Chap e 8
The anxious he i age speake ? Language
anxie y and insecu i y in mul ilingual
con ex s
Oli e Bunk
Humbold -Uni e si ä zu Be lin
Language anxie y (LA), p edominan ly s udied in second language lea ne s, has e-
cen ly encompassed he expe iences o mul ilingual he i age speake s. While his
expanded esea ch o e s impo an insigh s, i e eals a h ead o O he ing in LA
s udies, po aying he i age speake s as a homogenous g oup wi h li le powe o e
hei linguis ic command. D awing on quali a i e in e iews, his chap e high-
ligh s ha he i age speake s’ emo ional ela ionship wi h language is o en shaped
mo e by heigh ened socie al consciousness han me e anxie y. They na iga e ma-
jo i y linguis ic expec a ions, no as passi e en i ies domina ed by anxie y, bu as
ac i e agen s de ly managing hei linguis ic choices. This s udy ad oca es o a
econcep ualized iew o mul ilinguals in LA esea ch, emphasizing hei agency
and he ole o socie al ideologies owa ds mul ilingualism.
1 In oduc ion
Language anxie y (LA) e e s o he unease, app ehension, and ne ousness expe-
ienced by speake s when using o lea ning a pa icula language (e.g., Ho wi z
e al. 1986). LA was ini ially in es iga ed in he con ex o o eign and second
language acquisi ion, bo h in and ou side he class oom (e.g., G ege sen 2020,
Ho wi z 2001, 2010, Ho wi z e al. 1986, MacIn y e 2017). While ini ial s udies
Oli e Bunk. 2025. The anxious he i age speake ? Language anxie y and insecu-
i y in mul ilingual con ex s. In A emis Alexiadou, Claudio Sca aglie i, Ch is oph
Sch oede & Heike Wiese (eds.), The cons uc ion o mul ilinguals as O he s: Do we
p ac ice wha we p each?, 153–177. Be lin: Language Science P ess. DOI: 10 . 5281 /
zenodo.17132453
Oli e Bunk
p ima ily e ol ed a ound monolingual1lea ne con ex s, ecen in es iga ions
ha e expanded o mul ilingual se ings, especially wi hin mino i y communi ies
(E gü & Baş 2023, Ga cia De Blakeley e al. 2017, Jee 2022, P ada e al. 2020,
Se inç 2014, 2018, 2020, 2022, Se inç & Backus 2019, Se inç & Dewaele 2018).
This shi in ocus o mul ilingualism is highly ele an as i includes a g ow-
ing popula ion ha has la gely been le un ouched by esea ch. Addi ionally, i
adds a new, impo an pe spec i e, del ing in o he emo ional well-being o he -
i age speake s and iden i ying ac o s ha may ad e sely a ec hem, e.g., issues
o iden i y (Se inç & Backus 2019), cul u e and belonging (Jee 2022, P ada e al.
2020), and amily a i udes (Jee 2022, Se inç 2022). Thus, such esea ch sheds
ligh on he i age speake s’ expe iences and un a els he nega i e impac s o he
con ex s hey na iga e. These insigh s can p o ide a basis o imp o ing mul-
ilingual expe iences. Howe e , he e is an unde lying isk o O he ing wi hin
LA s udies, echoing O he ing p ac ices ound in o he lines o esea ch, like he
use o speci ic labelling (see Wiese e al. 2022, Wiese his olume) and adap ing
speci ic pe spec i es on he i age speake s.
Building on hese obse a ions, his chap e in es iga es he O he ing p ac-
ices wi hin LA esea ch in mul ilingual con ex s. I a gue ha esea ch on LA gen-
e ally adop s an inclusi e pe spec i e bu exhibi s pa e ns o O he ing. These
pa e ns o en p esen a unidimensional iew, po aying speake s as ha ing lim-
i ed agency o e hei language use due o LA. Analyzing in e iew da a ha
ocus on LA in he majo i y language o he i age speake s, I a gue ha he i age
speake s’ emo ional connec ion o he majo i y language s ems less om anxi-
e y and mo e om an acu e awa eness o he expec a ions se by he p e ailing
monolingual majo i y. Consequen ly, speake s migh expe ience p essu e o con-
o m linguis ically wi h his majo i y; howe e , hey apply speci ic mechanisms
o o e come his p essu e. The s udy, hus, aims o p o ide an addi ional pe -
spec i e in LA esea ch, highligh ing speake s’ agency and linguis ic owne ship
and he ole o language ideologies in he con ex s hey na iga e.
Be o e del ing deepe in o he opic, i is impe a i e o cla i y ha his discus-
sion is no an a emp o spo ligh speci ic au ho s, p ojec s, o publica ions o
hei O he ing pa e ns. Con a y o o he subdisciplines in linguis ics, ecen
1The e m “monolingual” commonly desc ibes speake s o one named language, i.e. English,
Ge man, Russian e c. Howe e , only e y ew indi iduals may ac ually speak only one lan-
guage, especially conside ing he global impo ance o languages such as English, F ench,
Spanish o Manda in-Chinese, and linguis ic egis e s (Ro hman 2008, MacSwan 2017). In his
chap e , I conside he no ion o he “monolingual speake ” as a social cons uc . Howe e , I
will use he e m in o de o be e desc ibe he con as be ween speake s ha g ew up wi h
one s. mul iple language as hei amily language(s).
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8 The anxious he i age speake ?
esea ch on LA s ands ou due o i s use o inclusi e language and pe spec i es.
Especially wi hin he ecen ly de eloping ocus on he i age speake s and di e se,
mul ilingual con ex s, his line o esea ch has unea hed in aluable insigh s in o
he well-being o mul ilingual speake s, shedding ligh on he nega i e emo ions
hey g apple wi h in hei e e yday li es. Howe e , his chap e in ends o illus-
a e ha e en such a p og essi e and ela i ely young ield is no exemp om
he inad e en O he ing p ocesses s emming om ce ain deep-sea ed, in e nal-
ized pe spec i es on language and speake s.
The chap e is s uc u ed as ollows: In Sec ion 2, I discuss he key opics in LA
esea ch o ou line po en ial a eas o O he ing. I in oduce Linguis ic Insecu i y
(LI) as a concep closely ela ed o LA and compa e bo h concep s wi h espec o
O he ing. Sec ion 3 summa izes he main o ms o O he ing, while Sec ion 4 dis-
cusses which pe spec i es migh be aken o a oid O he ing. Sec ion 5 p esen s
an example o how hese pe spec i es can help o enligh en ou unde s anding
o LA in he i age speake s, acknowledging hei ole as ac i e language owne s.
I p esen a quali a i e analysis o in e iew da a on he linguis ic p essu e o he -
i age speake s in Ge many, ocusing on hei use o Ge man. Sec ion 6 p o ides
a conclusion.
2 Language anxie y, insecu i y and mul ilingualism
Unde s anding he emo ional esponses o language lea ne s and speake s, such
as Language Anxie y (LA) and Linguis ic Insecu i y (LI), o e s insigh s in o he
b oade implica ions o mul ilingualism. T adi ionally, LA has been in es iga ed
in he class oom con ex om he pe spec i e o o eign language lea ne s (Ga d-
ne & MacIn y e 1993, Ho wi z e al. 1986). The sou ces o o eign language anx-
ie y (FLA) a e mul i ace ed, including lea ne ac o s like a pe cei ed lack o
compe ence o p epa a ion (Ho wi z 1986), pe ec ionism (G ege sen & Ho wi z
2002), and compe i i eness (Jin e al. 2015), and class oom ac o s like eache be-
ha io and eaching me hods (B iesmas e & B iesmas e -Pa edes 2015, Huang
e al. 2010). Ho wi z e al. (1986) u he a gue ha o eign language anxie y in-
e ac s wi h communica ion app ehension, es anxie y, and ea o social e alu-
a ion. FLA can ela e o speci ic domains, such as speaking, lis ening, eading o
w i ing (Dewaele & Li 2022).
S udies indica e mul ilingualism educes FLA, acili a ing language acquisi ion
(Dewaele 2007, 2010, Thompson & Lee 2013). Liu (2013) epo s ha equen use
o a o eign language inc eases sel -pe cei ed compe ence and sel -con idence,
lowe ing LA, while MacIn y e & Ga dne (1989: 270) ind ha FLA causes “pe -
o mance de ici s”. Thus, s udies on LA in he lea ne con ex o en explo e he
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ela ionship be ween anxie y, language achie emen and p o iciency, i.e. he ea-
sons and e ec s o LA on language lea ning (see Luo 2013 o a comp ehensi e
e iew). These complex in e ac ions also play an impo an ole in he i age and
majo i y language anxie y (HLA and MLA, espec i ely), howe e , wi h di e -
en e ec s o he g oups in es iga ed. While FLA migh lead o nega i e lea n-
ing achie emen s, pa icula ly in he class oom con ex , HLA and MLA can pose
p o ound socio-emo ional challenges o mul ilingual speake s in hei e e yday
li es. S ill, he e m “language anxie y” has been adop ed o he i age language
esea ch.
In his pi o al wo k, Tallon (2011) in oduced he e m “he i age language anx-
ie y”, emphasizing he need o de ailed esea ch on he anxie y expe ienced by
he i age speake s. P ada e al. (2020: 96) de ine HLA as a “speci ic ype o anx-
ie y linked o he nega i e eelings o physical o emo ional discom o expe i-
enced in connec ion wi h using he HL”. HLA has been in es iga ed in di e en
languages (Chinese: Xiao & Wong 2014; Ko ean: Jee 2016, 2022; Spanish: Tallon
2009, 2011; Tu kish: E gü & Baş 2023, Se inç 2014 e seq.). Compa ed o o eign
language lea ne s, he i age speake s end o expe ience less anxie y when using
hei he i age language (P ada e al. 2020, Tallon 2009). Howe e , he deg ee o
anxie y seems o be linked o di e en ex a-linguis ic ac o s such as commu-
nica ion pa ne , communica ion con ex , sel -pe cei ed p o iciency, and socio-
biog aphical aspec s.
In a se ies o s udies, Se inç (2014, 2018, 2020, 2022), Se inç & Backus (2019),
Se inç & Dewaele (2018) in es iga e HLA in h ee gene a ions o Du ch-Tu kish
bilinguals in he Ne he lands. Se inç & Dewaele (2018: 162) highligh ha he
“challenges ha immig an communi ies ace in a language con ac si ua ion a y
ac oss di e en geog aphical, social and poli ical con ex s (Canaga ajah 2008),
and ac oss di e en alue sys ems unde pinned by hei iden i y, cul u e and
so o h.” Hence, iden i y cons uc ion, cul u al aspec s and he socie al con ex
play a cen al ole in HLA, which can bes be obse ed when s udying di e en
gene a ions. Se inç & Dewaele (2018) ind ha he gene a ion ha immig a ed
om Tu key o he Ne he lands exhibi s e y li le HLA ( hough when speak-
ing Tu kish a ound supposedly monolingual Du ch speake s). Howe e , hei
child en, who we e bo n in he Ne he lands o a i ed he e a an ea ly age, ex-
pe ienced mo e HLA when speaking Tu kish in Tu key ou side wi h pe cei ed
na i e Tu kish speake s and wi h Tu kish iends in Tu key. This kind o anxie y
also applied o he child en o he locally bo n Du ch-Tu kish bilinguals. Addi-
ionally, his g oup expe ienced he highes le el o HLA in all social con ex s
(i.e., communica ion wi h amily, iends, and “na i e speake s”). These o ms
o anxie y mani es physiologically in elec ode mal ac i i y (Se inç 2018) and
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8 The anxious he i age speake ?
a e u he in luenced by monolingual-o ien ed amily language policy (Se inç
2022).
One o he d i ing ac o s in HLA is sel -pe cei ed p o iciency, wi h highe
sel -pe cei ed p o iciency being co ela ed wi h less HLA (Chhuon 2011, Se -
inç 2016, Se inç & Backus 2019). This ac o migh be ela ed o he social and
cul u al condi ions he i age speake s na iga e daily. He i age speake s ace ex-
pec a ions conce ning hei cul u al iden i y and cons uc ed e hnici y, o en as-
socia ed wi h hei languages. S udies b ough up he icious ci cle in which
he i age speake s expe ience HLA, leading o a oidance and a dec ease in p o i-
ciency, which, in u n, boos s HLA (see K ashen 1998; Se inç & Backus 2019, Li
1996). Beyond sel -pe cei ed p o iciency, Se inç & Dewaele (2018) sugges ha
eelings o social inequali y (Hudson 1996) and sensa ions o language p ide and
panic (Ma ínez 2006) u he exace ba e HLA.
While mos s udies on he i age speake s emphasize he he i age language, a
limi ed numbe del es in o LA wi hin he con ex o he he i age speake s’ ma-
jo i y language. Se inç & Dewaele (2018) coined he e m “majo i y language
anxie y” (MLA), which hey desc ibe as “language anxie y expe ienced by immi-
g an o mino i y communi y membe s in he language o he majo i y o he
popula ion in a na ional con ex ” (Se inç & Dewaele 2018: 176). The s udy p o-
ided i s insigh s in o MLA in h ee gene a ions o Du ch-Tu kish bilinguals.
They ind ha he gene a ion ha mig a ed o he Ne he lands and hei chil-
d en expe ience in ense MLA, pa icula ly in con e sa ion wi h o a ound sup-
posedly monolingual Du ch speake s. Child en o he locally-bo n gene a ion
did no expe ience MLA. Jee (2022) epo s simila indings o English-Ko ean
bilingual speake s in Aus alia, whe e he immig an gene a ion el MLA, while
hei child en did no . Howe e , in con as o he gene a ions in es iga ed in he
Ne he lands, speake s om hese wo gene a ions epo ed ela i ely low HLA.
Linking LA o he majo i y language o mul ilinguals is a a he new app oach,
as s udies on anxie y in he majo i y language ha e mos ly been in es iga ed
in monolingually aised speake s. Fi s in oduced by Labo (2006), linguis ic
insecu i y (LI) e e s o “speake s’ eeling ha he a ie y hey use is somehow
in e io , ugly o bad’” (Meye ho 2006: 292). The e m, hus, ini ially e e ed
o el disc epancies be ween someone’s a ie y and a alo ized a ie y, o en
he s anda d a ie y. This alo ized a ie y is looked up o, as i ep esen s he
baseline o co ec ness and he no m o an “idealized homogenous language”
(Lippi-G een 2012: 64). In his s udy on New Yo k Ci y English, Labo (2006)
inds ha speake s om he lowe middle-class, pa icula ly women, expe ience
LI, ela ed o he desi e o social upwa d mo emen . LI is hus linked o social
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ac o s such as socio-economic class and gende . Simila indings we e epo ed
o English in Winnipeg (Owens & Bake 1984) and Michigan (P es on 2013).
LI was long in es iga ed wi h a ocus on monolinguals. Howe e , pa icu-
la ly in he con ex o F ench, i has been conside ed a c oss-linguis ic opic
since he 1990s, encompassing mul ilingual con ex s and language con ac se -
ings (B e egnie & Ledegen 2002, Cal e 1996, F anca d e al. 1993, de Robilla d
1996). I has since been desc ibed in a ious con ex s, such as he wo kplace (Cho
2015, Lance eau-Fo s e & Ma inez 2018) o he class oom (Da a i & Ta il 2017,
Gaglia di & Maley 2010, Jan i & Phusawiso 2021). LI esea ch in ol ing mul i-
lingualism o en in es iga es insecu i y in a ie ies o named languages (Ca alan:
Baldaquí Escandell 2011; Spanish: Suá ez Büdenbende (2010); English in Singa-
po e: Foo & Tan 2019) o mino i y languages and endange ed languages (Bal-
daquí Escandell 2011, Dağde i en-Kı mızı & Inan 2024, Shulis 2022). S udies in
LI also mo e equen ly end in es iga e posi i e s a egies in dealing wi h LI (e.g.
Lance eau-Fo s e & Ma inez 2018, Lee & Jang 2023) han LA s udies.
As his b ie e iew shows, LA and LI, while ela ed, a ge di e en speake
g oups and adop dis inc pe spec i es. LA is adi ionally associa ed wi h lan-
guage lea ning and hus lea ning achie emen in o eign language acquisi ion
and was la e applied o he he i age language con ex s, whe e esea ch ocuses
on he socio-emo ional well-being o he speake s. LI akes he mo e Labo ian
sociolinguis ic app oach o insecu i y, ocusing on he hie a chies be ween lin-
guis ic a ie ies wi hin he same named language and sociolinguis ic aspec s im-
pac ing language use and e alua ion. In bo h domains, speake s epo edly ex-
pe ience discom o when using ce ain languages o a ie ies, and Ho wi z e
al. (1986) men ion he ea o social e alua ion as ela ed o FLA, which suppos-
edly also plays a ole in LI. Howe e , speake s manage hese eelings in di e en
ways. Labo (2006) iden i ies hype co ec ion as a esul o LI, as (monolingual)
speake s emula e s uc u es o a mo e p es igious a ie y o a oid p e iously
ecognized e o s. Hype co ec ion is hus an ac i e coping s a egy ha speak-
e s apply o ace LI. In he li e a u e on LA, such pe spec i es ha acknowledge
speake s’ agency seem o be a mino i y, i no comple ely absen . Speake s, pa -
icula ly he i age speake s, a e usually po ayed as a ec ed by LA wi h li le
powe o e hei languages and nega i e emo ions. In con as , he i age speak-
e s a oid hei he i age language due o anxie y, leading o language loss and so-
cial con lic . While his pe spec i e is highly ele an o he in es iga ion o he
nega i e impac o LA on he indi idual, he sole ocus on he he i age language
and i s a oidance o e shadows wo ac o s: Fi s , he i age speake s a e owne s
and in powe o e all hei languages and a ie ies, including hei majo i y lan-
guage and he i age language, and second, he signi icance o he socie al con ex ,
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8 The anxious he i age speake ?
i.e., socie al ideologies and hei e ec s on he i age speake s’ associa ions wi h
languages and a ie ies.
Cu en p edomina ing esea ch pe spec i es on LA in he i age speake s hus
un in o dange o “O he ing” speake s as ic ims wi hou conside ing hei ull
linguis ic command and b oade socie al aspec s. This kind o O he ing also plays
ou in how speake s and hei languages use a e labelled. In he nex sec ions, I
explo e p ac ices o O he ing in LA/LI esea ch. I i s discuss O he ing h ough
labelling as desc ibed o o he subdisciplines in linguis ics (Wiese e al. 2022,
Wiese, his olume) and h ough he labels “anxie y” and “insecu i y”. Second,
I highligh how including speci ic pe spec i es can a oid O he ing and simul a-
neously o e impo an insigh s, b oadening ou unde s anding o LA. I discuss
a) he ole o di e en speake g oups and he socie al con ex and b) he impo -
ance o epe oi es and linguis ic agency.
3 Pa e ns o O he ing in LA/LI esea ch
The li e a u e exhibi s se e al O he ing p ac ices iden i ied in Wiese e al. (2022)
and Wiese ( his olume), pa icula ly conce ning labelling a) e i o ial belong-
ing, b) na ional membe ship, and c) linguis ic owne ship. D awing om Wiese
e al. (2022) and Wiese ( his olume), I discuss hese pa e ns using anonymized
e e ences. Codes ma k he discipline, iden i ied h ough he e ms used in he
espec i e s udy o desc ibe cases o unease cen ing a ound language (LA =
Language Anxie y, LI = Linguis ic Insecu i y), s udy numbe (01, 02, 03, …) and
publica ion yea .
3.1 Te i o ial belonging, na ional membe ship and linguis ic
owne ship
The p ac ice o O he ing ia e i o ial labels includes e ms like “second
gene a ion”, “ hi d gene a ion”, and “(im)mig an s” (LA02/2023, LA03/2022,
LA05/2020, LA06/2022, LA08/2018, LI10/20210, LI12/2016), “immig an commu-
ni ies” (LA05/2020, LA07/2019) o indi iduals ha a e locally bo n and hus,
should be e e ed o as such, i.e. i s - o second-gene a ion locals (Wiese e
al. 2022). Compa ed o monolinguals, hese speake s a e labelled “immig an
pee s” (LA02/2023). These speake s a e o en associa ed wi h “home coun ies”
(LA05/2020), meaning whe e hei ances o s o igina ed, while he na ions o
hei bi h and esidence a e e med “hos coun ies” (LA07/2019, LA08/2018).
Occasionally, speake s a e compa ed wi h speake s li ing in a “ o eign coun y”
(LI11/1984).
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O he ing by a ibu ing na ional g oup labels is e iden in e ms like “Tu kish”,
“Ko eans”, “Spanish”, “Tu kish child en”, and “Tu kish iends”, when e e ing o
speake s bo n and esiding in ano he coun y, such as Ge many, Aus alia, o he
US (LA02/2023, LI10/2010, LA03/2022, LA06/2022, LA08/2018, LI14/2007). Some
s udies also include he e m “li ing ab oad” (LA02/2023) o “he i age coun y”
(LA17/2020) o locally-bo n speake s.
Rega ding linguis ic owne ship, many s udies ca ego ize he i age speake s as
“L2” lea ne s, e en i hey began acqui ing he majo i y language om bi h
o ea ly childhood (LA01/2008, LA15/2010, LA17/2013, LA19/2007). Monolinguals
a e o en po ayed as he bea e s o a language, se ing a benchma k ha he -
i age speake s should “ca ch up” o, gi en pe cei ed di e ences in p o iciency o
pe o mance (LA02/2023, LA18/2018, LA03/2022). Speake s a e also con as ed
wi h “na i e” speake s (LA18/2018, LA03/2022, LI12/2016).
3.2 “Anxie y” and “Insecu i y”
The p ac ice o O he ing h ough labelling also encompasses e ms like “anxi-
e y” and “insecu i y”. LA esea ch adi ionally akes Spielbe ge ’s (1983) wo k
on anxie y as a s a ing poin . Spielbe ge ocused on he psychological condi-
ion o anxie y, which is hen equen ly adap ed o desc ibe nega i e eelings
and emo ions in lea ne s o he i age speake s. Gi en his con ex , using he label
“anxie y” could inad e en ly pa hologize i , aming i as a “condi ion” o “dis-
o de ”. Pa hologizing LA migh di e a en ion om he ex e nal ac o s ha
con ibu e o i , including socie al p essu es, un ealis ic expec a ions, linguis ic
hegemony, o disc imina o y a i udes owa ds ce ain languages. Concu en ly,
e en hough LA is o en desc ibed as si ua ion-speci ic in con as o ai and
s a e anxie y (Ho wi z e al. 1986, MacIn y e & Ga dne 1989,) “anxie y” has a
mo e ecognized pa hological aspec , while “insecu i y” o en e e s o a common
empo a y human expe ience, which can lead o anxie y and anxie y diso de s.
Impo an ly, LA esea ch seems o single ou monolinguals om mul ilinguals.
LA is seldom linked wi h monolinguals and anxie y owa ds hei only language.
Thus, monolinguals’ expe iences a e cons uc ed as undamen ally dis inc om
hose o mul ilinguals, po en ially pa hologizing LA in he la e g oup bu no
he o me .
Mo eo e , as FLA is adi ionally s udied in he class oom con ex s (see Sec-
ion 2 abo e), i is o en asc ibed o ex e nal, su moun able easons. Fo lea ne s,
LA is p esen ed as a na u al phenomenon when lea ning a new language, and
hus, i is depic ed as esol able wi h inc easing p o iciency (see Pa k 2021 o
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8 The anxious he i age speake ?
a c i ical discussion). In con as , HLA is depic ed as an inhe en ai o he -
i age speake s. I is concep ualized as he esul o a sel -pe cei ed lack o com-
pe ence, leading o a oidance and social con lic . Gi en his pe spec i e, esea ch
equen ly champions he i age language ins uc ion wi hou del ing in o wide
socie al ac o s con ibu ing o HLA, like p e ailing ideologies and a i udes.
The labelling p ac ices highligh ed abo e no only O he he i age speake s bu
also sugges a na owed iewpoin on hem. Including di e en pe spec i es in
LA esea ch migh o e come his po en ial o O he ing and p o ide new insigh s
in o LA in di e en speake g oups, as discussed in he nex sec ion.
4 Reconcep ualizing pe spec i es in LA esea ch
4.1 Speake g oups and socie al con ex s
Resea ch in LA/LI o en gene alizes speake s by concen a ing on simila de-
mog aphic g oups. They end o neglec di e en socie al p es ige associa ed
wi h ce ain languages bu ocus on speake g oups ha o en ace disc imina-
ion agains hem in speci ic coun ies, like he i age speake s o Tu kish in Ge -
many o he i age Spanish speake s in he US. Howe e , speake s o languages
wi h high socie al p es ige may expe ience LA/LI di e en ly, e ealing unde -
lying hegemonic socie al pa e ns. Fo example, a he i age speake o Ge man
in Namibia o he US o a he i age speake o English in Ge many migh ace
less disc imina ion and expec a ions, and he e o e, LA/LI migh a ec hem less
s ongly. This pe spec i e shi s he ocus om mul ilingualism as a po en ial
h ea o emo ional well-being o la ge socie al issues ela ed o powe ela ions
and he hegemonic s a us o speci ic languages, a ie ies and speake s. G ouping
all mul ilingual speake s’ expe iences unde a singula na a i e, isks obscu ing
b oade socie al challenges, especially p e alen ideologies and powe dynamics.
Wi hin his con ex , ocusing on socie al ci cums ances ha play a ole in LA
p o ides an impo an ac o in unde s anding LA and LI. LA migh a ise less
om a sel -pe cei ed de iciency in p o iciency and mo e om ing ained no ions
o linguis ic compe ence and expec ed judgmen s om one’s en i onmen . The
no ion o compe ence is s ongly shaped by he majo i y o socie y, whose mem-
be s a e hemsel es impac ed by linguis ic ideologies. In pa icula , in he Global
No h, monolingual ideologies s ongly in luence he concep ualiza ion o lan-
guage(s) and hei speake s (Blackledge 2000, 2002). These ideologies p io i ize
monolingual linguis ic p ac ices, including he lack o language mixing and code-
swi ching and a e o en closely ela ed o s anda d language ideology (Lippi-
G een 2012), alo izing s anda d a ie ies o e o he a ie ies. Bo h, monolin-
161
Oli e Bunk
was, linguis ically, no good enough. Bo h s uden s con on ed he eache and
demanded o comple e he examina ion none heless. Thei e alua ion ended up
being e y posi i e. Howe e , i le he s uden wi h anguish:
(10) Wenn diese Mensch schon im Vo eld i gendwie o eingenommen is
und so ähm s e eo ypisch denk ode auch so klischeeha denk und du
dann auch noch wi klich so dich un e ihm posi ionie s und ihm das
Ge ühl gibs : “Ok, e ha das e eich , was e e eichen woll e ode in di
auch bewi ken möch e.” Da denke ich imme so: “Nein. Gib diesem
Menschen nich das Ge ühl und beweis’ ihm das Gegen eil.” Abe im
Ende ek weiß e ja auch nich , wie es in mi aussieh und so. Und sowas
hin e läss schon Spu en. (03Fbiac, Pos. 98)
The quo e highligh s he s uden ’s associa ions be ween mis akes poin ed ou
by he eache and he dange o being s e eo yped, o he ed and de alua ed due
o hei “mig a ion backg ound”. An impo an ac o seems o be social hie a -
chies and powe ela ions: being a ec ed by s e eo ypes also comes wi h he isk
o gi ing in o cons uc ed powe ela ions, placing he speake below he o he
pe son, who is no a ec ed by ha pa icula ype o s e eo yping and O he ing.
The speake in (10) ackles his aspec by applying ano he coping s a egy ha
seems o eme ge when acing po en ial language-based s igma iza ion: p oac i e
con on a ion, which migh be ela ed o he speake ’s need o p o e s e eo ypes
w ong, as indica ed in he sho inne dialogue.
F om a s uc u al pe spec i e, pa icipan s men ioned ha hey o en a oided
accen s and adjus ed hei speech acco ding o he communica i e con ex , pa -
icula ly in o mal si ua ions, as illus a ed in (11).
(11) Wenn ich in eine o mellen Si ua ion bin, habe ich das Ge ühl, dass ich
alles e was, ich muss hal alles gehobene ausd ücken, die
Fo mulie ungen we den eilweise auch länge , und auch iel meh
Nebensä ze. […] En wede kan ige und mi iel Nebensä zen ode hal
seh ku z. Wohingegen, wenn ich je z un e meinen F eunden bin […],
dann ach e man hal nich au jeden Sa z, […] und man übe leg ein ach
ein bisschen wenige und man ha nich das Ge ühl da au ach en zu
müssen, dass man sich je z besonde s a ikulie ausd ück (CS_hT,
17:02)
While his s a egy may no be unique o mul ilinguals, he in e iew da a in-
dica e ha mul ilinguals ampli y hese di e ences, p ima ily due o hei heigh -
ened awa eness o he signi icance o adhe ing o S anda d Ge man. This aligns
168
8 The anxious he i age speake ?
wi h p e ious s udies, indica ing mul ilinguals’ acu e cognizance o hei lan-
guage use ac oss di e se communica i e con ex s (Bunk & Pohle 2019) and a en-
dency o linguis ically ma k speci ic communica i e si ua ions mo e in ensely.
Wiese e al. (2022) e.g. ound ha bilinguals use mo e non-canonical pa e ns
in in o mal si ua ions han monolinguals. Such esea ch has p ima ily ocused
on mul ilinguals’ in o mal language use, lea ing o mal egis e s ela i ely un-
explo ed (bu see Bunk (2024) o mul ilinguals’ language use in o mal se ings).
The in e iew da a indica e ha mul ilinguals’ o mal language migh o e an
in e es ing pe spec i e ega ding linguis ic p essu e, especially gi en ha o -
mal con ex s a e associa ed wi h S anda d Ge man and monolingual p ac ices,
ce ain mul ilingual speake s migh eel he need o align wi h.
6 Conclusions and ou look
This chap e explo ed O he ing p ac ices in esea ch on language anxie y (LA)
and linguis ic insecu i y (LI). I highligh ed ha hese pa e ns align wi h p e i-
ous indings (Wiese e al. 2021, Wiese, his olume) and include speci ic ypes
o labelling e e ing o e i o ial belonging, na ional membe ship, and linguis-
ic owne ship. Addi ionally, he li e a u e is domina ed by speci ic pe spec i es
on mul ilingual speake s and language anxie y, p o iding a basis o O he ing.
In pa icula , he e ms “language anxie y” and “linguis ic insecu i y” migh be
p oblema ic due o hei speci ic conno a ions and pa hological associa ions. I
sugges ed he e m “linguis ic p essu e” (LP) as an al e na i e. I a gued ha a
shi in pe spec i e conce ning he speake g oups, he socie al con ex , speake s’
linguis ic compe ence, egis e s and agency migh u he diminish he h ea o
O he ing in he ield. By p esen ing in e iew da a on linguis ic p essu e expe-
ienced by Ge man speake s, I demons a ed how a change in pe spec i e can
deepen ou comp ehension o he i age speake s’ coping mechanisms in si ua-
ions ha e oke LP.
The indings indica e ha pa icipan s do no necessa ily expe ience anxie y in
he majo i y language bu a e awa e o socie al expec a ions hey eel p essu ed
o ul ill. Speake s eel hey need o p o e hei Ge man p o iciency mo e han
monolinguals, as hey a e o en cons uc ed as o eigne s, ques ioning hei place
wi hin socie y. In his p ocess, o mal, S anda d Ge man is pa icula ly impo an ,
as i is no only used o p esen he speake s as in elligen and educa ed, ea u es
ha a e adi ionally associa ed wi h S anda d Ge man. I is also iewed as a
benchma k used by he monolingual majo i y o gauge whe he a mul ilingual
speake belongs in socie y. Recognizing hese ac o s, speake s employ dis inc
169
Oli e Bunk
ex a-linguis ic s a egies o coun e hese challenges, e.g., pe o ma i e ac ions.
In e es ingly, he awa eness o he impo ance o S anda d Ge man also seem o
play ou in he s uc u al plane, e.g. in language use in o mal communica i e
si ua ions. Bunk (2024), e.g., ound ha mul ilingual speake s use mo e ma ke s
o o mal language and less ma ke s o in o mal language han monolinguals o
ma k o mal communica i e si ua ions.
Mul ilingual speake s, a leas hose in es iga ed in he in e iews, demon-
s a e ull command o hei majo i y language and high me a-linguis ic knowl-
edge. They did no epo eelings o anxie y o insecu i y, e en hough when
asked o desc ibe how hey eel in pa icula si ua ions whe e hey use Ge man.
Howe e , hey demons a ed a s ong awa eness o how o he s pe cei e hei
language use. P essu e was mainly caused by he e alua ion by he majo i y so-
cie y and no by a sel -pe cei ed lack o compe ence. While esea ch p ima ily
ocuses on his aspec as one o he d i ing ac o s o anxie y, he socie al aspec
is o en o e looked (bu see Pa k 2021). In pa icula , nega i e socie al a i udes
owa ds mul ilingualism migh s ongly con ibu e o LP, as he in e iew da a
indica es. In socie al con ex s wi h a less nega i e pe spec i e on mul ilingual-
ism, LP migh no be as s ong o comple ely absen as mul ilingual p ac ices
a e pe cei ed as he no m. Gi en ha mos LP esea ch in ol es speake s om
he Global No h, LA/LI esea ch lacks an impo an pe spec i e om he Global
Sou h, whe e mul ilingual p ac ices a e o en pe cei ed as he no m.
Se inç & An honissen (2022) o e i s insigh s in o such a con ex in hei
in es iga ion o language anxie y in Cape Town, Sou h A ica. They show ha
hei in o man s exhibi ed only ew nega i e emo ions ega ding hei (mul ilin-
gual) language use. Thei s udy indica es ha LP depends g ea ly on he soci-
e al con ex . S udies on LP p edominan ly ocus on socie ies in he Global No h,
whe e monoglossic ideologies and a monolingual mindse (Clyne 2005) a e pa -
icula ly s ong. Se inç (2020, 2022) highligh s ha his ype o ‘agg essi e mono-
lingualism’ can sp ead om one gene a ion o ano he and ampli y LP in he i age
speake s, especially when monoglossic ideologies p edomina e he pe spec i e
on bo h majo i y and he i age language. Con ex s ha pe cei e mul ilingualism
as he no m migh lead o less LP o he indi idual and di e en coping mech-
anisms. Compa ing LP in socie ies wi h monolingual o ien a ions wi h socie ies
wi h mul ilingual o ien a ions migh hus e eal he nega i e e ec s ha ce ain
ideologies owa ds mul ilingualism in mos coun ies in he Global No h ha e
on indi iduals, especially mul ilingual ones.
LP in he he i age language con ex is a genuine conce n a an indi idual le el.
Resea ch unde sco es i s associa ion wi h nega i e sel -pe cep ions, shame, lan-
guage loss and shi , which can lead o in e gene a ional ension and a - eaching
170
8 The anxious he i age speake ?
psychological consequences o he indi idual (Pu ka ho e 2020, Se inç 2020).
Howe e , in addi ion o he indi idual le el, conside ing he la ge socie al con-
ex is essen ial o he ques ion o how LP eme ges. This shi in pe spec i e
would also imply e hinking he sou ce o LP. Many s udies depic LP p ima ily
as an in insic condi ion, mos ly igge ed by (sel -)pe cei ed lack o p o iciency
and compe ence ha can be o e come by imp o ing hese a eas (see Pa k 2021:
130). Howe e , anxie y also esul s as a social and cul u al cons uc ion i speak-
e s eel hey canno mee ce ain socie al expec a ions. O e looking his socie al
componen bu dens he speake s, sidelining socie y’s signi ican ole and he so-
cial mac o con ex in which speake s na iga e.
Acknowledgmen s and unding
Resea ch o his a icle was unded by he Deu sche Fo schungs-gemeinscha
(DFG, Ge man Resea ch Founda ion) o he Resea ch Uni “Eme ging G am-
ma s in Language Con ac Si ua ions” (FOR 2537, P ojec s P8/313607803 and
P9/313607803) and he CRC 1412 “Regis e : Language Use s’ Knowledge o Si -
ua ional Va ia ion” (P ojec C07/416591334). I hank he edi o s o his olume,
wo anonymous e iewe s, and Annika Milena Schimp o hei aluable eed-
back.
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