Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
A ailable Online a : h ps://www.schola zes .com
Vol. 6 No. 09 Sep embe 2025
ISSN: 2660-5562
3 | P a g e
CARRIER LIABILITY IN SUCCESSIVE CARRIAGE
UNDER THE IRAQI TRANSPORT LAW
Ahmed Ame Abdulamee
Uni e si y o Baghdad, College o Law, I aq.
Ahmed.Aame [email protected]
A icle his o y:
Abs ac :
Recei ed:
14 h June 2025
This s udy in es iga es successi e ca iage, a dis inc legal and comme cial
o m o in e na ional anspo , a ising om he absence o i egula i y o di ec
anspo ou es. Unde his sys em, mul iple ca ie s pe o m consecu i e
s ages o anspo unde a single documen , wi h he i s ca ie ully liable o
he consigno o passenge , including b eaches in subsequen s ages. The
esea ch examines he ole o di ec and indi ec anspo documen s and he
concep o ecou se, allowing a ca ie who has compensa ed an inju ed pa y
o seek eimbu semen om o he ca ie s. I highligh s ca ie s’ du ies o
inspec goods, documen hei condi ion, and collec eigh , and c i ically
analyzes ma i ime ca ie liabili y unde I aqi T anspo Law No. 80 o 1983,
no ing con lic s wi h he Ci il Code and gaps in ha moniza ion. The indings
con i m ha liabili y equi es aul , damage, and a causal link, and unde sco e
he need o a comp ehensi e I aqi ma i ime code o ensu e legal cla i y, p o ec
s akeholde s, and align wi h in e na ional s anda ds.
Accep ed:
11 h July 2025
Keywo ds: Successi e Ca iage; Ma i ime Ca ie Liabili y; Recou se; I aqi T anspo Law; Di ec T anspo
Documen ; Con ac ual Obliga ions; Legal P o ec ion.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Successi e ca iage, also known as consecu i e o di ec ca iage, is a dis inc o m o anspo . I a ises p ima ily
due o p ac ical challenges, especially he lack o i egula i y o di ec anspo ou es be ween mos coun ies. This
con ac is execu ed by mul iple ca ie s sequen ially, each esponsible o a speci ic s age o he anspo , unde a
single anspo documen co e ing he en i e jou ney o a uni ied eigh , whe he he subjec o anspo is goods o
pe sons. The ca iage is conduc ed wi h he knowledge o exp ess au ho iza ion o he consigno o passenge , aiming
o deli e goods o passenge s sa ely o he ag eed des ina ion a he s ipula ed ime. Consequen ly, he ope a ion is
ega ded as a single legal ansac ion, o ming a uni ied con ac ual amewo k binding all pa ies in ol ed. Successi e
ca iage ex ends o he anspo o pe sons as well, no me ely goods.
The e ms o he di ec anspo documen o di ec bill o lading go e n bo h he anspo ope a ions and he
legal ela ionship be ween he i s ca ie and he consigno o passenge . Consequen ly, e en i he las ca ie en e s
in o an ag eemen wi h a subsequen ca ie unde condi ions di e en om hose ag eed wi h he i s ca ie , he i s
ca ie emains liable o he consigno , passenge , o consignee. Mo eo e , each successi e ca ie is join ly and
se e ally liable wi h he o he s as i hey had execu ed he con ac indi idually. This amewo k g an s he inju ed pa y
he igh o claim compensa ion om all successi e ca ie s o om any single ca ie o he ull amoun o damages,
wi hou a ec ing he igh o ecou se among he ca ie s hemsel es.
While di ec anspo documen s egula e successi e s ages o ca iage, he ela ionship be ween he i s ca ie
and seconda y ca ie s is go e ned by indi ec anspo documen s issued by seconda y ca ie s o he p incipal ca ie .
Unde hese documen s, seconda y ca ie s bea esponsibili y owa d he p incipal ca ie o any damage o he goods
occu ing du ing he s age o anspo hey execu e.
The e m ecou se ac ion (sub oga ion) e e s speci ically o he igh o a ca ie who has compensa ed an inju ed
pa y—whe he a passenge , consigno , o consignee— o eco e he amoun paid. This igh allows he ca ie o claim
eimbu semen om o he ca ie s in ol ed in he successi e ca iage. In a b oade sense, ecou se encompasses any
claim by he inju ed pa y agains any ca ie who ails o achie e he in ended con ac ual pu pose, namely, deli e ing
he passenge s o goods sa ely and on ime, whe he by cus om o ag eemen . Recou se also includes he ca ie s’
obliga ions o inspec he goods, eco d hei condi ion, no e any ese a ions, and collec eigh and o he en i lemen s.
Signi icance o he S udy:
T anspo cons i u es a c i ical pilla o con empo a y comme ce, se ing as he li eline o ade and he ounda ion
o in e na ional comme ce. Ma i ime ca ie s, in pa icula , play a cen al ole in his con ex . The I aqi legisla o has
o ganized ca ie liabili y unde he I aqi T anspo Law No. 80 o 1983, in alignmen wi h ele an in e na ional
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
4 | P a g e
ag eemen s, including he Hambu g Rules and he B ussels Con en ion, bo h a i ied by I aq o egula e in e na ional
anspo , including successi e ca iage.
Resea ch P oblem:
The a ionale o selec ing he opic o ecou se in successi e ca iage s ems om he con lic s be ween he p o isions
o he I aqi Ci il Code and he I aqi T anspo Law, as well as he lack o ha moniza ion be ween hese wo legal
amewo ks ega ding ca ie liabili y and exemp ion condi ions in successi e ca iage. The s udy u he aims o p o ide
scien i ic cla i ica ion and delinea e he p ac ical con ou s o successi e ca iage, as o he ypes o anspo may legally
be con la ed wi h i .
Me hodology:
This esea ch employs an analy ical app oach, examining and dissec ing ele an p o isions o he I aqi T anspo Law
in de ail, wi h c i ical e e ence o applicable legal p inciples and schola ly commen a y.
S uc u e o he S udy:
The s udy is o ganized in o h ee main chap e s:
1. Chap e One: Analyzes he concep o successi e ca iage om con ac ual and legal pe spec i es.
2. Chap e Two: Examines he legal s a us and obliga ions o he ca ie in successi e ca iage unde he I aqi
T anspo Law.
3. Chap e Th ee: Add esses he liabili y o he ca ie in successi e ca iage acco ding o I aqi legisla ion.
The esea ch concludes wi h a summa y o indings and p ac ical ecommenda ions, aiming o enhance legal cla i y
and ensu e cohe ence be ween legisla i e p o isions go e ning successi e ca iage.
2.1. De ini ion o Successi e Ca iage:
Successi e ca iage e e s o anspo a ion ca ied ou by se e al ca ie s in succession unde a single con ac o
ca iage
1
. I may also be unde s ood as anspo a ion execu ed in mul iple successi e s ages, ei he by di e en ca ie s
o by he same ca ie pe o ming i in dis inc s ages
2
.
This ype o ca iage is one o he mos p ominen o ms o anspo a ion. Schola s also call i 'consecu i e' o
'di ec ' ca iage. I ypically a ises om comme cial exchange and he successi e mo emen o goods o passenge s
ac oss coun ies sepa a ed by in e na ional bo de s. Such exchange occu s h ough he impo and expo o aw
ma e ials, goods, me chandise, and o he mo able p ope y. In his amewo k, he passenge o consigno engages
he se ices o a ca ie ( he i s ca ie ) and con ac s wi h him o deli e he passenge o he goods o a speci ied
des ina ion. The i s ca ie , in u n, selec s sui able successi e ca ie s o pe o m he emaining s ages o he
ca iage— eso ing, whe e necessa y, o ca ie s who a e mo e specialized o be e posi ioned o comple e he jou ney.
The ope a ion con inues in his manne un il he las ca ie deli e s he passenge o goods o he ag eed des ina ion.
The i s ca ie he eby bea s a dual liabili y: esponsibili y o his own ac ions and o he ac ions o he successi e
ca ie s.
Successi e ca iage has eme ged as a p ac ical necessi y, pa icula ly in si ua ions whe e di ec anspo ou es
be ween coun ies a e absen o i egula . Some schola s ha e de ined i as ollows:
“A con ac execu ed by se e al
ca ie s, each pe o ming a successi e pa o he jou ney, unde a single anspo documen co e ing he en i e ou e
and subjec o a single eigh . This applies ega dless o whe he he subjec ma e is passenge s o goods, and
whe he he anspo occu s wi h he knowledge o au ho iza ion o he passenge o consigno . The objec i e is o
deli e he passenge s o goods sa ely o he ag eed des ina ion wi hin he designa ed ime, he eby ea ing he
ope a ion as a single ansac ion and binding all pa ies wi hin a uni ied con ac ual amewo k”
3
.
Unde his a angemen , he i s ca ie anspo s he goods o pa o he jou ney using his own means, and o
he emaining pa s he con ac s wi h o he ca ie s. Each successi e ca ie is en i led o examine and e i y he
condi ion o he goods upon ecei ing hem om he p eceding ca ie . I he goods a e accep ed wi hou ese a ion,
i is p esumed ha hey ha e been ecei ed in good condi ion and in con o mi y wi h he pa icula s s a ed in he
anspo documen , unless e idence o he con a y is es ablished
4
.
2.2. Condi ions o Successi e Ca iage:
The con ac o successi e ca iage does no di e in i s o ma ion equi emen s om o he con ac s. I is
consensual and based on he ee will o he pa ies, aiming o a law ul pu pose. I s conclusion equi es only mu ual
consen — he simple exchange o o e and accep ance—wi hou any u he o mali ies
5
.
A icle (6) o he I aqi T anspo Law p o ides ha :
"The con ac o ca iage is concluded by me e ag eemen and
may be e idenced by all means."
Ne e heless, i should be no ed ha he deli e y o goods o he ca ie cons i u es a o m o accep ance o he o e
1
. Jumaa, Abdul Mousa. Legal P o isions o he In e na ional Mul imodal T anspo Con en ion. Al-Sabah
Lib a y, Baghdad, 2111, p. 34.
2
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi T anspo Law: P inciples and P o isions. Uni e si y o Baghdad, 1984,
p. 27.
3
. Jumaa, Abdul Mousa. Ibid., p. 34.
4
. Hou hi, Fa ima Abbas. “Recou se Among Ca ie s in Successi e T anspo unde I aqi T anspo Law
No. 81 o 1983.” Message o Righ s Jou nal, College o Law, Uni e si y o Ka bala, 2112, p. 153.
5
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi T anspo Law: Ibid., p. 28.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
5 | P a g e
made by he ca ie in a con ac o he ca iage o goods, and simila ly, a passenge ’s boa ding o he means o
anspo cons i u es accep ance o he ca ie ’s o e in passenge ca iage.
Ca iage does no cons i u e a ansac ion a ec ing owne ship o a hing; he e o e, he equi ed capaci y o he
consigno o passenge is limi ed o he age o disce nmen . I is unde s ood, howe e , ha he ca ie canno gene ally
e i y he legal capaci y o all pe sons wi h whom he con ac s. A de iciency in he capaci y o he consigno o passenge
does no cause any p ejudice, p o ided he con ac ual e ms a e uni o m o all pa ies.
Fo he ca ie , he equi ed legal capaci y is he a ainmen o majo i y i he is a na u al pe son. In he case o a
legal pe son, which is he p e ailing scena io, capaci y is sa is ied i he co po a e pu pose o ha en i y includes ca ying
ou anspo a ion ac i i ies
6
.
Rega ding he consignee— he hi d pa y in he con ac o ca iage, whose name is inse ed in he anspo
documen and who acqui es he igh o ac in his own name— he ca ie is obliga ed o deli e he goods o him a he
ag eed des ina ion. F om he momen he consignee exp essly o implici ly decla es his consen o join he con ac ,
whe he immedia ely o subsequen ly, his igh s and obliga ions a e es ablished. He is he eby placed in a di ec
con ac ual ela ionship wi h he ca ie , assuming he same legal posi ion as he consigno . The e ec s o he con ac
( igh s and obliga ions) ex end o him om he momen o he con ac ’s conclusion, no om he da e o his accession.
The law does no speci y any pa icula age o his capaci y, excep ha he mus be compe en o ecei e he goods
7
.
De ec s o consen may a ise in he con ex o goods ca iage, hough gene ally no in passenge ca iage. Fo
ins ance, an e o migh occu ega ding he na u e o he goods being anspo ed— o example, i i ems a e deli e ed
unde he belie ha hey a e o a ce ain ype and la e ound o di e . In such cases, he con ac is suspended, and
gene al ules ega ding a i ica ion o annulmen apply.
The subjec ma e o he con ac is undamen al. In goods ca iage, i mus be angible, mo able p ope y legally
capable o ade; in passenge ca iage, i includes he passenge and luggage. The con ac is in alid i he subjec
ma e is absen o unlaw ul. De ining he subjec ma e me ely as anspo a ion i sel could w ongly legi imize
con ac s o illici goods, which is clea ly unaccep able
8
.
I aqi law has explici ly esol ed his issue by s ipula ing ha he subjec ma e o he con ac is he pe son o he
goods anspo ed, as s a ed in A icle (5) and ein o ced in A icle (73/2), which p o ides o op ional pa icula s in he
anspo documen , including
“ he alue o he goods o ming he subjec o he con ac o ca iage.”
The con ac is oid i he subjec ma e is unlaw ul, such as whe e i in ol es smuggled o s olen goods, p ohibi ed
i ems, o he unlaw ul anspo a ion o a kidnapped o de ained pe son
9
.
The cause (causa) o a successi e ca iage con ac is he immedia e pu pose which he obligo in ends o achie e
h ough his unde aking. The cause mus sa is y he condi ions o alidi y p esc ibed in ci il law: i mus be eal and
law ul, and he con ac emains alid e en i he cause is no explici ly s a ed.
The cause, as an essen ial elemen o he con ac , is de ined by he obliga ions o each pa y. Since ca iage
con ac s a e commu a i e, he ca ie ’s obliga ion o anspo he goods o passenge cons i u es he cause o he
consigno ’s o passenge ’s obliga ion o pay eigh . Con e sely, he obliga ion o he consigno o passenge o pay
eigh cons i u es he cause o he ca ie ’s obliga ion o pe o m he anspo . The cause mus be law ul; o he wise,
he con ac is oid. An example o an unlaw ul cause would be an ag eemen o anspo s olen goods o a kidnapped
pe son
10
.
Rega ding o mali y, as p e iously indica ed, he con ac o successi e ca iage is consensual, and he mu ual
consen o he pa ies su ices o i s o ma ion. W i ing se es, unde gene al p inciples, me ely as e idence o he
con ac and does no cons i u e a condi ion o i s alidi y. The e o e, w i ing is equi ed only o e iden ia y pu poses,
and he con ac may also be p o en h ough equi alen means, such as judicial admission o an oa h
11
.
2.3. Dis inc ion o Successi e Ca iage om O he Types o Ca iage:
Ca iage, in all i s o ms, is undamen ally a con ac unde which he ca ie unde akes o anspo a pe son o
goods om one place o ano he in e u n o a speci ied emune a ion. Ca iage is a bila e al commu a i e con ac
and may be execu ed ia land, ma i ime, o ai anspo a ion. In wha ollows, we dis inguish successi e ca iage om
o he ypes o ca iage, speci ically mul imodal domes ic ca iage and in e na ional mul imodal ca iage.
a. Dis inc ion om Mul imodal Domes ic Ca iage:
Domes ic ca iage occu s en i ely wi hin he e i o ial limi s o a single s a e and is go e ned by he ele an na ional
legisla ion. This ype o ca iage a ies acco ding o he mode o anspo used. I may in ol e a leas wo di e en
means o anspo unde a single ca iage con ac and a single anspo documen , bu i emains domes ic since i
occu s wi hin he s a e’s e i o ial bounda ies and is subjec o na ional legal ules.
6
. Saleh, Bassem Mohammed. Ma i ime Law, Pa One. College o Law, Uni e si y o Baghdad, 1984, P55.
7
. Jumaa, Abdul Mousa. Ibid., p. 28.
8
. Sawadi Al-Hamdi, Ba aq Jawad. Ag eemen s Modi ying he Liabili y o Con aine Ca ie s. PhD diss.,
Uni e si y o Baghdad, 2004, p. 4.
9
. I aqi Ci il Code No. 41 o 1952, a s. 1, 3, 2, cl. 3.
10
. Saleh, Bassem Mohammed. Ibid., p. 186.
11
. Tu ak, Mohammed Abdul Fa ah. The Ma i ime T anspo Con ac . Cai o: Da al-Nahda al-A abiya,
1985, P 92.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
6 | P a g e
Fo example, goods may be anspo ed wi hin I aq using wo di e en means o anspo , o e en he same ype
o anspo , ac oss a ious s ages om one loca ion o ano he , unde he esponsibili y o a single ca ie un il deli e y
a he ag eed des ina ion. Such ca iage does no cons i u e successi e ca iage, which is de ined by he use o a single
mode o anspo ac oss successi e s ages be ween di e en coun ies. Successi e ca iage is hus go e ned by
in e na ional con en ions, such as he Hambu g Rules, o which I aq is a pa y, egula ing in e na ional ma i ime
ca iage o goods
12
.
b. Dis inc ion om In e na ional Mul imodal Ca iage:
In e na ional mul imodal ca iage is conduc ed unde a single anspo documen co e ing all pa s o he jou ney
and employing mul iple modes o anspo . By con as , successi e ca iage (o consecu i e ca iage) in ol es se e al
ca ie s anspo ing goods successi ely, ye using a single mode o anspo h oughou . Each ca ie concludes a
con ac o he speci ic s age o he jou ney ha he unde akes.
Fo ins ance, i goods a e anspo ed by ai om Ai po (A) o Ai po (B), hen by a di e en ai line om (B) o
(C), and inally by ai c a om (C) o (D), his cons i u es successi e ca iage. Simila ly, i goods a e anspo ed by
sea, he mode o anspo (ship) emains unchanged h oughou all s ages o he jou ney. The classi ica ion as
successi e ca iage does no change e en i he goods a e se mul iple coun ies du ing anspo a ion
13
.
I is no ewo hy ha I aqi T anspo Law p o ides de ailed p o isions on successi e ca iage, pa icula ly conce ning
ese a ions, he igh o lien o e goods, he de e mina ion o liabili y, and me hods o calcula ing compensa ion
14
.
Wha dis inguishes a ca iage con ac om o he ypes o con ac s is ha i is bo h a con ac o means and a
con ac o esul . The ca ie is obliged o employ sui able means capable o ensu ing he sa e anspo o goods om
he place o dispa ch o he place o des ina ion (obliga ion o means) and o deli e he goods o he consignee in he
same condi ion in which hey we e ecei ed (obliga ion o esul ). Failu e o mee hese obliga ions ende s he ca ie
liable o any disc epancies in condi ion, quan i y, o weigh o he goods.
Mo eo e , esponsibili y o he goods h oughou all s ages o ca iage es s upon a single ca ie , who manages
and execu es he en i e anspo ope a ion. The ca ie is liable owa d he owne s o he goods o any loss, damage,
o delay. This p inciple is codi ied in A icle (56) o he I aqi T anspo Law:
"Whe e se e al ca ie s unde ake he
ca iage o goods successi ely unde a single con ac , he consigno shall ha e ecou se agains he i s ca ie , and
he consignee shall ha e ecou se agains he las ca ie . Bo h may also ha e ecou se agains he ca ie in whose
s age o ca iage he loss, damage, o delay occu ed. These ca ie s shall be join ly and se e ally liable owa d he
consigno and he consignee."
In addi ion, successi e ca iage o e s educed cos s and highe e iciency by enabling he selec ion o op imal
ou es o anspo ing goods. This ad an age enhances he compe i i e capaci y o p oduc ion en e p ises.
Finally, a dis inc i e ea u e o successi e ca iage is ha eigh is paid comp ehensi ely, co e ing all s ages o he
jou ney, om he place o dispa ch in one coun y o he place o deli e y in ano he
15
.
3. Legal S a us o he Ca ie in Successi e Ca iage:
The legal s a us o he ca ie is one o he mos c i ical issues in ma i ime law, gi en he sensi i e ole his pa y
plays in he anspo a ion p ocess. The ca ie concludes he con ac in his own name, ei he pe sonally o h ough an
au ho ized ep esen a i e, ac ing as a p incipal and no as an agen o he consigno o o o he ca ie s in ol ed in
he anspo ope a ion. The ca ie assumes esponsibili y o he con ac h oughou all s ages.
Due o he ca ie ’s posi ion as he economically dominan pa y, his chap e add esses he liabili y o he ca ie
and successi e ca ie s owa d he consigno and he consignee, ollowed by an analysis o he igh s and obliga ions
o he ca ie , and he na u e o ecou se claims among ca ie s, s uc u ed unde h ee subsec ions.
3.1. Liabili y o he Ca ie and Successi e Ca ie s owa d he Consigno and Consignee:
Whe e goods a e anspo ed by se e al ca ie s successi ely unde a single con ac o ca iage, he consigno may
seek ecou se agains he i s ca ie , while he consignee may seek ecou se agains he las ca ie . Bo h he consigno
and he consignee may also pu sue claims agains he ca ie esponsible o loss, damage, o delay du ing his s age o
he jou ney. These ca ie s a e join ly and se e ally liable owa d he consigno and he consignee
16
.
Each successi e ca ie has he igh o examine and e i y he condi ion o he goods upon eceip om he
p eceding ca ie . This igh se es as a mechanism o he ca ie o exone a e himsel om liabili y; he ca ie is
discha ged i he p o es ha he loss o damage did no occu du ing his s age o ca iage.
The las ca ie is liable owa d he p eceding ca ie s o claims made by he consignee conce ning eigh cha ges
17
.
These claims a e exe cised on he basis o sub oga ion, and he ca ie may ake legal measu es o eco e he amoun s
12
. I aqi Ma i ime T anspo Law No. 81 o 1983, a . 5.
13
. Sawadi, Ba aq Jawad. Legal Sys em o Mul imodal In e na ional T anspo o Goods. Mas e ’s hesis,
College o Law, Uni e si y o Baghdad, 2015, p. 31.
14
. I aqi T anspo Law, Ibid., a s. 56, cl. 3,2,1; a s. 58; a s. 59.
15
. Jumaa, Abdul Mousa. Ibid., p. 21.
16
. I aqi T anspo Law, Ibid., a . 56.
17
. Al-Kanda i, Mahmoud Ahmed. “The Legal Sys em o In e na ional Ai T anspo unde he Mon eal
Con en ion 1999: Upda ed Wa saw Sys em.” Jou nal o Law, Scien i ic Publishing Council, Kuwai , 2000,
p. 50.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
7 | P a g e
due, including exe cising a lien o e he goods. A no able ad an age o successi e ca iage is ha he consigno can
ob ain a single anspo documen om he ou se , acili a ing access o c edi and elie ing him o he bu den o
con ac ing indi idually wi h each successi e ca ie
18
.
I one o he successi e ca ie s pays compensa ion o is o mally equi ed o do so, he is en i led o seek ecou se
om he o he ca ie s p opo ionally acco ding o each ca ie ’s sha e o he eigh . A ca ie is exemp om sha ing
liabili y i he p o es ha he loss o damage did no occu du ing his po ion o he ca iage
19
.
I is e iden ha a single con ac exis s be ween he consigno and he i s ca ie . I , howe e , he consigno has
en e ed in o sepa a e con ac s wi h subsequen ca ie s, each such con ac go e ns he ela ionship wi h ha speci ic
ca ie and is no subjec o A icle 56 (1) o he I aqi T anspo Law, which applies only when a single con ac exis s
and imposes join and se e al liabili y among all successi e ca ie s is-à- is he consigno and consignee, as i he
con ac we e pe o med by a single ca ie .
Consequen ly, he consigno o consignee has he op ion o claim compensa ion om all successi e ca ie s
collec i ely o om any one ca ie o ull compensa ion, wi hou he bu den o p o ing which ca ie caused he loss,
damage, o delay. A icle 56(1) is o public policy impo ance, as i p o ec s he consigno o consignee, who may no
know some o he ca ie s in ol ed o may be unable o iden i y which ca ie caused he loss o delay. Addi ionally,
ca ie s may a emp o shi blame on o each o he , complica ing he bu den o p oo
20
.
I should also be no ed ha he consignee mus be eady o accep deli e y. The ca ie is no liable i he unloads
he goods a he po o a i al despi e he consignee’s eques o wai , and any damage occu ing a e unloading does
no ende he ca ie liable
21
.
A dis inc i e scena io a ises when he ca ie delega es he execu ion o he en i e ca iage o pa o i o ano he
pe son ( he ac ual ca ie ), whe he au ho ized unde he con ac o no . In such cases, he dis inc ion be ween he
con ac ing ca ie and he ac ual ca ie becomes impo an .
• The con ac ing ca ie is he pe son who en e s in o he con ac o ca iage in his own name.
• The ac ual ca ie is he pe son en us ed by he con ac ing ca ie o pe o m all o pa o he ca iage.
In his scena io, he con ac ing ca ie emains ully esponsible o he ca iage, including any e o s o negligence
commi ed by he ac ual ca ie and his assis an s wi hin he scope o hei du ies. Whe e liabili y is es ablished o bo h
he con ac ing and ac ual ca ie s, i is join and se e al, and bo h may seek ecou se agains each o he .
I he anspo con ac explici ly assigns a speci ic po ion o he ca iage o an unnamed hi d pa y as he ac ual
ca ie , he con ac ing ca ie may s ipula e ha he bea s no liabili y o loss, damage, o delay a ising du ing he ac ual
ca ie ’s cus ody o he goods. The bu den o p oo lies on he con ac ing ca ie o demons a e ha he loss, damage,
o delay esul ed om an inciden du ing he ac ual ca ie ’s handling.
This s ipula ion, howe e , does no absol e he con ac ing ca ie om liabili y i he ac ual ca ie canno be
b ough be o e a compe en cou , lea ing he con ac ing ca ie wi h dual liabili y o his own ac ions and hose o his
delega es is-à- is he consigno and consignee
22
.
3.2. Na u e o Recou se Claims Among Successi e Ca ie s:
As p e iously discussed, successi e ca ie s a e join ly and se e ally liable owa d he consigno and consignee.
The e o e, any ca ie who has ully discha ged he liabili y may seek ecou se agains he o he ca ie s o he amoun
exceeding his p opo ional sha e. I a ca ie is insol en , he paying ca ie 's loss is edis ibu ed p opo ionally among
he emaining ca ie s. This sec ion add esses ecou se claims among successi e ca ie s when a ca ie has sa is ied
he obliga ion, which ypically consis s o compensa ion payable o he consigno o consignee in case o a b each o
he ca iage obliga ion by he ca ie (s).
A icle 56, Pa ag aph 2 o he I aqi T anspo Law s ipula es: “Any ca ie who pays compensa ion o is o mally
equi ed o do so may seek ecou se agains he o he ca ie s …” This p o ision es ablishes ha he i s ca ie , o any
subsequen ca ie including he las ca ie , has he igh o claim ecou se agains he o he ca ie s by one o wo
me hods:
1. Subsequen (o ancilla y) ecou se claim: The ca ie wai s un il he en i led pa y (consigno , consignee, o
passenge ) iles a claim o liabili y, a e which he ca ie may seek ecou se om he ca ie esponsible o
he loss. Paymen is hus based on a inal judicial decision, and he claim is called a
subsequen ecou se claim
.
2. O iginal ecou se claim: The ca ie may compensa e he en i led pa y amicably. Paymen in his case is based
on a p i a e ag eemen wi h he en i led pa y. The ca ie may hen ile a claim agains he esponsible
successi e ca ie who ac ually caused he loss.
I should be no ed ha any ecou se claim, whe he subsequen o o iginal, mus be p eceded by a p ima y
compensa ion claim iled by he consigno , consignee, o passenge agains he ca ie who seeks ecou se. This p ima y
claim o ms he basis o he sub oga ed ecou se. I he en i led pa y secu es a inal judgmen o compensa ion
18
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi T anspo Law, p. 28.
19
. I aqi T anspo Law, Ibid., a . 56, cl. 2.
20
. Al-Tabakh, Sha i Ahmed. Compensa ion in Land, Ma i ime, and Ai T anspo . Cai o: Da Al-Nahda
Al-A abiya, 2009, P81.
21
. Mousa, Talib Hassan. Ma i ime Law. PhD disse a ion, Facul y o Law, Uni e si y o Pa is, 1978, P 83.
22
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi T anspo Law, p. 31.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
8 | P a g e
wi hou he aul o he ca ie who paid, he paying ca ie s ill e ains he igh o ile a subsequen ecou se claim
agains he ca ie a aul
23
.
The cou mus e i y he ac and ex en o paymen , whe he ull o pa ial, and g an ecou se only o he amoun
exceeding he ca ie ’s p opo ional liabili y. I he ecou se claim is ini ia ed, he ca ie may eques a de e al o join
he o he successi e ca ie s, p o ided ha i is p o en he loss occu ed du ing he s age handled by he la e . The
en i led pa y may no oppose his p ocedu e; A icle 69 o he I aqi Ci il P ocedu e Law No. 83 o 1969 p o ides: “Any
pa y may eques he cou o summon any pe son who should be joined in he lawsui a he ime o iling o o
p ese e he igh s o ei he pa y.”
The cou may, on i s own mo ion, o de he inclusion o all o he ca ie s in he lawsui . Ca ie s may also join he
p oceedings olun a ily o p o ec hei igh s and p e en collusion be ween he en i led pa y and he de endan
ca ie s
24
.
The pu pose o eques ing de e al o join all successi e ca ie s is no only o discha ge he ca ie ’s own liabili y
bu also o ob ain a judicial uling ega ding his igh o ecou se, e en i he deb is inhe en ly payable only by ha
speci ic ca ie , e lec ing a pe sonal conside a ion.
In an o iginal ecou se claim, he ca ie gene ally p e e s o compensa e he en i led pa y amicably o main ain
comme cial ela ions, wi hou eso ing o li iga ion. The ca ie may hen seek eimbu semen om successi e ca ie s
who a e liable o he compensa ed amoun . Howe e , his may expose he i s ca ie o challenges, as o he ca ie s
migh claim ha :
• The i s ca ie o e compensa ed he en i led pa y wi hou jus i ica ion, po en ially co e ing wha o he ca ie s
could ha e paid acco ding o hei liabili y.
• The damage claimed by he en i led pa y was no jus i ied.
To p e en such de enses, he ca ie may ile a “s a e e i ica ion claim” (
p o ing he condi ion o he goods
)
agains successi e ca ie s wi hou claiming any amoun s. This claim unc ions solely as a decla a ion o esponsibili y,
ensu ing ha i he en i led pa y iles a claim agains he i s ca ie , he la e ’s ecou se igh s a e p o ec ed
25
.
Recou se claims among successi e ca ie s p esc ibe nine y (90) days om he da e o he o mal compensa ion
claim o om he da e o paymen , acco ding o I aqi law. The law does no di e en ia e be ween subsequen and
o iginal ecou se claims ega ding he limi a ion pe iod, bu he commencemen di e s:
• Subsequen ecou se claims: Begin a e he p ima y compensa ion claim has been adjudica ed.
• O iginal ecou se claims: Commence om he da e he ca ie compensa ed he en i led pa y amicably.
A icle 91 o he I aqi T anspo Law p o ides: “Recou se claims o successi e ca ie s agains one ano he shall
p esc ibe nine y (90) days om he da e o he o mal compensa ion claim o om he da e o paymen .” A no able
limi a ion o he I aqi legisla ion is ha A icle 91 add esses successi e ca iage o goods only, excluding successi e
ca iage o pe sons. I is he e o e ecommended ha he I aqi legisla o amend A icle 91 o encompass bo h successi e
ca iage o pe sons and goods
26
.
3.3. Ca ie ’s Righ s and Obliga ions in Successi e Ca iage:
When goods a e loaded on o a means o anspo , he ca ie is obliged o commence he jou ney on he ag eed-
upon da e o wi hin a easonable ime ame de e mined by he ci cums ances o he jou ney. O en, he con ac does
no speci y he p ecise s a ime, ins ead elying on he pe iod du ing which anspo a ion occu s. In such cases, he
ca ie is ee o de e mine he s a ing ime o he anspo
27
. The main obliga ions o he ca ie include he ollowing:
A. Issuance o he Bill o Lading:
A icle (72) o he I aqi T anspo Law de ines he bill o lading as: “A documen e idencing he con ac o ca iage,
se ing as p oo o eceip o he goods by he ca ie in he condi ion s a ed, and con e ing upon i s law ul holde he
igh o ecei e he goods”
28
.
Issuing he bill o lading is one o he ca ie ’s mos impo an obliga ions, as he documen ep esen s he ca go.
I is essen ial o dis inguish be ween a bill ep esen ing he shipped goods and a bill ep esen ing goods gene ally. A
bill does no necessa ily imply ha he goods ha e been loaded on o he essel; i s alue inc eases once i indica es
“shipped” s a us. Since he bill ep esen s he goods, whe he loaded o no , i can se e as he subjec o sale, c ea ing
cons uc i e possession o he goods. Consequen ly, he bill has become a i al ool in in e na ional ade. Ce ain
in e na ional banking con ac s, such as le e s o c edi , canno be execu ed wi hou p esen ing his documen . Bills o
lading may be o de , bea e , o nomina i e
29
.
The bill o lading also unc ions as p oo o eceip o goods by he ca ie , e idences he ca iage con ac and i s
condi ions, and ep esen s he goods i ma ked acco dingly. Owne ship me ges wi h he documen , allowing legal ac s
23
. I aqi Ci il Code, Ibid., a . 334.
24
. Hassouni, Fa ima Abbas. Ibid., p. 157.
25
. I aqi T anspo Law, a . 91: “The ecou se claim among successi e ca ie s expi es nine y days om he
o icial da e o compensa ion claim o he da e o paymen .”
26
. Hassouni, Fa ima Abbas. Ibid., p. 166.
27
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi Ma i ime Law, Ibid., p. 179.
28
. De ini ion aken om Hambu g Con en ion 1978, a i ied by I aq.
29
. D .S.Gi in and M .HN . Benne , lawo en en na ional Ga iage o goods by sea, London, 2001, P3.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
9 | P a g e
such as sale o pledge wi hou ac ual deli e y. This unc ion e ol ed om ma i ime ade p ac ices, g an ing he law ul
holde he igh o ecei e goods a he discha ge po and acili a ing access o banking c edi . The documen may be
ans e ed by assignmen ( o nomina i e bills), endo semen ( o o de bills), o deli e y ( o bea e bills)
30
.
B. Receip o he Goods:
The ca ie mus ake deli e y o he goods o execu e he anspo . Howe e , his obliga ion is no absolu e: he
ca ie may e use goods ha do no con o m o he ag eemen . Upon eceip , he ca ie mus ensu e he goods a e
i o anspo ; o he wise, he ca ie is liable o any damages esul ing om he poo condi ion o he goods a he
ime o deli e y
31
.
C. Loading o he Goods:
Loading in ol es placing he goods in he designa ed a ea o he anspo means, p epa ing hem o ca iage. I
is a physical ope a ion ha gene ally equi es app op ia e equipmen . P ope s owage ensu es ha he goods, he
anspo ehicle, and o he p ope y a e no damaged, no is ha m caused o hi d pa ies. I loading o s owage is
imp ope , he ca ie is liable o esul ing damage. The con ac may, howe e , assign loading esponsibili ies o he
consigno o a hi d pa y, in which case he ca ie is no liable o damage unless he accep ed he goods wi hou
ese a ion.
D. T anspo a ion o he Goods:
The ca ie mus anspo he goods acco ding o he ag eed condi ions, obse ing he ag eed ou e, he ime
equi ed, and he anspo means. De ia ions om he ou e a e pe missible only o necessi y, such as p o iding
assis ance, legi ima e ac s, o o ce majeu e. The ca ie is no liable o delays o o he damages unless g oss
negligence o aud is p o en by he ca ie o hei agen s
32
.
E. Ca e o he Goods:
The ca ie is esponsible o he goods om he ime hey a e in his cus ody un il deli e y o he des ina ion. The
ca ie mus exe cise due diligence— he s anda d o a p uden pe son—including all daily main enance equi ed by he
anspo p ocess, and bea ela ed expenses. The ca ie is no obliged o pe o m unusual ac s, such as wa e ing
plan s, eeding animals, o p o iding medical ca e, unless explici ly ag eed.
F. Unloading o he Goods:
Unloading is he emo al o goods om he anspo means o deli e y. I is pa o he ca iage p ocess bu
dis inc om deli e y, as he con ac is no concluded un il deli e y. The ca ie bea s unloading cos s unless esponsible
o damage du ing unloading
33
.
G. Deli e y o he Goods:
Deli e y comple es he ca ie ’s con ac ual obliga ions, e mina ing he con ac . Once he goods lea e he ca ie ’s
cus ody and en e he ecipien ’s o agen ’s cus ody, he s a u e o limi a ions begins o claims ela ed o loss, damage,
o delay. Deli e y may be ac ual, o he consignee o hei agen , o cons uc i e, o au ho i ies o a cou -appoin ed
cus odian.
The ca ie is en i led o eigh , he emune a ion o pe o ming he anspo . The con ac de e mines he
amoun , iming, and place o paymen . Gene ally, he consigno is obliged o pay, ypically upon deli e y o he goods,
hough he consignee may be con ac ually liable, in which case paymen occu s upon a i al. The ca ie may claim
unpaid eigh om he consigno i he consignee ails o pay. Addi ional expenses incu ed by he ca ie , such as
weighing, coun ing, o measu emen cos s, a e added o he eigh
34
.
The ca ie has a special lien on he goods un il paymen o eigh and o he amoun s due, acco ding o A icle 39
o he I aqi T anspo Law: “The ca ie has he igh o e ain he goods in his possession un il paymen o he eigh
and o he amoun s due o anspo .”
The law does no g an he ca ie p i ilege igh s o e he sale p oceeds o he goods. F eigh , o pa he eo ,
may be o ei ed only in he ollowing ci cums ances:
A. To al loss o goods due o o ce majeu e.
B. Fo ce majeu e p e en ing commencemen o anspo .
C. T anspo commenced bu could no con inue due o o ce majeu e, in which case he ca ie is en i led o
eigh o he po ion o anspo comple ed.
Fo ei u e o eigh does no a ec he ca ie ’s igh o claim o he necessa y expenses, such as loading and unloading
cos s
35
.
4. Rules o Ca ie Liabili y in Successi e Ca iage:
The liabili y o he ma i ime ca ie is p ima ily con ac ual in na u e, a ising om he ca iage con ac . I is based
on he p inciple o p esumed aul — aul is p esumed on he ca ie ’s pa me ely upon he occu ence o damage. The
30
. Mousa, Talib Hassan. Ibid., p. 111.
31
. Pie e Bonassies, Le D oi Ma i ime F ancais,Dalloz,Pa is, 2000, P 78.
32
. I aqi T anspo Law, Ibid., a s. 73–74.
33
. I aqi T anspo Law, a . 28.
34
. Saleh, Mohammed Bassem. Ibid., p. 195.
35
. Jacques Da id mcclean ,shaw c oss and Beaumon (Ai law ,issue 88),Fou h Edi ion,london
,Bu e wo h,2002, P 93.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
10 | P a g e
ca ie is obliga ed o achie e he esul o deli e ing he goods sa ely o he po o des ina ion. I he goods a i e in
an unsa is ac o y condi ion, he agg ie ed pa y may ile a claim agains he ca ie o seek compensa ion. Such
compensa ions, howe e , may some imes in ol e subs an ial inancial sums, po en ially leading o he ca ie ’s
insol ency.
To mi iga e his isk, he law p o ides speci ic egula ions limi ing he ca ie ’s liabili y, which we examine in his
sec ion.
4.1. Na u e o Ma i ime Ca ie Liabili y:
Ma i ime ca ie liabili y is con ac ual and a ises om he ca ie ’s b each o obliga ions owa d he con ac ing
pa y, whe he consigno o passenge . The ca ie ’s du y is an obliga ion o esul , and liabili y is igge ed upon ailu e
o achie e he con ac ual objec i e. The claiman need only p esen he bill o lading and demons a e he ex en o
he damage. The ca ie ( he de endan ) may only a oid liabili y by p o ing he occu ence o o ce majeu e.
Thus, ca ie liabili y is ounded on a p esump ion o aul , which is a simple p esump ion. The ca ie is equi ed
o exe cise easonable diligence be o e and du ing he oyage. Faul occu s i he ca ie ails o exe cise such diligence.
In such cases, he ca ie canno exone a e hemsel es om liabili y i he cause o damage emains unknown.
As a gene al ule, ca ie liabili y encompasses o al loss, pa ial loss, damage, and delay, as ollows:
A. To al Loss:
To al loss occu s when he ca ie is unable o deli e he goods o he consignee a he po o des ina ion, and i
is impossible o loca e hem elsewhe e o deli e y. To al loss does no necessa ily equi e he physical des uc ion o
disappea ance o he goods (e.g., by i e o sinking). I may be cons uc i e, a ising om he expi a ion o he ag eed
deli e y pe iod wi hou he goods being loca able
36
.
B. Pa ial Loss:
Pa ial loss, also called sho age, occu s when a po ion o he goods is missing, p o ided i is no due o he inhe en
na u e o he goods (na u al was age). The ca ie is no liable o such inhe en losses. Pa ial loss is deemed o occu ,
o example, when goods a e deli e ed in less weigh o quan i y han s a ed in he bill o lading, o when ce ain
accesso ies a e missing—e.g., a ehicle deli e ed wi hou i s spa e i e, igni ion key, o ea - iew mi o , e en i no
men ioned in he shipping documen . Pa ial loss may also include cases whe e he goods a e deli e ed in ull bu wi h
subs i u ion, e en i o supe io quali y
37
.
C. Damage:
Damage e e s o he de e io a ion o he goods upon a i al compa ed o hei condi ion a shipmen , o u he
de e io a ion du ing ansi . Es ablishing damage is usually s aigh o wa d, as he ca ie ypically no es ese a ions
upon eceip o he goods. Absen such ese a ions, he goods a e p esumed o ha e been ecei ed in good condi ion.
The ca ie may de end agains claims o damage using any legally ecognized means o p oo
38
.
D. Delay:
The ca ie is liable o losses a ising om delay in ul illing con ac ual obliga ions, unless he delay is caused by a
o eign cause beyond hei con ol. Delay occu s when he goods do no a i e wi hin he ag eed ime o he cus oma y
pe iod acco ding o comme cial p ac ice.
I is insu icien me ely o p o e he delay o claim compensa ion. The claiman mus also demons a e:
1. The ac ual damage su e ed by he consignee, and
2. The causal link be ween he damage and he delay.
Delay compensa ion applies only o he undes oyed po ion o goods in cases o pa ial loss and canno exceed he
compensa ion due in cases o o al loss.
The ca ie ’s liabili y is con ac ual and no o ious. Gi en ha he ca ie ’s ela ionship wi h he consigno a ises
om a anspo con ac , liabili y s ems exclusi ely om b each o con ac ual obliga ions. To ules do no apply,
e en in cases o aud o g oss negligence, as con ac ual liabili y is mo e speci ic and di ec ly applicable, iden i ying
he esponsible pa y as he ca ie . To ules impose a gene al du y no o ha m o he s, bu con ac ual liabili y go e ns
he ca ie ’s du ies o he consigno .
Speci ying ca ie liabili y in s a u o y p o isions does no con e i in o o liabili y; a he , i en o ces con ac ual
obliga ions. While pa ies a e ee o en e in o o abs ain om he con ac , once he con ac is concluded, he ca ie ’s
liabili y is go e ned by he con ac and s a u o y obliga ions, and he bill o lading se es as p oo o he ca iage
con ac
39
.
4.2. Basis o Liabili y in Successi e Ca iage:
The basis o liabili y e e s o he eason why he law places he bu den o compensa ing o damages on a speci ic
pe son. Acco dingly, he basis may a ise om:
A. Faul on he pa o he ca ie o hei agen s, causing damage;
B. Risk, i espec i e o aul ;
C. The damage i sel , wi hou in es iga ing whe he he pe pe a o was a aul ; o
D. Assump ion o esponsibili y, whe e he liable pa y is designa ed o bea he consequences.
36
. Saleh, Mohammed Bassem. Ibid., p. 211.
37
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi Ma i ime Law, Ibid., p. 131.
38
. Komani, La i Jabe . Ibid., p. 126.
39
. Al-Anbaki, Majid Hameed. I aqi Ma i ime Law, Ibid., p. 141.
Eu opean Schola Jou nal (ESJ)
__________________________________________________________________________
11 | P a g e
The p e ailing iew is ha ca ie liabili y is con ac ual, ounded upon he bill o lading. Liabili y a ises au oma ically
upon b each o he ca ie ’s obliga ion, wi hou he need o p o e aul o negligence. I is su icien ha loss, damage,
o impai men occu s, which cons i u es a ailu e o ul ill he con ac ual obliga ion
40
.
When he basis o he ca ie ’s liabili y is con ac ual, liabili y o ac s o subo dina es a ises h ough an expanded
no ion o agency. Agency is no limi ed o legal ac s bu ex ends o physical ac s pe o med on he ca ie ’s behal . Any
pe son employed by he ca ie o pe o m con ac ual obliga ions ac s as hei agen . Consequen ly, e o s commi ed
by subo dina es a e ea ed as he ca ie ’s own e o s, in line wi h he Roman p inciple: “He who ac s h ough ano he
is conside ed o ha e ac ed himsel .”
As he ca ie de i es bene i om he subo dina e’s ac s, hey mus bea esponsibili y o any damage caused by
he subo dina e’s e o s. Thus, he ca ie is di ec ly liable o ac s o agen s o assis an s unde he law.
This liabili y exis s because he ca ie has chosen o delega e pe o mance o con ac ual du ies o o he s. Acco dingly,
hey mus gua an ee p o ec ion o consigno s and consignees agains any ha m a ising om e o s commi ed by
subo dina es o pe sons engaged o he pe o mance o he anspo obliga ions.
The law explici ly imposes liabili y on he ca ie o he ac s o subo dina es. A icle (56) o I aqi T anspo Law
No. 30 o 1983 p o ides: “I he anspo o goods is unde aken by se e al successi e ca ie s pu suan o a single
ca iage con ac , he consigno may seek ecou se agains he i s ca ie and he consignee agains he las ca ie .
Bo h ha e he igh o ecou se agains he ca ie esponsible o loss, damage, o delay du ing hei s age o anspo .
These ca ie s a e join ly and se e ally liable o he consigno and consignee. Any successi e ca ie who compensa es
o is o mally equi ed o compensa e may seek ecou se agains he o he ca ie s p opo ionally o hei espec i e
eigh , and he insol en ca ie ’s sha e is dis ibu ed among he o he s in he same p opo ion.”
This p o ision p ima ily o ganizes and en o ces he ules bu does no c ea e he subs an i e basis o liabili y. The
unde lying p inciple lies ou side he s a u o y ex , oo ed in he ca ie ’s ailu e o pe o m con ac ual obliga ions.
In gene al con ac ual liabili y p inciples, he bu den o p oo a o s he c edi o . The c edi o (consigno o
consignee) bea s he esponsibili y o p o e he claim, including he essen ial elemen s o liabili y, such as aul .
Howe e , in con ac ual liabili y, he e iden ia y bu den is simpli ied: he claiman only needs o p o e:
1. The sou ce o he obliga ion (i.e., he ca iage con ac ), and
2. The damage su e ed due o non-pe o mance o de ec i e pe o mance.
Upon es ablishing hese elemen s, aul is p esumed on he pa o he ca ie . Since ma i ime ca ie liabili y is
con ac ual, a ising om ailu e o ul ill obliga ions imposed by he con ac , he claiman is no equi ed o p o e he
ca ie ’s pe sonal aul —p esen a ion o he bill o lading and e idence o damage su ices.
4.3. Condi ions o Exemp ion om Liabili y:
How may a ca ie discha ge his liabili y once i has been es ablished? The answe depends on he basis on which
he liabili y is ounded and he ex en o p o ec ion he legal sys em seeks o p o ide o he agg ie ed pa y. I liabili y
is based on isk, he ca ie is obliged o compensa e he damage ega dless o he cause. I liabili y is based on aul ,
he ca ie may discha ge his liabili y by p o ing he absence o aul when i is p esumed, o by demons a ing a o eign
cause in he case o es ablished aul .
I he T anspo Law es ablishes liabili y on he basis o cus ody, hen he ca ie is only exemp ed om liabili y o
causes beyond his con ol o supe ision o he goods. The law speci ies hese causes in pa ag aph one o A icle 46 o
he T anspo Law, limi ing hem o o ce majeu e, inhe en de ec s in he goods, o aul o he consigno o
consignee
41
.
The s anda d o cus ody adap s acco ding o he na u e o he ca ie ’s obliga ion—whe he i is an obliga ion o
achie e a speci ic esul o me ely o exe cise due ca e. Since he law de ines he obliga ion o a ma i ime ca ie as
one o due ca e, in line wi h in e na ional con en ions in his ield, he cus ody s anda d addi ionally imposes on he
ca ie he du y o ake all possible measu es o p e en loss, damage, o delay and o mi iga e hei consequences
42
.
Re e ing o he p o isions o he I aqi Ci il Code No. 40 o 1951, he pa ies o a con ac may ag ee o exemp he
deb o om liabili y esul ing om b each o a con ac ual obliga ion. A icle 259 p o ides o se e al scena ios:
1. The deb o may ag ee no o be liable o damages a ising om his own pe sonal e o s o he e o s o his
subo dina es.
2. The deb o (ca ie ) may no con ac ually exemp himsel om liabili y o damages esul ing om aud o
g oss negligence.
3. I is pe missible o ag ee on non-liabili y o damages a ising om aud o g oss e o s commi ed by
subo dina es.
The a ionale behind hese p o isions is ha a con ac is bo n o he pa ies’ mu ual will, allowing hem o inc ease,
educe, o nulli y obliga ions a ising he e om. Howe e , exemp ion om liabili y o he ca ie ’s own aud o g oss
negligence is p ohibi ed, as aud implies in en , and in en makes pe o mance con ingen upon he unila e al will o
he deb o , po en ially ende ing he con ac oid. G oss negligence is ea ed simila ly o aud.
F aud o g oss negligence by subo dina es does no equa e o aud o g oss negligence by he ca ie himsel . As
no ed by Al-Sanhou i, he in en o a hi d pa y does no ha e he same legal e ec as a pu ely olun a y con ac ual
40
. Jumaa, Abdul Mousa. Ibid., p. 93.
41
. Al-Tabakh, Sha i Ahmed. Ibid., p. 516.
42
. Komani, La i Jabe . Ibid., p. 31.
