmen is also a ec ed by he ma e ial being p in ed. The
equipmen mus be able o s o e and p ecisely ex ude he ma e ial as
di ec ed by he G-code. Equipmen and p in e dimensions a ec slice
se ings such as p in dimensions and laye sizes.
Ano he example o a ela ionship can be he equi emen o se ial
p in ing. This is di ec ly in luenced by he equipmen and p in quali y
equi emen s o he p oduc . He e, i is mainly abou he deg ee o
au oma ion. Fo example, i he bed is changed, e ills and calib a ion
a e done au oma ically. This would be he ideal si ua ion o se ial
p in ing. O he wise, when a human is in ol ed in he p ocess (changing
he p in pad, e illing he ma e ial o each p in , e c.), se ializa ion is
s ill possible bu becomes mo e challenging. The p in se up will also
a ec he se iali y o he p in , indi ec ly h ough he desi ed quali y
o he desi ed p in ou .
The ela ionship map shows in Fig. 9 is a simpli ica ion ha can be
de eloped in g ea e de ail. The map makes i possible o be e exam-
ine he me hodology and calib a ion. I can also be used o imp o e he
p in de ice, as e en hese small imp o emen s can ha e a big impac
on he end esul .
2.3. Sample p epa a ion
To p oduce he es samples o his esea ch, chamo e clay was
shaped in o 5 𝑥 5 𝑥 5 cm cubes using adi ional cas molding and
by 3D-p in molding. In i s o iginal aw o m, he clay had 22% wa e
con en . This pe cen age was inc eased o 31% by adding 1 l o wa e o
10 kg o clay o achie e op imal consis ency and acili a e he molding
me hods.
The cas -molded cubes we e made by pou ing he chamo e clay
in o a ubbe mold. A e pou ing, he clay and mold we e ib a ed o
ou minu es. A e 24 h, solidi ied clay cubes we e demolded. Fig. 10
shows he cas -molded cubes. The 3D-p in -molded cubes we e p in ed
on o unglazed ce amic iles. Fig. 12 shows he 3D-p in -molded cubes.
The demolded cas cubes and 3D-p in -molded cubes we e hen d ied
a 105 ◦C o 24 h. They we e hen i ed a 1060 ◦C o 5 h wi h 1 h o
main aining he maximum empe a u e in an elec ic esis ance u nace
wi hou shee and wi hou cooling.
To a oid clogging du ing he 3D-p in molding p ocess, he clay
mus be ex uded a p essu es g ea e han 0.6 MPa. Lowe p essu es
a e no su icien o o e come he p essu e loss in he sys em. A
0.8 MPa, clogging does no occu , and ex udabili y is ensu ed. The
olume o clay ha will be equi ed is ed in o he eed ca idge. Wi h
he 3D-p in molding p ocess, sho ages o excesses o ma e ial a e no
signi ican issues. A 0.8 MPa and wi h a 4 mm diame e nozzle, a p in
speed o 15 mm/s was sui able. The dis ance be ween he nozzle and
he p in ing bed was se o 4 mm. The same heigh was main ained o
he o he laye s. Clay wa e con en emained ela i ely cons an . The
low o ex uded clay was s eady. I did no accumula e no did i d op
ou . Assuming equal p essu e, he ideal p in speed would be lowe
o la ge diame e nozzles and highe o smalle diame e nozzles.
Wa e con en also a ec s ex udabili y, so he sys em mus be ca e ully
calib a ed o accommoda e he speci ic p in medium. Fig. 11 illus a es
he p in esul o he 0.8 MPa, 15 mm/s, 4 mm nozzle se up o he
31% wa e chamo e clay. The pho o was cap u ed wi hin 5 min a e
he p in was comple ed. The p in bead was 4 mm hick and 4.5 o
5.5 mm wide. This co esponds o a se ing o 5 mm in he slice .
When he laye s a e laid side by side, hey o e lap. This de o ms he
clay ma e ial, which se es o la en and align he bead and connec i
o adjacen lines. Re e back o Fig. 6 (b). The chamo e clay ma e ial
can slump unde some condi ions [71]. The diame e o he nozzle and
he heigh o he p in plays a ole as does whe he o no he p in
is single-walled, mul i-walled, o has suppo s. P in speed also a ec s
slumping. I he ma e ial is ed oo as , p e ious laye s a e la ened by
he ma e ial low. The cubes p in ed o his expe imen we e single-
walled, he beads we e o a e age heigh , and he nozzle diame e was
4 mm. Because, each bead was suppo ed by adjacen lines and laye s,
slumping was minimal and no isible du ing p in ing. A e p in ing,
howe e , du ing he ini ial d ying p ocess, some slumping occu ed.
Twel e o he 3D-p in -molded cubes a e shown in Fig. 12. Fig.
12(a) and b show he op and bo om o he cubes a e ini ial d ying.
Figs. 12(c) and 12(d) show he ops and bo oms a e i ing. The ops
(las p in ed laye ) a e ela i ely smoo h (12(a) and 12(c)). On he
o he hand, each bead emained dis inc on he bo om, which was in
con ac wi h he ce amic ile du ing ex usion (12(b) and 12(d)). The
gaps be ween laye s a e ela i ely la ge. These gaps may be due o he
choice o p in bed su ace o poo se up o he i s laye . Figs. 12(b)
and 12(d) show ha i ing did no a ec hese gaps.
Despi e he e o o choose a p in pad wi h low wa e abso p ion,
because he ile used was unglazed, excess abso p ion p obably esul ed
in he i s laye bead gaps. Since i ing did no a ec hese gaps, and
because hey only occu on he i s laye , i is likely ha hey a e he
esul o excess abso p ion o wa e in o he p in pad.
A lowe quali y glazed ile was chosen as he p in ing bed. The
ile was chosen o a oid apid wa e d ainage, which when i occu s,
c ea es c acks. Glass was no chosen as he expe ience wi h p in ing
his ma e ial on glass is ha he ma e ial does no hold in place and
slides ac oss he glass, uining he p in a he e y beginning.
Fig. 13 shows a side iew o he 3D p in ed cubes. He e you can
see he de lec ion o he sample, which is comple ely negligible due o
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
6
A. Bolesla ský e al.
Fig. 6. P in line p o ile se ings.
Fig. 7. The case o high ma e ial low and low p in ing speed.
Fig. 8. P in ing phases.
he se up. Pic u e A is a e d ying and pic u e B is a e i ing. E en
du ing i ing, he p o ile did no change du ing sh inkage.
A mo e de ailed analysis was pe o med by he au ho s [72]. A con-
di ion is p esen ed whe e he elas ic beha io o he clay is cha ac e -
ized, which ends o ha e a ela i ely linea de o ma ion slope. Ano he
s a e is cha ac e ized by plas ic de o ma ion, which is mani es ed by an
exponen ial inc ease in de o ma ion un il comple e collapse. The es
esul s p esen ed he e ag ee wi h he au ho s and sugges ha hese
s a es lead o a eliable es ima e o he mechanical dynamics ha occu
du ing p in ing. This app oach can he e o e o m he basis o he
de elopmen o a comp ehensi e design me hod o he en i e p in ing
ope a ion.
K uge e al. [73], de ine buildabili y as he abili y o a ma e ial
o e ain i s shape a e se e al laye s ha e been p in ed. Which is
measu ed by coun ing he numbe o s able p in ed laye s be o e
collapse [74]. Nozzle diame e and p in speed signi ican ly a ec
he buildabili y o he 3D-p in -molded mix u e [75]. To a oid p in
ailu es caused by he weigh loading o each laye , ce ain s ess
cons ain s mus be sa is ied. These au ho s used he model o a oid
he heological pa ame e s o ma e ials such as conc e e, which is a
hixo opic ma e ial.
The e o e, a 3D-p in molded ma e ial is subjec o plas ic s ess
i he sel -weigh o he laye exceeds i s s a ic yield s eng h. As
conc e e gains s eng h o e ime, i s s a ic yield s eng h changes. To
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
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A. Bolesla ský e al.
Fig. 9. Rela ionships in he p in ing p ocess.
Fig. 10. Tes cubes p epa ed by cas ing.
Fig. 11. Ex uded line and i s applica ion o 3D-p in -molded pa s.
suppo he buildabili y o he op imized design, he geome ic o e lap
o adjacen laye s mus be app op ia ely de e mined. This is especially
impo an o s uc u es wi h la ge cu a u es o la ge o e hangs. Lack
o o e lap may be one eason why he lowes laye has shi ed ou wa d
in some expe imen s [76]. In a icle [77], p in speed o he i s
laye was se o 50% o be e adhesion o he p in bed. In his case,
cylind ical shapes wi h a diame e o 8 mm and a heigh o 4 mm we e
ex uded.
3. Resul s and discussion
The ollowing pa ag aphs desc ibe he es esul s and how he es
cubes we e e alua ed. Key pa ame e s o in e es include sh inkage and
comp essi e s eng h. Tes samples we e also cu in hal and analyzed,
which helped o be e e eal some de ec s and led o mo e discussion.
Bulk densi y 𝐵𝐷 is mass pe uni olume. Fo he sample cube
e alua ed, his is in luenced by he p esence o ca i ies and po es.
Bulk densi y was de e mined by weighing he samples and di iding by
measu ed olume. Bulk densi y was de e mined as pa o abso p ion
measu emen .
Sa u a ed cubes we e weighed on hyd os a ically balanced scales
in wa e a a empe a u e o 23 ±2 ◦C. Each newly o med wa e -
sa u a ed cube was suspended om an auxilia y s uc u e, comple ely
subme ged, and posi ioned away om he walls o he con aine . The
subme ged weigh 𝑚2 was measu ed a e emo ing ai bubbles. Weigh
in ai 𝑚3 was measu ed a e emo ing each cube om he wa e and
wiping o he su ace mois u e wi h a damp clo h. 𝜌liq is he densi y o
he liquid in which he samples was imme sed du ing he measu emen .
In ou case i is wa e . The e o e, 𝜌liq is equal o 998,2 kg/m3. A e
o en d ying, ano he measu emen was made o de e mine he weigh
o he d y cube 𝑚1. Eq. (2) we e used o calcula e bulk densi y o he
cubes. (EN 771-1, EN 72 2603)
𝐵𝐷 =𝑚1
𝑚3−𝑚2
⋅𝜌liq (kg.m−3)(2)
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
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A. Bolesla ský e al.
Fig. 12. Cubes p epa ed by 3D-p in molding (a) op o cubes a e d ying (b) bo om o cubes a e d ying (c) op o cubes a e i ing (d) bo om o cubes a e i ing.
whe e 𝜌liq is he densi y o he liquid in which he samples we e
imme sed du ing he measu emen (𝑘𝑔.𝑚−3); 𝑚1 is d y sample weigh
(kg); 𝑚2 is mass o he sample sa u a ed wi h liquid in wa e (kg) and
𝑚3 is mass o he liquid-sa u a ed sample in ai (kg).
Abso p ion (EN 771-1) is he abili y o he i ed ce amic ma e ial o
abso b liquid. I was de e mined in pe cen age as he a io o he weigh
o wa e abso bed by he es cube o he weigh o he d ied cube
(absolu e mass abso p ion). The weighed and d ied cubes we e placed
in he con aine so ha hey did no ouch he sides o each o he .
Wa e was hen pou ed in o he con aine un il hey we e comple ely
subme ged. The wa e was hen hea ed o he boiling poin and held
he e o 2 h. As i e apo a ed away, mo e wa e was con inually
added o ensu e he cubes emained subme ged. A e boiling, he
cubes we e allowed o ai cool o ambien empe a u e. They we e hen
su ace d ied and weighed. The abso bance 𝑊 𝐴,(3) in % is exp essed
as ollows.
𝑊 𝐴 =𝑚4−𝑚5
𝑚5
⋅100 (%) (3)
whe e 𝑚4 is weigh o he sample a e he abso p ion es (kg) and 𝑚5
is weigh o he d ied sample (kg)
Appa en po osi y 𝐴𝑃 is he a io o he olume o open po es
and oids o a cube o i s o al olume including all po es and oids.
The ue po osi y is he a io o he olume o open and closed po es
and ca i ies o he sample o i s o al olume including all po es and
ca i ies. The calcula ion is pe o med acco ding o Eq. (4).
𝐴𝑃 =𝑚3−𝑚1
𝑚3−𝑚2
⋅100 (%) (4)
The comp essi e s eng h 𝐶𝑆 o each sample was measu ed using a
hyd aulic p ess (EN 772-1, EN 72 2605). Each cube was placed on he
lowe p essu e pla e o he p ess and ca e ully loaded so ha he uppe
p essu e pla e, equipped wi h a ball join , si s lush wi h and co e s he
en i e su ace o he cube. Comp essi e load is applied and inc eased
con inuously un il he sample b eaks. The comp essi e s eng h o he
sample in MPa was calcula ed using Eq. (5).
𝐶𝑆 =𝐹
𝑆(Pa)(5)
Open Ce amics 23 (2025) 100797
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A. Bolesla ský e al.
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