Depa men o A chaeology
S i Kse a P ojec
S i Kse a, Ancien Pyu Ci y - Di ec o Janice S a ga d
Ea ly U banism in Mainland Sou heas Asia.
The S i Kse a p ojec is conce ned wi h he ac o s which pushed a ela i ely small
numbe o si es o e he h eshold om I on Age illages in o mo e complex socie ies in
Sou h Eas Asia in he la e i s millennium BCE. This p oblem has no p e iously been
add essed in Myanma [Bu ma], ye he ea lies u ban cen es o Sou h Eas Asia as a
whole a e he Pyu ci ies, si ua ed in i s g ea cen al plains. S i Kse a, he main ocus o
his esea ch p ojec , is he la ges and mos endu ing o he Pyu si es, wi h he iches
assemblage o ma e ial cul u e in he o m o o i ica ions, monumen s, sac ed a and
insc ip ions. Pa o he S i Kse a P ojec is o explo e wha he la e p ehis o ic
an eceden s o ea ly his o ic Pyu cul u e we e. Viewed in a egional pe spec i e, he Pyu
ci ies sha e some s iking ea u es wi h a numbe o la e u ban si es o mainland Sou h
Eas Asia, such as Danyawadi and M auk-U in A akan, D a a a i si es in Thailand, Pagan,
Angko and Sukho hai o o m an unusual ype o u banism, in ha all a e si ua ed in he
D y Zones o opical coun ies whe e he ain all, hough abundan elsewhe e, is locally
insu icien o he cul i a ion o adi ional ices; he si es co e e y la ge, une enly
exploi ed su ace a eas which include ancien i iga ion and wa e s o age wo ks, ields and
ga dens among he monumen al clus e s.
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The ci y o S i Kse a has had an iconic impo ance up o he p esen in he adi ional
his o iog aphy o Myanma , and is men ioned in he i s millennium eco ds o Thailand,
Vie nam and China. A chaeological su eys, limi ed exca a ions and conse a ion wo ks
ha e been unde aken he e since he ea ly 20 h cen u y, wi h a p ima y concen a ion on
insc ip ions on s one, me al and e a co a, and some clea ance and conse a ion on
abo e-g ound Buddhis monumen s and o i ica ions made o i ed b ick. This emphasis
changed when Janice S a ga d began ield walking and ae ial, hen sa elli e su eys a S i
Kse a, Beik hano and o he Pyu pe iod u ban landscapes in he 1970s, explo ing ea ly
u ban spaces as dynamic subjec s, acking hei changing s uc u es and e ol ing
i iga ion sys ems (The Ancien Pyu o Bu ma; Ea ly Pyu Ci ies in a Man-Made Landscape.
Camb idge 1990). He wo k wi h membe s o he Depa men o A chaeology o Myanma
du ing ou decades helped o es ablish S i Kse a, Halin and Beik hano ( he h ee la ges
o he Ancien Pyu Ci ies)as he ea lies examples o his i s millennium Sou h Eas Asian
ype o u banism, and led o he ecogni ion o hei ou s anding uni e sal alue in June
2014 by insc ip ion on he lis o UNESCO Wo ld He i age si es
(
www.you ube.com/wa ch? =4dY 2pJ8BjE
).
P e ious a chaeological esea ch.
The na ional Field School o A chaeology o Myanma , ounded in 2007, is loca ed wi hin
he ancien walls o S i Kse a. This has led o new exca a ions a S i Kse a o ield
aining. P io i y has, howe e , con inued o be gi en o b ick s uc u es - monumen s and
o i ica ions - now joined by exca a ions o wo b ick-and-ea h bu ial e aces ou side he
sou he n walls. Up o 2014, 105 monumen al s uc u es ha e been lis ed inside he ci y
walls, wi h a u he 172 monumen al s uc u es ou side he ci y walls, mos s ill
unexca a ed, and no habi a ion si es iden i ied and lis ed.
In Oc obe 2014, new su ace su eys (Season 1) we e ca ied ou a S i Kse a by U Win
Kyaing, P incipal o he Field School o A chaeology, and Janice S a ga d , unded by he
McDonald Ins i u e, Camb idge. Thei p incipal aim was o iden i y possible habi a ion si es
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o es digging he ollowing yea . On he basis o su ace sca e s o ce amics and a
s a i ied ce amic sequence exposed in a cu ing, wo si es we e iden i ied, which we e
hen co ed down o a dep h o 3.70 m, by o ice s o he I iga ion Depa men . P omising
esul s we e ob ained a he Yahanda Mound (c.1.6 ha), jus ou side he Yahanda Ga e
(Figu e 2b). The ex ended o ma o he en i e S i Kse a u ban space comp ises c.1,847
ha inside he walls wi h a u he la ge ex a-mu al u ban a ea (Figu e 3a, b, c). Tes a eas
we e he e o e p io i ised ha could po en ially con ibu e o a known u ban con ex . In
his case, ha con ex is he pa ly es o ed Yahanda de ile ga eway, whose wo massi e
b ick a ms ex end in o he ancien ci y o 60 m; he emains o wo la ge ci y walls and
aces o wo la ge moa s; a small s anding b ick monumen , he Yahanda Gu, o Disciples'
Ca e, which was inexpe ly ebuil in 1964, bu possibly has Pyu o igins and some e-use
in he Pagan pe iod. 340m o he sou h lie he wo b ick-and-ea h e aces men ioned
abo e, con aining a minimum o 350 and 47 u n bu ials, espec i ely, wi h some simple
Buddhis g a e o e ings. AMS da es o c. 6 h and 7 h cen s exis o hese e aces, bu i
is unclea wi h wha pa s o phases o he e aces hey a e associa ed.
a.
S i Kse a P ojec | Depa men o A chaeology
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b.
Figu e 2a, Loca ion o S i Kse a and o he Pyu si es in he cen al plain o Myanma 2b,
Loca ion o he Yahanda mound ou side he sou he n ga e a S i Kse a
P elimina y Repo 2018
Season 2 ook place in Janua y-Feb ua y 2015, as a Camb idge-Field School Join P ojec .
I comp ised h ee 2 x 2 m es pi s on he c es o he Yahanda Mound wi h a u he
h ee 2 x 2 m pi s down he eas e n slope. The Yahanda mound was designa ed HMA59.
The pi s we e laid ou o in es iga e aces o ancien habi a ion, eco d domes ic ac i i ies
and cap u e any spa ial o ypological di e ences be ween ac i i ies on he c es o he
mound and i s eas e n slope. A second a ea immedia ely o he no h o he Yahanda Gu
was opened o iden i y he o iginal ex en o he b ick pla o m unde his man-made ca e,
explo e he possible exis ence o ea lie phases o s uc u al and o he ac i i ies on he
si e, and hei connec ion - i any - wi h inds a HMA59 and a uined b ick pla o m
nea by. This a ea was designa ed HMA58. Figu e 2b p esen s he a eas exca a ed in
Season 2, Janua y-Feb ua y 2015, and Season 3, Decembe 2015-Feb ua y 2016 a bo h
HMA58 and HMA59.
A HMA59 a o al o en 2 x 2 m pi s we e exca a ed down o s e ile soil while a HMA58
one ench 1 x 13 m and wo pi s HMA2 and 3 we e exca a ed o s e ile soil. The
exca a ions e ealed he ollowing esul s: HMA59 was con i med as he i s habi a ion
si e in Myanma , wi h a long sequence ma king he ansi ion om la e p ehis o y, and
impo an une a y ac i i ies h ough ea ly, ma u e and declining phases o u banism. The
sequence began wi h c ema ed human bu ials in he basal geological laye o he Yahanda
Mound. Twel e c ema ed bu ials we e ound in one pi , HMA59/8/7, he highes o which
has an AMS da e o 260+/- 30 CE; he lowes da es o c. 1s cen u y BCE. Some locally
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made ce amic u ns om c. 2nd cen u y CE onwa ds show he in luence o Indic ce amic
echnology bu no o Indian eligious hough . The dominan ce amic ype om he bu ial
phase h ough o he dealing u ban phase in 7 h cen u y we e paddled wa es. C ema ion
bu ials o ea ly 5 h and la e 5 h cen u y we e ound in wo u he pi s. In all cases hey
we e placed di ec ly unde wooden loo s whose pilla s pene a ed in o he bu ial e aces
o compac ed ea h ( wo e aces we e aced wi h b icks). The con ex immedia ely abo e
he loo o HMA59 da es o 340+/-30CE. In ha con ex , he i s po she ds deco a ed
wi h Indian mo i s sac ed o bo h Buddhism and Hinduism we e ound, as well as mo i s
ha p obably depic scenes om local li e (dancing igu es and a man acing on a bull).
Abo e his con ex , he long sequence o ha dened wo k su aces con ained dense deposi s
om domes ic ac i i ies, ex ending con inuously om 5 h - 7 h/8 h cen u y. A o al o 1.6
ons o ce amics we e exca a ed om he limi ed sample a ea (c.150 sq m) o he
Yahanda Mound selec ed o exca a ion - clea e idence o a high le el o human ac i i y,
especially om 4 h - 6 h cen u y CE. Paddled wa es we e a con inuous and dominan ype,
bu he s amped and incised wa es we e a signi ican mino i y. All ce amics ha e been
so ed in o b oad ca ego ies, weighed, coun ed and pho og aphed. Toge he wi h he
amewo k o AMS da es ob ained o he main con ex s hese ce amic da a o m he basis
o he i s Ce amic Typology and Ch onology in Myanma , which is now in p epa a ion as
pa o he Exca a ion Monog aph, o be published in 2019 in he B i ish Museum Resea ch
Publica ions Se ies (The Yahanda exca a ions o Seasons 2 and 3 and esul ing esea ch
and publica ions we e unded by ERC G an 609823, Asia, Beyond Bounda ies...).
An u ban space in a dynamic en i onmen
Wi h D . Gab iel Amable (Depa men o Geog aphy), Janice S a ga d has con inued o
s udy and map dynamic changes in he en i onmen occu ing in he u ban a ea o S i
Kse a, using a combina ion o Remo e Sensing and g ound u hing o iden i y majo
phases in i s spa ial de elopmen and he in ensi ica ion o i s i iga ion wo ks. The ci y
layou was s ongly in luenced by i s p oximi y o he Minbahu Range, he local slope
ac o s and seasonal a ia ions in wa e o ce esul ing om his. Feede canals, moa s,
dis ibu a y canals, b ick walls and s o age anks we e de eloped and modi ied o e
cen u ies o maximise wa e con ols du ing he ainy season, p e en massi e e osion and
conduc wa e sa ely h ough dis ibu a y canals and moa s in o s o age a eas, om which
i was u he dis ibu ed du ing he d y season. The e was a seasonal pulsa ion o wa e
mo emen , a ound he u ban space a S i Kse a om June o No embe and h ough i
No embe /Decembe o May/June. These seasonal hy hms o wa e con ibu ed o he
excep ional longe i y and ag icul u al weal h o he ci y and basically de e mined he
cou se o i s majo walls and moa s. U ban spa ial o ganisa ion became inc easingly
complex o e ime, om c. 4 h o 8 h cen . CE, and included some adjus men s o
emphasise cosmological symbolism (Figu es 3A-C). ('F om I on Age o ea ly ci y a S i
Kse a and Beik hano, Myanma ,' Jou nal o Sou heas Asian S udies 47(3), Oc . 2016, pp.
341-365; 'Ci y o he wheel, ci y o he ances o s:spa ial symbolism in a Pyu oyal
ci y,' Indo-asia ische Zei sch i , 6/7, 2002-3, pp. 144-167.
a.
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b.
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c.
Figu e 3A La e I on Age oo p in o S i Kse a, 3 d-1s cen . BCE; Figu e 3B Pa allel
de elopmen o u ban space and wo ks o wa e con ol a S i Kse a, c. 1s -6 h cen .
CE; Figu e 3C In ensi ica ion o wa e con ol in u ban space a S i Kse a c. 6 h-8 h cen
CE
S i Kse a: a ci y o he li ing and he dead - summa y o exca a ion esul s
2015-6 (P elimina y Repo , 2017).
Exca a ions a he Yahanda mound, Janua y-Feb ua y 2015, e ealed a long sequence o
habi a ion deb is, consis ing o dense she d deposi s, ood spills and ca bonised o ganic
ma e . They occu ed in a succession o hin, ha dened wo k su aces, i s encoun e ed in
Con ex 5, c. 50cm below he mode n su ace, and c. 70-80 cm deep in o al. Made o clay,
mixed wi h small ce amic agmen s, mic o-g a el and wa e o o m a ma l, hey we e
sp ead hinly o o m ho izon al, sun-d ied, ha d su aces. The phase o such wo k su aces
has now been AMS da ed om he mid-5 h o la e-7 h cen . CE ("Ea ly u ban a chaeology
in Sou heas Asia: he i s e idence o a Pyu habi a ion si e a S i Kse a, Myanma .'
jou nal_an iqui y_ac_uk_p ojgall_s a ga d 348.pd and Figu e 4 below).
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Figu e 4, Calib a ed AMS da es (AD) o he sequence o ha dened wo k su aces a he
Yahanda mound habi a ion si e
Below he ha dened su aces, in Season 3, Decembe 2015-Feb ua y 2016, ano he phase
was e ealed when he aces o ancien wooden loo s and wooden pos -holes we e ound
bo h on he c es and he eas e n slope o he Yahanda mound. Signi ican new ypes o
ce amics appea ed in he lowes le els o he ha dened wo k su aces, and we e abundan
jus abo e he ancien loo s. Pa icula ly impo an in his ho izon we e well- i ed ed
ea henwa e she ds, deco a ed wi h indic echniques, such as imp essed iangles, incised
lines, and s amped wi h sac ed indic mo i s: he Buddha, lo us pe als, human igu es
wea ing hea y a mle s and ankle s - gods o ule s - and dance s and a ew black polished
she ds deco a ed wi h concen ic incised lines (Figu e 5 a, b, ). Ce amics o his ype we e
no ound below he loo s. Finely made ed hemisphe ical bowls appea ed wi h he
s amped wa es abo e he loo s, bu we e also ound below hem (Figu e 5c). The ea lies
phase so a o his habi a ion si e was e ealed unde ou ancien wooden loo s, whe e
c ema ed human bu ials in u ns we e ound. The e, ed hemisphe ical bowls unc ioned
bo h as lids on small bu ial u ns, and as u ns hemsel es. Some ypes o hea y, s aigh -
sided deco a ed ce amics se ed only as bu ial u ns, while co d-ma ked she ds - ound as
domes ic wa es, bo h in he ha dened wo k su aces and jus abo e he wooden loo s --
also se ed as u ns in his phase. All u ns had o iginally been placed, wi hou g a e
o e ings, in bu ial e aces o compac ed soils wi h b ick acings. In one pa o he
eas e n slope - TP8 - no ewe han wel e such u n bu ials we e ound unde one ancien
loo , whose pos -holes descended among he bu ials and b ick alignmen s ((Figu e 6). The
c ema ed emains in his loca ion e lec ed a long sequence o une a y ac i i y, occu ing
in h ee geological con ex s (being da ed): in he base laye o pale sand o he mound
i sel (9), in he succeeding ligh -colou ed sil y sand (8) and, abo e ha , mid-b own o
mo led sil wi h some sand (7). All hese con ex s had been ea ed wi h added
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