The G ounds o he
Eu opean Democ acy–
Media Nexus: Fou
Condi ions o Possibili y
Vaia Doudaki1, Nico Ca pen ie 1,2
and Ki ill Filimono 1,3
Abs ac
This heo e ically in o med e- eading o exis ing empi ical li e a u e ocuses on
he unde s udied a ea o he condi ions o possibili y o democ a ic media in
Eu ope. Fo he esea ch, an adjus ed e sion o he in eg a i e li e a u e e iew
me hod was applied o empi ical li e a u e spanning 24 yea s. The e iew was
guided by Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s amewo k (2025) ha s udies he democ-
acy–media nexus h ough a discu si e-ma e ial app oach. Fou main condi ions
o possibili y o democ a ic media (in Eu ope) a e elabo a ed in his s udy: com-
munica ion echnologies, economic esou ces and s abili y, democ a ic media
cul u e, and he legi imacy o democ a ic egula ion. As i is p esen ed h ough-
ou he e iew, hese condi ions o possibili y a e he enabling amewo ks o
media o pe o m hei democ a ic oles, pe mi ing bu also condi ioning media’s
pe o mance. The ‘condi ions o possibili y’ lens o he s udy acili a ed he a en-
i eness o he complex and con ingen ela ionships o media and democ acy,
bu also o democ acy’s embeddedness in he social ealm and i s dependency on
pa icula socie al p ocesses o i s su i al.
Keywo ds
Condi ions o possibili y, media, democ acy, Eu ope, in eg a i e li e a u e e iew
In oduc ion
The s udy o media’s democ a ic oles—including he challenges and h ea s
media a e acing when implemen ing hese oles— akes a p ominen place in
Co esponding au ho :
Vaia Doudaki, Cul u e and Communica ion Resea ch Cen e (CULCORC), Ins i u e o Jou nalism
and Communica ion S udies, Cha les Uni e si y, Sme ano o nábřeží 6, P ague 1, 11001, Czech
Republic.
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Media Wa ch
1 –32
© The Au ho (s) 2025
A icle euse guidelines:
in.sagepub.com/jou nals-pe missions-india
DOI: 10.1177/09760911251374242
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A icle
1Cha les Uni e si y, P ague, Czech Republic
2Tallinn Uni e si y, Tallinn, Es onia
3Uppsala Uni e si y, Uppsala, Sweden
2 Media Wa ch
he ield o communica ion and media s udies. These publica ions inco po a e a
wide a ie y o gen es and ypes, anging om heo y-based and no ma i e
ea ises o pu ely empi ical su eys and epo s. Also, he heo e ical, concep-
ual and me hodological ools o hese explo a ions a y. A common h ead in
hese publica ions and hei ools is ha hey a e o en d i en by implici o
explici no ma i e assump ions and expec a ions abou he media’s oles in
socie ies.
A ecen li e a u e e iew abou he body o empi ical esea ch in Eu ope
add essing he connec ions o media and democ acy iden i ied a mul i ude o
p e e ences and absences in empi ical esea ch abou democ acy and media in
Eu ope oday, in e ms o a eas o s udy, hemes, concep s and me hodologies
(Doudaki & Filimono , 2024). I has, on he one hand, con i med he abundance
o esea ch in he a ea, and on he o he , iden i ied speci ic gaps in heo e ical and
concep ual choices made in esea ch on media and democ acy. One o he iden i-
ied gaps conce ns he sca ci y o empi ical esea ch ha in es iga es he condi-
ions o possibili y o media’s democ a ic oles and mo e b oadly o he
democ acy–media nexus.1
Ou wo k is guided by Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s (2025) usage o he—o igi-
nally Kan ian (Kan , 1996)— e m ‘condi ions o possibili y’, as elabo a ed in
hei b oad heo e ical model ha s udies he connec ions o democ acy and media
h ough a discu si e-ma e ial app oach. Fo he au ho s, he condi ions o possi-
bili y o democ a ic media a e he enabling assemblages si ua ed in he social
ealm ha pe mi and condi ion he unc ioning o media’s democ a ic oles
(Ca pen ie & Wimme , 2025, p. 75).
Ou s udy is a heo e ically in o med e- eading o exis ing empi ical li e a u e
( om Janua y 2000 o Ap il 2024) aimed a in es iga ing how his li e a u e can
con ibu e o a discussion abou he condi ions o possibili y o democ a ic media
in Eu ope. This ocus makes his analysis di e en om mo e ‘ egula ’ o e iews
o he li e a u e on he media–democ acy nexus. Fo he esea ch, an adjus ed e -
sion o he in eg a i e li e a u e e iew me hod was applied (see C onin & Geo ge,
2023; Fan e al., 2022; To aco, 2016)—suppo ed by he ele an componen s o
Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s amewo k— o s udy he condi ions o possibili y o
democ a ic media. The ou main condi ions o possibili y elabo a ed in his s udy
a e communica ion echnologies, economic esou ces and s abili y, democ a ic
media cul u e, and he legi imacy o democ a ic egula ion.
The explo a ion o media’s democ a ic oles h ough a condi ions o possibili y
p ism is impo an because i allows, we belie e, o pay a en ion o bo h he igid-
i y and luidi y o social p ocesses and he mul i ude o in e sec ing in e nal and
ex e nal o ces ha impac hese p ocesses. In pa icula , his p ism allows us o
del e in o he ealm o democ acy (and he media’s democ a ic oles), o gain a
deepe unde s anding o democ acy’s embeddedness in he social and i s depen-
dency on pa icula socie al p ocesses o i s su i al. Fu he mo e, his p ism
pe mi s engagemen in an encompassing app oach o he complex and dynamic
ela ionships o media and democ acy, wi h pa icula a en ion o hei openness
and con ingency.
Doudaki e al. 3
Condi ions o Possibili y o Democ a ic Media:
Theo e ical Embedding
The e m condi ions o possibili y, which is used in his a icle, inds i s o igins in
he wo k o Ge man philosophe Immanuel Kan , who, e lec ing on he condi-
ions o possibili y o knowledge abou na u al phenomena, in his C i ique o Pu e
Reason (ini ially published in 1781), a gued ha cogni ion and knowledge abou
hese phenomena p esuppose ce ain ‘a p io i’ condi ions (Kan , 1996). His ea-
ise, which c i iqued pu e empi icism in science, is also ele an o he s udy
o social phenomena, as i se s he ‘ ounda ions o knowledge beyond me e
expe ience’ by explica ing o ms o knowledge and cogni ion g ounded in ce ain
‘a p io i’ p inciples (Jo ano ić, 2010, p. 571).
In his e lec ion on Kan ’s no ion o he condi ions o possibili y, Deleuze
in oduced he concep o he ‘g ound’, unpacking i h ough h ee in e ela ed
e ms: ‘condi ioning, localisa ion, and limi a ion’ (2015, p. 31). Fo Deleuze,
‘[ ]he condi ion is ha which ende s possible’ (2015, p. 31) o , pu di e en ly,
‘[ ]he g ound g ounds by ende ing possible’ (Deleuze, 2015, p. 33). Localisa ion
and limi a ion ela e o he capaci y o he g ound o pose ‘wha i g ounds in a
gi en, in a milieu’ (Deleuze, 2015, p. 34) and o c ea e ‘ ounda ions beyond which
i [ he g ound] canno go’ (Deleuze, 2015, p. 36). Condi ions o possibili y, hus,
acco ding o Deleuze’s eading o Kan , si ua e p ocesses and socie al phenomena
in a gi en g ound, ende ing hem speci ic.
Foucaul was also among he schola s who emphasised he con ex ual and,
mo e p ecisely, he his o ical cha ac e o he e m. Fo Foucaul , he epis emo-
logical ield is g ounded on knowledge cons uc ed in a ‘his o y’ o condi ions o
possibili y. As he explained, elabo a ing on how o ms o knowledge a e
cons uc ed:
Wha I am a emp ing o b ing o ligh is he epis emological ield, he epis eme in
which knowledge, en isaged apa om all c i e ia ha ing e e ence o i s a ional
alue o i s objec i e o ms, g ounds i s posi i i y and he eby mani es s a his o y
which is no ha o i s g owing pe ec ion, bu a he ha o i s condi ions o
possibili y. (2005, pp. xxiii–xxi )
As hese wo examples illus a e, he e m condi ions o possibili y has seen
di e se usages and adap a ions. Wha has been consis en in hese di e en
app oaches, om he o igins and Kan ian meaning o he e m o i s la e ( e-)
eadings and adap a ions, is he a oidance o models o di ec causali y o he
app ehension o p ocesses and (na u al and social) phenomena. Ins ead, he e is a
ocus on less ob ious pa e ns o ela ions. Fo his eason, a condi ions o possi-
bili y p ism is conside ed sui able o explo e he complex, dynamic and con in-
gen ela ionships o media and democ acy, and is p e e ed o e simila e ms
such as p econdi ions, as hose do no ha e he ich heo e ical his o y o he
condi ions o possibili y concep .
Recen ly, Ca pen ie and Wimme (2025) ha e b ough his concep in o he
ield o communica ion and media s udies, as pa o a b oad heo e ical model o
4 Media Wa ch
s udy he democ acy–media nexus. They a gue ha he condi ions o possibili y
o democ acy a e ‘no o be seen as “pu e,” “o iginal” o de e mining ou sides, bu
as enabling assemblages, whose luid exis ence emains ne e heless necessa y
o he democ a ic assemblage o exis ’ (Ca pen ie & Wimme , 2025, p. 21).
Zooming in on he democ acy–media nexus, he condi ions o possibili y o dem-
oc a ic media can be unde s ood as he enabling (discu si e and ma e ial) p o-
cesses loca ed ou side media hemsel es, which a e conduci e owa ds he
exis ence and unc ioning o media’s democ a ic oles.
Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s heo e ical amewo k (2025), which in o ms his
s udy, iden i ies h ee main se s o condi ions o possibili y o democ a ic media,
one pe aining o esou ces, one o cul u e, and one o he legi imacy o s a e egu-
la ion. The i s conce ns he ma e ial a o dances, such as communica ion ech-
nologies, in as uc u es and inancial esou ces; he second in ol es a se ies o
alues ha cons i u e a democ a ic media cul u e, such as eedom, equali y and
plu alism; he hi d conce ns he accep ance o he s a e as a democ a ic egula o
o he media ield, based on he ule o law.
Guided by his amewo k, we pe o med a e- eading o empi ical li e a u e
on media and democ acy in Eu ope. I s aim was no o exhaus i ely map he en i e
olume o esea ch conduc ed in he a eas unde s udy, bu o sys ema ically and
ho oughly e lec on empi ical wo k using he lens o an exis ing heo e ical
amewo k. As a consequence o his e- eading, he o iginal amewo k has been
mildly adjus ed, and he i s ca ego y was spli in o wo. This implies ha in his
a icle, we will add ess ou condi ions o possibili y abou he media’s demo-
c a ic oles. These a e communica ion echnologies, economic esou ces and s a-
bili y, democ a ic media cul u e, and he legi imacy o democ a ic egula ion.
Resea ch Me hods and P ocedu e
Among he a ious li e a u e e iew ypes and he di e en echniques ha ha e
been de eloped and which guide hese e iews’ composi ion, we applied an
adjus ed e sion o he in eg a i e e iew me hod (C onin & Geo ge, 2023;
To aco, 2016), which bes se es he pu poses o ou s udy. I is a me hod ha is
d i en by sys ema ici y and ho oughness, s ill allowing o a concep ual e lec-
ion o he e iewed ma e ial. As explained by Fan e al. (2022, p. 173), in eg a-
i e e iews ‘seek o e iew, c i ique, and syn hesise ‘‘ ep esen a i e’’ li e a u e o
gene a e new heo e ical amewo ks and pe spec i es’.
As al eady men ioned, we did no seek o de elop a new heo e ical ame-
wo k. Howe e , we used Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s model ha s udies he democ-
acy–media nexus, in a concep ually guided e lec ion on he empi ical esea ch
conduc ed wi hin he b oad a ea o democ acy and media in/abou Eu ope. Ou o
his b oad amewo k ha iden i ies co e componen s, oles, s uggles, h ea s and
condi ions o possibili y o bo h democ acy and media’s connec ions o democ-
acy, we chose o ocus on he speci ic a ea o he condi ions o possibili y o
democ a ic media, gi en i s unde - esea ched s a us and i s po en ial o s udying
he complex and con ingen ela ionships o media and democ acy.
Doudaki e al. 5
The de elopmen o his in eg a i e li e a u e e iew ollowed a se ies o c i-
e ia and s eps, aiming o p o ec he ho oughness and sys ema ici y o he collec-
ion and e alua ion o li e a u e and empi ical wo k, and syn hesis o he li e a u e
e iew. The li e a u e selec ion c i e ia can be summa ised as ollows:
•The li e a u e conside ed o he e iew had o be ele an o Eu ope. This
c i e ion was implemen ed o keep he li e a u e manageable, bu i was
also linked o he Eu opean na u e o he p ojec his s udy was pa o .2
Hence, he li e a u e had o add ess Eu ope, he Eu opean Union, pa s o
Eu ope o speci ic coun ies in Eu ope o be included in he e iew. This
ocus on Eu ope allowed us o explo e bo h commonali ies and di e si y, in
opics, issues, esea ch cul u e, academic adi ions and epis emologies, in
he ield o media and democ acy, as hey appea in he Eu opean con ex .
•The li e a u e conside ed o he e iew had o ha e an empi ical ocus.
Hence, i ocused on empi ical analyses, su eys, epo s, case s udies and
any o he published wo k p esen ing ( he analysis o ) empi ical da a.
Pu ely heo e ical publica ions we e hus no conside ed. In he ew cases
whe e heo e ical li e a u e is used, i is done o cla i y a concep ela ed o
he empi ical indings; s ill, heo e ical li e a u e was no sys ema ically
e iewed. The ocus on empi ical li e a u e allowed us o me hodically
e iew he empi ical wo k in he ield o democ acy and media in Eu ope,
guided by he concep ual lenses o he selec ed heo e ical amewo k, es -
ing his amewo k h ough a con on a ion wi h esea ch p ac ice.
•Th ee main ypes o ma e ial ( e e ed o gene ally as li e a u e) we e con-
side ed o he li e a u e e iew: (a) academic publica ions (books, book
chap e s, esea ch a icles, academic jou nal hema ic issues); (b) su eys,
indexes and hei ou pu s (e.g., epo s); (c) Eu opean esea ch p ojec s and
hei ou pu s (e.g., deli e ables, epo s and publica ions). In se e al cases,
he ypes o ma e ial examined ell in mo e han one o hese ca ego ies
(e.g., a su ey epo being pa o a Eu opean esea ch p ojec ).
•The academic publica ions conside ed o he e iew we e published o
eleased du ing he pe iod Janua y 2000 o Ap il 2024. Published wo k
ela ed o su eys and epo s co e ed a sho e pe iod (Janua y 2018 o
Ap il 2024). Again, his c i e ion was implemen ed o keep he li e a u e
e iew manageable.
The li e a u e e iew had i e main s ages. In a p epa a o y s age, we engaged in
a se ies o open sea ches o gain an ini ial unde s anding o he a ailable ma e ial.
We labelled his s age 0 (see Figu e 1). In he i s main s age, wo o his a icle’s
au ho s pe o med a semi-au oma ed sea ch in Cha les Uni e si y and Uppsala
Uni e si y lib a y eposi o y sea ch engines, combined wi h sea ches in Google
Schola , Scopus and Web o Science. The sea ch s a ed wi h he keywo ds ‘con-
di ions o possibili y’ + ‘media’, in di e en combina ions wi h ‘democ acy’ and
‘Eu ope’, always il e ing he con en wi h he ex a il e s o publica ion da e,
English language and empi ical ocus. Howe e , gi en limi ed empi ical li e a-
u e explici ly using he e m ‘condi ions o possibili y’ in esea ch ela ed o
6 Media Wa ch
Figu e 1. Flowcha o he Analy ical P ocess.
Doudaki e al. 7
media and democ acy (N = 1, e en wi hou using any addi ional il e ing), he
sea ch was hen expanded o include li e a u e wi h keywo ds e e encing di e -
en ields in which he heo e ical amewo k (as ou lined in Ca pen ie &
Wimme , 2025) si ua ed hese condi ions o possibili y.3 This sea ch esul ed in
he p e-selec ion o 4,288 publica ions.
In he second s age, we swi ched o a mo e manual app oach (ins ead o he
semi-au oma ed one in s age 1), conside ing he li e a u e e iew’s speci ici ies
(guidance by a gi en heo e ical amewo k, empi ical ocus and ocus on Eu ope)
and he need o ensu e ele ance o he selec ion. This model also allowed us o
use wo ‘snowball me hods’, looking o ele an li e a u e by using synonymous
concep s and by ollowing he ails o he e e ence lis s. This was pa icula ly
impo an , gi en he sho age o empi ical li e a u e using he condi ions o pos-
sibili y e m. Fu he mo e, i allowed us o be sensi i e owa ds di e si y by
ac i ely a ge ing esea ch ela ed o di e en pa s o Eu ope, spanning a a ie y
o me hods and concep ualisa ions.
The hi d s age was an ex e nal inpu s age. Fi s , an in i a ion was add essed
o a eam o esea che s (membe s o he MeDeMAP esea ch p ojec his s udy is
pa o ) o sugges u he li e a u e ocusing on he condi ions o possibili y o
democ a ic media (and on he o he sec ions o he heo e ical amewo k on
democ acy and media), applying he addi ional c i e ia o publica ion da e, he
Eu opean ocus and he empi ical ocus. Then, a e a i s d a o he li e a u e
e iew was compiled, i was p esen ed o he esea ch p ojec eam, who once
again sugges ed ele an li e a u e. In bo h cases, sugges ions we e il e ed by he
li e a u e e iew au ho s (based on he c i e ia men ioned abo e) and we e acco d-
ingly in eg a ed in o he e iew. I is impo an o emphasise ha a his s age, a
sa u a ion app oach was used o inalise he co pus, o ensu e ha e e y di e en
ype o a icula ion had been included in he co pus. To each sa u a ion, he li e a-
u e e iew au ho s wen h ough a se ies o i e a ions (wi hin s ages 2 and 3, and
be ween s ages 2 and 3).
The esul ing selec ion o 390 publica ions4 was hen, in s age ou , b ough
in o con on a ion wi h Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s amewo k (2025) and i s main
ca ego ies. Th ough a me hod g ounded in hema ic analysis (Mo ey Hawkins,
2017), he book’s main ca ego ies we e used as sensi ising concep s (Blume ,
1969, p. 7) o he analysis o he selec ed publica ions. Th ough a se ies o i e a-
i e p ocesses, he book’s main ca ego ies we e c i ically in es iga ed (and e en-
ually modes ly al e ed), while also gene a ing he subca ego ies (on which his
a icle epo s). Also, he e, sa u a ion played a key ole as a mechanism o decide
on he comple ion o he analy ical p ocess.
Condi ions o Possibili y o Democ a ic Media in Eu ope:
Li e a u e Re iew
As al eady men ioned, ou e- eading o empi ical li e a u e abou media’s demo-
c a ic oles and pe o mance in Eu ope is s uc u ed a ound ou main condi ions
o possibili y, as discussed in Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s amewo k (2025) and
8 Media Wa ch
adjus ed o ou s udy. These a e communica ion echnologies, economic
esou ces and s abili y, a democ a ic media cul u e, and he legi imacy o demo-
c a ic egula ion. These condi ions o possibili y a e ancho ed mo e in ma e ial
(e.g., echnological o inancial) o discu si e (e.g., cul u al and egula o y)
esou ces and a o dances, s ill bea ing o a ying deg ees bo h ma e ial and dis-
cu si e componen s.
Communica ion Technologies
A ailabili y o , and access o, esou ces is a main condi ion o possibili y (bo h a
he le el o echnology and inance), allowing o disallowing he media’s demo-
c a ic oles. A signi ican pa o hese esou ces conce ns echnological means
and in as uc u es, and we will ocus on his condi ion o possibili y i s .
The p eoccupa ion wi h media’s echnological aspec s is no new, bu a he as
old as he i s deba es on wha media a e. The e is a ich body o empi ical
esea ch seeing media p ima ily as echnologies and e alua ing he impac o
hese echnologies on social o ganisa ion, poli ics, human beha iou and so on,
and he deg ees o which he echnological a o dances acili a e o obs uc he
media’s democ a ic oles. Empi ical esea ch, o ins ance, has been ocusing on
(digi al o online) media-as- echnologies p omo ing o impeding ci izen pa ici-
pa ion, exp ession o opinion and democ acy a la ge (Enikolopo e al., 2020;
Ma ge s e al., 2016; Vacca i & Vale iani, 2021; Vale iani & Vacca i, 2016);
media echnologies enabling su eillance and es ic ing people’s eedoms
(B oede s, 2007; Doudaki e al., 2023; Topak & Vi es, 2020); o , au ho i a ian
egimes imposing enhanced su eillance h ough media (Akba i & Gabdulhako ,
2019; Yesil & Söze i, 2017).
This body o esea ch has some imes been d i en by echnocen ic, media-
cen ic o echno-de e minis ic app oaches, o e emphasising he po en ial o
echnological a e ac s as d i e s o socie al change. Du ing he 2000s, esea ch-
e s would mo e eadily a gue o he a o dances o he In e ne o democ a ise
pa icipa ion in he public sphe e, by p o iding easy and a o dable access o com-
munica ion spaces and o e ing oppo uni ies o unmedia ed o non-cu a ed
exp ession o opinions and delibe a ion on issues o sha ed conce n (see, e.g.,
Dahlg en, 2004; Rakhme o , 2023). The ea ly en husiasm seeing he In e ne and
especially Web 2.0 as a democ a ic medium g adually diminished, due o he high
le els o comme cialisa ion o he online space, he in ensi ica ion o concen a-
ion and consolida ion endencies in he media indus ies, and he inc easing
pola isa ion and oxici y online (Bon adelli & Meie , 2021; Doyle, 2002; Van
Ba el e al., 2021).
A oiding bo h echnology demonisa ion and echno-de e minism, a condi ions
o possibili y app oach allows ocusing on he democ a ising a o dances o ech-
nology, embedded in he social. F om a condi ions o possibili y pe spec i e,
(media) echnologies can ‘be unde s ood as in e sec ing se s o enable s ha ha e
signi ican impac on he possibili ies o concep ion, p oduc ion, bundling, dis i-
bu ion and ecep ion o media’s signi ying p ac ices’, nes ed in ‘ he socie al con-
ex wi h, o ins ance, [ hei ] (dis)app ecia ions, equi ed skills, and knowledges
Doudaki e al. 9
and o ganisa ional assemblages in which [ hey a e] a icula ed’ (Ca pen ie &
Wimme , 2025, p. 74). Hence, looking a echnology as a condi ion o possibili y
o democ a ic media helps o pay a en ion o echnology’s embeddedness in
poli ical, egula o y, cul u al, economic and o ganisa ional con ex s and in a-
s uc u es (see, e.g., he s udies in Sil e s one, 2017), acknowledging he com-
plexi y o how all hese may ac i a e o impede media’s democ a ic oles. I also
helps o mo e away om echnocen ic o echno-de e minis ic posi ions and
e alua ions, a oiding na ow media-cen ic app oaches o media isa ion5, and o
explo e ins ead he complexi ies o media ion. I u he allows us o acknowledge
ha he iden i ies o echnologies a e discu si ely-ma e ially cons uc ed, which
means ha hei meanings a e no ixed and uni a y, and hus may change, no ma -
e how dominan hey a e a a gi en ime o place.
F om a condi ions o possibili y s andpoin , echnologies ha e a o dances
(No man, 1988; G illo, 2021), quali ies ha allow o speci ic ac ions and no o
o he s. These a o dances, and he echnologies hey a e associa ed wi h, a e no
ou side he social; hey a e no neu al, bu discu si ely and ma e ially cons uc ed
wi hin speci ic socie al con ex s. Thei design, ma e ial cons uc ion and usage
a e always ime- and con ex -speci ic, imbued wi h speci ic meanings ha ende
hese echnologies socially ele an o i ele an in gi en con ex s. This applies
no only in he case o angible echnologies and hei ou pu s o p oduc s (e.g., in
he case o a p in ing machine and a p in newspape ) bu also in he case o in an-
gible o non-hap ic (digi al) echnologies, such as so wa e p og ammes and algo-
i hms, which impac on ma e ial usages and ou pu s—condi ioning wha people
do and how. Fo example, esea ch on algo i hmic design has shown how pla -
o m algo i hms e lec and ein o ce social hie a chies and pe pe ua e egimes
and p ac ices o disc imina ion (Kelly-Ly h, 2023; Leese, 2014; Lü z, 2022).
Also, algo i hmically suppo ed ecommenda ion sys ems and sea ch engines
ha e been shown o p io i ise speci ic knowledge s uc u es and discou ses while
sys ema ically ma ginalising o he s (Fa a e o e al., 2019; S a k e al., 2020).
A he same ime, while he ma e iali y-discu si i y o media echnologies
allows o pa icula usages and disallows o he s, he e is always space o di e se
usages, some imes subs an ially di e en om he in ended ones. Fo ins ance,
e en hough he comme cial online pla o ms and hei companies (e.g., Facebook/
Me a, X/xAI and YouTube/Google LLC) appea o domina e he online space,
he e a e s ill al e na i e e o s, as ma e ialised, o ins ance, by applying he
p inciples and p ac ices o digi al commons. The la e ‘can be de ined as in an-
gible esou ces sha ed among a communi y which a e eely accessible o all;
used and eused by “commone s” engaged in collec i e “commoning p ac ices”
o managing open da a, sou ce codes, and s anda disa ion’ (F ion, 2022, p. 3).
The digi al commons p ac ices, d i en by he logics o ee In e ne and open
sha ing, a e me in se e al ields and domains in Eu ope, such as in educa ion,
esea ch, cul u e, business, economy and adminis a ion (Bloemen e al., 2019; de
G oo & Bloemen, 2019; Engs öm, 2002). The e a e also e o s a he EU le el
o c ea e a Eu opean amewo k o digi al commons (see, e.g., Eu ac i , 2022;
Guadagnoli, 2022).
16 Media Wa ch
ega ding i s poli ical ins i u ions and hei decisions’. The legi imacy o he s a e
as egula o o he media ield conce ns he balance be ween, on he one hand, he
need o (s a e) egula ion o he media landscape, embedded in he ule o law,
and on he o he hand, he need o es ain by he s a e as i ega ds i s in e en-
ion in he media landscape (Ca pen ie & Wimme , 2025, p. 79).
Embeddedness in he ule o law, which is c ucial o he legi imacy o demo-
c a ic s a es and he EU as media egula o s, is g ounded in he capaci y o he
s a e, o he EU, o show es ain . The la e is exempli ied no by in e ening
di ec ly in media’s pe o mance, bu a he by egula ing in ways ha c ea e he
p o ec i e condi ions o media’s independence (Ha cou , 2005), which in u n
allows he media o pe o m hei democ a ic oles (also p omo ing and p o ec ing
sel - egula ion) (Miconi e al., 2024).
Gi en ha enhanced media concen a ion is seen as a h ea o plu alism
(Bon adelli & Meie , 2021; Iosi idis, 2014; Papa hanassopoulos e al., 2021;
T appel & Meie , 2022), as we a gued abo e, legisla ion con olling concen a ion
a he na ional and Eu opean le el o ms pa o his condi ion o possibili y. This
is coupled wi h egula ion p omo ing media owne ship anspa ency and anspa -
ency in jou nalis ic p ac ice (Bleye -Simon e al., 2021; C au u d Smi h e al.,
2021; Fengle & Speck, 2019; Meie & T appel, 2022). The e a e also a gumen s
in a ou o legisla i e and o he p o isions suppo ing p in media, as pilla s o
democ acy, a he s a e and Eu opean le el (KEA, 2021; Miconi e al., 2024).
Mo eo e , he sel - egula ion o jou nalis s and news media (Fengle e al., 2015;
Fidalgo e al., 2022) is seen as an enabling condi ion acili a ing he media’s
democ a ic oles. This may be se ed h ough upda ed and binding collec i e
deon ological ag eemen s and ins umen s, adhe ing o he p inciples o a
jou nalism a en i e o a genuine democ a ic p ac ice in con empo a y digi al
en i onmen s.
A pa o his discussion conce ns he ecogni ion o he special ole o public
se ice media (Thomass e al., 2022) and communi y media (Doliwa & Ranko ic,
2014; Eu opean Pa liamen , 2007; Lewis, 2008), in pe o ming he democ a ic
oles o se ing he public, and o plu alism and di e si y, h ough p o ec i e leg-
isla ion and he p o ision o ( inancial) suppo (Kamme , 2016). As i is a gued
by Thomass e al. (2022), well- unc ioning and s ong public se ice media a e
ele an o democ acy, also o hei b oade impac ‘on he gene al media ecol-
ogy’, in he coun ies in which hey ope a e (p. 187). Communi y media, as
al eady men ioned, a e seen as se ing democ acy by gi ing oice o ma gin-
alised g oups and by aining hei membe s in democ a ic p ac ice (Bella di e al.,
2018; Ca pen ie & Doudaki, 2014).
The ecogni ion o he special ole o PSM and communi y media is ela ed o
he need o bo h ( inancial) suppo and he absence o in e e ence by he s a e,
which will gua an ee hese media’s independence, enabling hem o p omo e bo h
in e nal and ex e nal plu alism. Public se ice b oadcas e s a e expec ed, and a e
legally bound, o ul il hei public emi by ( e)p esen ing he di e en social and
poli ical g oups and hei posi ions, in hei p og ammes and o e all con en
(Donde s, 2021; Iosi idis, 2010; Ka ppinen, 2007). S ill, hey a e o en c i iqued
o hei lack o independence om he s a e. Fo he Media Plu alism Moni o ,
Doudaki e al. 17
‘[i]nabili y o ensu e he Independence o public se ice media […] is one o he
key p oblems in achie ing he PSM mission and ele ance o he con empo a y
in o ma ion en i onmen ’ (Bleye -Simon e al., 2023, p. 7).
One ela ed esea ch a ea ha shows he ele ance o his condi ion o possibil-
i y ocuses on ‘media cap u e’, ei he by he s a e o co po a e in e es s, add ess-
ing he en anglemen o es ed in e es s wi h go e nmen s (Schi in, 2021, p. 5;
Mungiu-Pippidi, 2008). S a e-d i en media cap u e conce ns ‘ he use o legisla-
i e, egula o y and inancial powe s o he s a e by he dominan poli ical o ce
o cap u e media o ad ance i s poli ical in e es s’ (Ma agoudaki, 2024, p. 4).
Resea ch has poin ed o inc easing endencies o s a es cap u ing p i a e and pub-
lic media in se e al EU membe s a es, o example, in Hunga y, Poland, Romania
and G eece (D agomi , 2018, 2019; Ma agoudaki, 2024; Nielsen e al., 2019).
Acco ding o he In e na ional P ess Ins i u e (IPI), which has been documen ing
di e en o ms o media cap u e in Eu ope, ‘[m]edia cap u e is mos en enched
and sys emic whe e […] he uling pa y in coope a ion wi h business in e es s’
(Ma agoudaki, 2024, p. 4) ‘cap u e’ p i a e media, public media, media unding
and media egula ion. Resea ch has also been poin ing o an inc easingly s onge
ole o he co po a e sec o in aking he lead in media cap u e, in collabo a ion
wi h go e nmen s (D agomi , 2024; Schi in, 2021). Media cap u e in i s
enhanced o ms cons i u es a di ec h ea o democ acy, as i showcases he ail-
u e o democ a ic ins i u ions and he e osion o democ a ic alues. The cons i u-
ional and legisla i e p o ec ion o he sepa a ion o he powe s o he s a e, and
he independence o i s leading ins i u ions, embedded in he ule o law, may
unc ion as a p o ec i e bu e agains he ma e ialisa ion o such o ms o media
cap u e.
The conce ns abou media’s independence om s a e and co po a e con ol a e
echoed in he a gumen s o coo dina ed egula ion a he EU le el, ca e ing o
he democ a ic unc ioning o he media. In hese cases, he EU is expec ed o
called upon o play he ole o he Eu opean egula o p o ec ing media eedoms
ac oss Eu ope. An example o such an ins umen is he Eu opean Media F eedom
Ac (2024) (Eu opean Media F eedom Ac , 2024; Laaninen, 2024), which aims o
p omo e media plu alism and independence ac oss he EU, by inc easing p o ec-
ion agains poli ical in e e ence in edi o ial decisions and agains su eillance o
media and jou nalis s (Bo ges e al., 2023; Cen e o Media Plu alism and Media
F eedom (CMPF), 2022; Repo e s wi hou Bo de s, 2024; Tambini, 2023).
Rela ed a e also he p o isions ha a e add essed by he an i-SLAPP Di ec i e,
which aims o c ea e a binding Eu opean legal ins umen p o ec ing hose a -
ge ed wi h s a egic lawsui s agains public pa icipa ion (SLAPPs), such as ci il
socie y ac o s, jou nalis s and news media (see, e.g., Baye e al., 2021; Eu opean
Commission, 2023; Fie ens e al., 2023; Ra o e al., 2020).
Also, he Eu opean Commission’s annual Rule o Law epo s assess media
eedom and plu alism ac oss membe s a es and sugges ecommenda ions o
imp o emen s. The 2024 epo (Eu opean Commission, 2024) highligh ed con-
ce ns in coun ies such as Romania, Mal a, Hunga y, Slo akia and I aly, ci ing
issues such as poli ical in e e ence in media, lack o anspa ency in media own-
e ship, and challenges aced by jou nalis s. These epo s se e as a basis o he
18 Media Wa ch
EU o ecommend e o ms and, i necessa y, ini ia e in ingemen p ocedu es
agains membe s a es ha iola e EU p inciples. Fo ins ance, in 2022, he EU
e e ed Hunga y o cou o i s na ional Media Council’s decision o e use a
enewal o an independen adio s a ion’s licence (Eu opean Commission, 2022).
A se o challenges in egula ing (s a e) media does no lie in he go e n-
men s’ unwillingness o uphold democ a ic p inciples such as media eedom
and eedom o exp ession bu a he in he complexi ies in oduced by he ise
o global communica ion and media sys ems (Moo e & Tambini, 2022). The
la e c ea es egula o y challenges o na ional go e nmen s (Fukuyama &
G o o, 2020), d i en by he in e na ionalisa ion o he economy, he bo de less
cha ac e o he In e ne and he global media conglome a es’ esis ance o egu-
la ion. These condi ions, which complica e o e en challenge he legi imacy o
he s a e as egula o , poin o he need o he cons uc ion o new legi imacies
o ansna ional, in e na ional and global egula ion o (democ a ic) media.
While s a e legi imacy is s ill upheld in democ a ic s a es, he EU is inc easingly
aking he ole o he sup a- egula o o he media sec o a he Eu opean le el,
al hough i is s ill no ully add essing he global challenges (de S eel &
Hocepied, 2021; Klimkiewicz, 2010).
One ela ed example o EU egula ion is he Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion
(GDPR) o 2016, applicable in 2018 in all EU membe s a es. I ‘ egula es a he
EU le el basic ea u es and dimensions o p i acy and p ocessing o pe sonal da a
by companies and hi d pa ies, aiming o enhance indi iduals’ con ol and igh s
o e hei da a’ (Doudaki e al., 2023, p. 10). While GDPR has been welcomed as
a pionee egula ion in he ield, due o i s b oad scope and p o isions, c i ics ha e
add essed he s uc u ally imbalanced powe ela ions be ween companies and
use s (Helm & Seube , 2020). As i is a gued, ‘in condi ions whe e use s ha e
limi ed agency in how o access, na iga e and use he online pla o ms and en i-
onmen s, co po a ions ind ways o ha es da a om he pla o ms’ use s’
(Doudaki e al., 2023, p. 10). Fu he limi a ions o GDPR’s e iciency ela e o i s
inabili y o egula e da a anspa ency (Schade, 2023) e ec i ely and o add ess
he implica ions o a i icial in elligence (AI) (Paal, 2022).
Ano he example conce ns he EU’s e o s o egula e digi al pla o ms.
In pa icula , he Eu opean Union has been p eoccupied wi h he con ainmen o
he inc easing(ly) (nega i e impac o ) pla o misa ion, aimed a p o ec ing
plu alism. In Sep embe 2023, he Eu opean Commission designa ed six digi al
ga ekeepe s—which comp ised Alphabe , Amazon, Apple, By eDance, Me a and
Mic oso —unde he Digi al Ma ke s Ac (DMA) (Eu opean Commission, n.d.).
The Ac es ablished a se o c i e ia o iden i y digi al ga ekeepe s, as well as a
amewo k o hei egula ion, o p omo e ai compe i ion and use igh s wi hin
digi al pla o ms (Bos oen, 2023). These egula o y ini ia i es a emp o egula e
se e al issues connec ed o he ope a ion o he ma ke s, ye ail o add ess he
need o ebalance he powe dynamics wi hin digi al ecosys ems (see, e.g., Sha on
& Gelle , 2023).
Las ly, esponding o he apid ad ancemen o powe ul algo i hmic models
by co po a e ac o s, he EU app o ed he AI Ac in 2024 (Eu opean Union, 2024).
This became he i s comp ehensi e legal amewo k o AI in Eu ope, aimed a
Doudaki e al. 19
AI sys ems’ sa e y, anspa ency and alignmen wi h ci izens’ democ a ic igh s.
The Ac manda es isk assessmen s, human o e sigh , and clea labelling o
AI-gene a ed con en , imposing ex ensi e ines on non-complian companies.
S ill, apa om he easibili y o ha monisa ion o na ional legisla ions and he
applicabili y o o e sigh , schola s wa n ha among he mos se ious challenges
aced by egula o s will be he high pace o machine lea ning de elopmen
(Helbe ge & Diakopoulos, 2023).
Discussion and Conclusion
This in eg a i e li e a u e e iew, suppo ed by Ca pen ie and Wimme ’s (2025)
heo e ical amewo k on democ acy and media, ocused on he condi ions o pos-
sibili y o democ a ic media in/abou Eu ope. Ou e iew se ed as an oppo u-
ni y o a heo e ically guided e lec ion on he empi ical esea ch conduc ed in
he unde s udied a ea o condi ions o possibili y o democ a ic media, which a e
seen as he enabling assemblages ha a e loca ed ou side media hemsel es, and
which a e s ill conduci e owa ds he unc ioning o media’s democ a ic oles.
The e iew, which ocused on empi ical li e a u e o e 24 yea s (Janua y 2000
o Ap il 2024), was s uc u ed a ound ou main condi ions o possibili y: com-
munica ion echnologies, economic esou ces and s abili y, democ a ic media cul-
u e, and he legi imacy o democ a ic egula ion. As i is p esen ed h oughou
he e iew, hese ou condi ions o possibili y a e he enabling amewo ks o
media o pe o m hei democ a ic oles, pe mi ing bu also condi ioning media’s
pe o mance. Following Deleuze’s and Foucaul ’s in e p e a ions o he con-
cep —which we discussed in he heo e ical pa o ou a icle—we need o
acknowledge ha hese condi ions o possibili y a e ou side he democ acy–media
nexus, bu s ill a e necessa y o his nexus o exis , and simul aneously in e ac
wi h his nexus and hus co-shape i . To illus a e his wi h one o hese condi ions
o possibili y: communica ion echnologies a e, o ins ance, e y much needed
o media’s democ a ic oles and hei a o dances co-shape he democ acy–media
nexus, bu communica ion echnologies can also be used in non- o an i-demo-
c a ic ways.
The ocus on empi ical li e a u e ( hus anscending a pu ely heo e ical
app oach) allowed us o sys ema ically e- ead exis ing esea ch ou pu in he
ield o democ acy and media in Eu ope, using he concep ual lenses o a speci ic
heo e ical amewo k. Apa om es ing he amewo k’s usabili y in he ield o
empi ical esea ch, his exe cise se ed as a e lec ion on esea ch p ac ice,
eminding ha he concep ual, heo e ical and me hodological choices made by
esea che s unc ion as amewo ks o in elligibili y, guiding and condi ioning he
ways o c ea e knowledge abou p ocesses and social phenomena.
As i became isible h ough his li e a u e e iew, while empi ical esea ch on
media and democ acy is abundan , i o en ocuses on successes and ailu es o
media’s democ a ic oles, measu ing o wha deg ee media/jou nalis s pe o m
well o ail in gi en imes, based on no ma i e amewo ks and expec a ions.
Also, esea ch measu ing he pe o mance o democ a ic unc ion h ough quan-
i a i e measu emen s based on no ma i e s anda ds is o en inclined o iden i y
20 Media Wa ch
de iciencies o lacks. The deploymen o a no ma i e ideal as a single s a ing
poin o en esul s in measu emen s o he ‘dis ance’ be ween ideal and p ac ice,
ailing o cap u e he nuances and he a ying in ensi ies in media’s (democ a ic)
pe o mance. A he same ime, analyses ha emphasise he elemen o s uggle,
s udying in ensi ies, inconsis encies and con ingencies, h ough a condi ions o
possibili y p ism—and no igidly ocusing on successes o ailu es—migh
enable ske ching mo e nuanced pic u es.
Mo eo e , esea ch on media’s democ a ic pe o mance ha akes he o m o
ecommenda ions o en neglec s he angible and in angible cul u al, poli ical,
economic, echnological and social en i onmen s o which he ecommenda ions
a e in ended. A amewo k conside ing condi ions o possibili y migh help o
shed ligh on exis ing o unde explo ed cul u es, in as uc u es and socie al ne -
wo ks ha can be ac i a ed u he in he se ice o democ acy (wi hou limi ing
hem o a lis o ‘good examples’ o ‘bes p ac ices’ ha a e o en ound in ecom-
menda ions). I also shows he in e sec ion o democ acy, media, echnology,
economy, cul u e, poli ics and law, which is i al o a be e unde s anding o he
unc ioning o democ acy.
This also ende s his a icle an in i a ion o anscend i s Eu opean ocus, and
o heo e ically and empi ically sc u inise whe he he concep o he condi ion o
possibili y, and i s ma e ialisa ions dis inguished in his a icle, can con ibu e o
a be e unde s anding o he media’s (democ a ic) oles in o he pa s o he
wo ld. O e all, his p ism migh acili a e he comp ehension o he global di e -
si y, nuances and mul iplici y o communica i e p ac ices pe o ming democ acy,
and he embeddedness o hese ini ia i es in b oade socie al ne wo ks and a enas
o poli ical s uggle.
Acknowledgemen
This ex is pa o he MeDeMAP p ojec , which has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean
Union’s Ho izon Eu ope esea ch and inno a ion ac ion unde G an Ag eemen No.
101094984. The iews and opinions exp essed in his ex a e hose o he au ho s only and
do no necessa ily e lec hose o he Eu opean Union o he Eu opean Resea ch Execu i e
Agency. Nei he he Eu opean Union no he g an ing au ho i y can be held esponsible o
hem.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen
This a icle conce ns a li e a u e e iew, which also includes non-open-access esou ces.
All esou ces/li e a u e men ioned in he a icle a e lis ed in he e e ences lis . Links o
hese e e ences a e included when a ailable.
Decla a ion o Con lic ing In e es s
The au ho s decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho -
ship and/o publica ion o his a icle.
Funding
The au ho s disclosed eceip o he ollowing inancial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship
and/o publica ion o his a icle: This ex is pa o he MeDeMAP p ojec , which has
Doudaki e al. 21
ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope esea ch and inno a ion
ac ion unde G an Ag eemen No. 101094984.
No es
1. This a icle e-uses ex om Doudaki and Filimono (2024) and Doudaki e al. (2025).
2. This s udy is pa o he Mapping Media o Fu u e Democ acies (MeDeMAP)
Eu opean p ojec (h ps://www.medemap.eu).
3. ‘Media’ was always included as keywo d, and hen combined wi h wo keywo ds
om his lis (and hei linguis ic a ia ions): ‘Eu ope’, ‘democ acy’, ‘ echnology’,
‘economy’, ‘cul u e’, ‘ egula ion’ and ‘law’. The esul was 4,244 publica ions.
Sepa a ely, we sea ched o he combina ion o ‘media’ wi h ‘p e equisi e’ and wi h
‘p econdi ion’, which a e wo quasi-synonyms o ‘condi ions o possibili y’. Remo ing
o e lapping esul s wi h he i s sea ch, we had 44 addi ions. The sea ch was es ic ed
o publica ion i les, in combina ion wi h he o he il e s (men ioned ea lie ).
4. Ou o hese 390 publica ions, 156 we e explici ly in eg a ed in his a icle. The o he
publica ions we e ei he simila o his selec ion, o less illus a i e. Again, a sa u a ion
mechanism was used o decide on his selec ion.
5. No all esea ch unde he umb ella o media isa ion is na owly mediacen ic. The e
a e some mo e e ined a eas o esea ch ha add ess he ins i u ional, cul u al and
echnological aspec s o media, app oaching media as spaces o expe ience, socialisa ion
and iden i y cons uc ion (see, e.g., Hepp & K o z, 2014; K o z, 2017). Rele an
empi ical esea ch has been ocusing, o example, on unde s anding p ocesses and
challenges o democ a isa ion in he EU using he lenses o media isa ion (e.g., T enz,
2006) o he media isa ion o social phenomena and s uggles such as mig a ion in
Eu ope (K zyżanowski e al., 2018; Mészá os, 2019).
ORCID iDs
Vaia Doudaki h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-6341-9963
Nico Ca pen ie h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-8996-4636
Ki ill Filimono h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9052-4849
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EHESS Pa is.
